POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy is defined as being energy at rest, or energy that is stored. Potential energy may be
classified into three groups: (1) that due to position, (2) that due to distortion of an elastic body, and
(3) that which produces work through chemical action.

Potential Energy = Weight × Height

KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic energy is defined as being energy in motion

Kinetic Energy = ½ Mass × Velocity²

Newtons SECOND LAW

When a force acts upon a body, the momentum of that body is changed. The rate of change of
momentum is proportional to the applied force. Bodies in motion have the property called
momentum. A body that has great momentum has a strong tendency to remain in motion and is
therefore hard to stop.

F=MA

Newtons THIRD LAW

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

A turbofan engine exerts a force on the air entering the inlet duct, causing it to accelerate out the
fan duct and the tailpipe

BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE

The static pressure of a fluid (liquid or gas) decreases at points where the velocity of the fluid
increases, provided no energy is added to nor taken away from the fluid.

As the static pressure of the fluid decreases to move over the curved surface, dynamic pressure
increases, expressed as an equation: Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure
CHARLES' LAW

Charles' Law states that if air is heated at a constant pressure, the change in volume will vary with
the change in temperature. Therefore, the volume of a mass of gas at constant pressure is
proportional to the temperature of the gas (air).

WORK

Work = Force (F) × distance (d)

POWER

The concept of power involves the previously discussed topic of work, which was a force being
applied over a measured distance, but adds one more consideration - time.

power = Force × distance ÷ time

TORQUE

described as a force acting through a distance, torque is described as a force acting along a distance.

Torque = Force × distance

SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed refers to how fast an object is moving, or how far the object will travel in a specific time.

Velocity can be defined as the rate of motion in a particular direction

ACCELERATION

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity

Acceleration (A) = Velocity Final (Vf) − Velocity Initial (Vi)/ Time (t)

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

Rockets in space have no air to push against, yet, they can produce thrust by using Newton's third
law

The propellers of aircraft powered by reciprocating or turboprop engines accelerate a large mass of
air at a relatively lower velocity by turning a propeller. The same amount of thrust can be generated
by accelerating a small mass of air to a very high velocity.
Turbojets, ramjets, and pulse jets are examples of engines that accelerate a smaller quantity of air
through a large velocity change.

FUEL ECONOMY

The basic parameter for describing the fuel economy of aircraft engines is usually specific fuel
consumption. Specific fuel consumption for gas turbines is the fuel flow measured in (lbs / h r)
divided by thrust (lbs). This is called thrust-specific fuel consumption.

TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION

A typical gas turbine engine consists of:

1. An air inlet,

2. Compressor section,

3. Combustion section,

4. Turbine section,

5. Exhaust section,

6. Accessory section, and

7. The systems necessary for starting, lubrication, fuel supply, and auxiliary purposes, such as anti-
icing, cooling, and pressurization.

Another common nomenclature describing the various sections of a turbine engine are known as the
"cold section" and the "hot section

BYPASS RATIO

Turbofan engines were developed to turn a large fan or set of fans at the front of the engine and
produces about 80 percent of the thrust from the engine.

Turbofan engines can be low bypass or high bypass.

The amount of air flow in lbs/sec from the fan bypass compared to the amount of air that flows
through the core of the engine is the bypass ratio.

Bypass ratio = 100 lb/sec flow fan/ 20 lb/sec flow core = 5:1 bypass ratio

Turbofan engines are generally categorized as high bypass or low bypass in accordance with their
bypass ratios.
The turboshaft engine used in aviation is a gas turbine engine made to transfer horsepower to a
shaft to operate something other than a propeller. They are used primarily to power helicopters and
auxiliary power units (A PU's). A PU's are used on large aircraft to provide electrical power and bleed
air on the ground and emergency backup power in flight

Pg 33 refer

TURBINE ENGINE OPERATING PRINCIPLES

The principle used by a gas turbine engine as it provides force to move an airplane is based on
Newton's law of momentum. This law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction; therefore, if the engine accelerates a mass of air (action), it applies a force on the aircraft
(reaction). The turbofan generates thrust by giving a relatively slower acceleration to a large quantity
of air. The old pure turbojet engine achieves thrust by imparting greater acceleration to a smaller
quantity of air. This was its main problem with fuel consumption and noise.

The compressor then increases pressure and temperature of the air mechanically.

The energy is taken from the hot gas by expanding through a turbine which drives the compressor,
and by expanding through an exhaust nozzle designed to discharge the exhaust gas at high velocity
to produce thrust

THE BRAYTON CYCLE

The Brayton cycle is the name given to the thermodynamic cycle of a gas turbine engine to produce
thrust. This is a variable volume constant-pressure cycle of events and is commonly called the
constant-pressure cycle.

The exhaust section, which is a convergent duct, converts the expanding volume and decreasing
pressure of the gases to a final high velocity.

Gross or static thrust is developed when the engine is on the ground and stationary

GAS TURBINE ENGINE PERFORMANCE

The net result of increased altitude is a reduction in the thrust output.

The exhaust velocity remains relatively constant; thus, the effect of the increase in airspeed results
in decreased specific thrust

The airflow increases and causes a decrease in net thrust. As the airspeed increases into the higher
range, the airflow increases faster than the specific thrust decreases and causes the net thrust to
increase until sonic velocity is reached

ENGINE RATINGS

The flat rating of a turbine engine is the thrust performance that is guaranteed by the manufacturer
for a new engine under specific operating conditions.

A higher EGT corresponds to a larger amount of energy to the turbine so it can turn the compressor
faster.

ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO

The engine pressure ratio (EPR) of an operating turbine engine is a ref lection of how much power is
being developed. EPR is a comparison of the pressure at the inlet of the compressor to the pressure
at the turbine exhaust area. These two pressure levels are taken with pick-ups installed in the
engine. The sensors are known as the P2 and P7 sensors.

Ref pg 42

INLETS AND ACCESSORY AIR ENTRANCE

the flow of air into the compressor should be free of turbulence to achieve maximum operating
efficiency.

TURBINE ENGINE INLET SYSTEMS

The engine inlet of a turbine engine is designed to provide a relatively distortion-free f low of air, in
the required quantity, to the inlet of the compressor.

The inlet varies according to the type of turbine engine. Small turboprop and turboshaft engines
have a lower airflow than large turbofan engines which require a completely different type of inlet.
Many turboprop, auxiliary power units, and turboshaft engines use screens that cover the inlet to
prevent foreign object damage (FOD)

DIVIDED-ENTRANCE DUCT

Some form of a divided duct, which takes air from either side of the fuselage, has become fairly
widely used. This divided duct can be either a wing-root inlet or a scoop at each side of the fuselage
VARIABLE-GEOMETRY DUCT

Mach number of the airflow directly ahead of the face of the engine is less than Mach 1. Airflow
through the engine must be less than Mach 1 at all times.

To accomplish this, inlet ducts are designed to function as diffusers, decreasing the velocity and
increasing the static pressure of the air passing through them.

COMPRESSOR INLET SCREENS

Engines that incorporate inlet screens, such as turboprops (Figure 3-6) and APUs (Figure 3-7) are not
as vulnerable to FOD

TURBOFAN ENGINE INLET SECTIONS

Inside the inlet by the fan blade tips is an abraidable rub strip that allows the fan blades to rub for
short times due to flightpath changes.

This secondary air (fan flow) produces 80 percent of the thrust in high-bypass engines. The air that
passes through the inner part of the fan blades becomes the primary airstream (core flow) through
the engine itself.

Rfr pg 52

CENTRIFUGAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

The centrifugal-flow compressor consists of an impeller (rotor), a diffuser (stator), and a compressor
manifold.

Centrifugal compressors have a high pressure rise per stage that can be around 8:1.

In most types, the impeller is fabricated from a single forging. This type impeller is shown in Figure 4-
1. The impeller, whose function is to pick up and accelerate the air outwardly to the diffuser, may be
either of two t y pes—single entry or double entry.

AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR

From inlet to exit, the air f lows along an axial path and is compressed at a ratio of approximately
1.25:1 per stage.

Compressor pressure ratio increases with the number of compression stages. Most engines utilize up
to 16 stages and more.
In some cases, the compressor case, into which the stator vanes are fitted, is horizontally divided
into halves. Either the upper or lower half may be removed for inspection or maintenance of rotor
and stator blades. The function of the stator vanes is to receive air from the air inlet duct or from
each preceding stage and increase the pressure of the air and deliver it to the next stage at the
correct velocity and pressure. They also control the direction of air to each rotor stage to obtain the
maximum possible compressor blade efficiency.

The stator vanes are usually made of steel with corrosion- and erosion-resistant qualities.

The rotor blades are usually made of stainless steel with the latter stages being made of titanium.

The combination of the compressor stages and turbine stages on a common shaft is an engine
referred to as an engine spool.

As mentioned earlier, there are two configurations of the axial compressor currently in use: the
single rotor/ spool and the dual rotor/spool, sometimes referred to as solid spool and split spool
(two spool, dual spool).

As mentioned earlier, there are two configurations of the axial compressor currently in use: the
single rotor/ spool and the dual rotor/spool, sometimes referred to as solid spool and split spool
(two spool, dual spool). VSV are behind the rotor blades.

The centrifugal flow compressor's advantages are:

• High pressure rise per stage,

• Efficiency over wide rotational speed range,

• Simplicity of manufacture and low cost,

• Low weight, and

• Low starting power requirements

The axial flow compressor's advantages are:

• High peak efficiencies;

• Small frontal area for given airflow;

• Straight-through flow, allowing high ram efficiency; and

• Increased pressure rise by increasing number of stages, with negligible losses

DIFFUSER

The diffuser is the divergent section of the engine after the compressor and before the combustion
section. It has the all-important function of reducing highvelocity compressor discharge air to
increased pressure at a slower velocity. This prepares the air for entry into the flame burning area of
the combustion section at a lower velocity so that the flame of combustion can burn continuously. If
the air passed through the flame area at a high velocity, it could extinguish the flame.
FAN BALANCE

All turbine engine rotating assemblies require balancing by the manufacturer, however only fan
blades can be balanced without disassembly of the engine.

The radial moment weight is usually marked on the blade case or on the bot tom of the dovetails for
blade attachment on a General Electric CF6 turbofan engine.

If a fan blade is damaged in the field and replacement is needed, there are three trim balance
options. The blade can be replaced with a blade that is within a small tolerance of the original radial
moment weight so the balance of the whole assembly is not affected. The blade could also be
replaced with another of different weight then, using a formula from the maintenance manual, a
correcting weight could be fitted to maintain assembly balance. The third option is to replace the
blade and the blade that is diametrically opposite to the damaged blade with a pair of blades that
are of matching weights.

After some considerable time in service the vibration level of the N1 spool can gradually increase.
When not due to blade damage or movement, the dry film lubricant on the blade roots could be
worn. In this instance the fan blades should be removed, the roots cleaned and the dry film lubricant
replaced in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.

COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE

Each compressor blade is an airfoil. It is subject to the same aerodynamic principles of a wing or a
propeller. Just as a wing can stall and lose lift when the maximum angle of attack is exceeded, the
same is true for a compressor blade or, the entire stage or stages of the compressor. When a single
compressor blade or stage stalls, it is said to have stalled. When the entire compressor stalls, it is
known as surge. Compressors experience stall or surge on the ground when a high wind suddenly
blows across the engine in let duct.

At other times in f light, icing, a rapid throttle movement, rapid maneuver, or a fuel governor
malfunction may cause a stall or surge.

Failure of the variable inlet g uide vanes, variable stator vanes, or even a compressor bleed system
malfunction can all contribute to a stall or surge.

Rfr PG 62

COMBUSTION SECTION

The primary function of the combustion section is, of course, to burn the fuel/air mixture, thereby
adding heat energy to the air. To do this efficiently, the combustion chamber must: • Provide the
means for proper mixing of the fuel and air to assure good combustion, • Burn this mixture
efficiently, • Cool the hot combustion products to a temperature that the turbine inlet guide
vanes/blades can withstand under operating conditions, and • Deliver the hot gases to the turbine
section.

These types are:

1. Can type

2. Can-annular type

3. Annular type

The can-type combustion chamber is typical of the type used on turboshaft and APUs.

Older engines with several combustion cans had each can with inter-connector (f lame propagation)
tube, which was a necessary part of the can-type combustion.

Since each can is a separate burner operating independently of the other cans, there must be some
way to spread combustion during the initial starting operation. This is accomplished by
interconnecting all the chambers. As the flame is started by the spark igniter plugs in two of the
lower chambers.

The air entering the combustion chamber is divided by the proper holes, louvers, and slots into two
main streams—primary and secondary air. The primary or combustion air is directed inside the liner
at the front end, where it mixes with the fuel and is burned. Secondary or cooling air passes between
the outer casing and the liner and joins the combustion gases through larger holes toward the rear
of the liner, cooling the combustion gases from about 3 500 °F to near 1 500 °F.

The burners are interconnected by projecting f lame tubes which facilitate the engine-starting
process

The forward face of each chamber presents six apertures, which align with the six fuel nozzles of the
corresponding fuel nozzle cluster.

Around each nozzle are pre-swirl vanes for imparting a swirling motion to the fuel spray, which
results in better atomization of the fuel, better burning, and efficiency.

The swirl vanes function to provide two effects imperative to proper flame propagation: 1. High
flame speed—better mixing of air and fuel, ensuring spontaneous burning. 2. Low air velocity axially
—swirling eliminates overly rapid flame movement axially. The swirl vanes greatly aid flame
propagation, since a high degree of turbulence in the early combustion and cooling stages is
desirable

The chamber may be constructed of heatresistant materials, which are sometimes coated with
thermal barrier materials, such as ceramic materials.

RFR pg 70
TURBINE AREA INSPECTION

TURBINE SECTION

The turbine transforms a portion of the kinetic (velocity) energy of the exhaust gases into
mechanical energy to drive the gas generator compressor and accessories. The sole purpose of the
gas generator turbine is to absorb approximately 60 to 70 percent of the total pressure energy from
the exhaust gases

The turbine assembly consists of two basic elements: turbine inlet guide vanes and turbine blades

The turbine inlet nozzle vanes are located directly aft of the combustion chambers and immediately
forward of the turbine wheel. This is the highest or hottest temperature that comes in contact with
metal components in the engine.

the turbine inlet nozzles, the nozzles must prepare the mass air flow to drive the turbine rotor. The
stationary vanes of the turbine inlet nozzles are contoured and set at such an angle that they form a
number of small nozzles discharging gas at extremely high speed; thus, the nozzle converts a var ying
portion of the heat and pressure energy to velocity energy that can then be converted to mechanical
energy through the turbine blades. The second purpose of the turbine inlet nozzle is to deflect the
gases to a specific angle in the direction of turbine wheel rotation

The thermal expansion of turbine nozzles is accomplished by one of several methods. One method
necessitates loose assembly of the supporting inner and outer vane shrouds. (Figure 6-3A) Each vane
f its into a contoured slot in the shrouds, which conforms to the airfoil shape of the vane. These slots
are slightly larger than the vanes to give a loose fit. For further support, the inner and outer shrouds
are encased by inner and outer support rings, which provide increased strength and rigidity. These
support rings also facilitate removal of the nozzle vanes as a unit. Without the rings, the vanes could
fall out as the shrouds were removed

T he rotor element of t he t u rbine sect ion consists essentially of a shaft and a wheel. (Figure 6-4)
The turbine wheel is a dynamically balanced unit consisting of blades attached to a rotating disk.

The exhaust gases leaving the turbine inlet nozzle vanes act on the blades of the turbine wheel,
causing t he assembly to rotate at a ver y high rate of speed.

Consequently, the engine speed and temperat ure must be control led to keep turbine operation
within safe limits

There are various methods to relieve, at least partially, the aforementioned stresses. One such
method is to bleed cooling air back onto the face of the disk. Another method of relieving the
thermal stresses of the disk is incidental to blade installation. A series of grooves or notches,
conforming to the blade root design, are broached in the rim of the disk. These grooves allow B.
Turbine nozzle vane assembly with welded vanes. A. Turbine nozzle vane assembly with loose-fitting
vanes. Figure 6-3. Typical turbine nozzle vane assemblies. Figure 6-4. Rotor elements of the turbine
assembly. 6.4 Module 15 - Gas Turbine Engine attachment of the turbine blades to the disk; at the
same time, space is provided by the notches for thermal expansion of the disk. Sufficient clearance
exists between the blade root and the notch to permit movement of the turbine blade when the disk
is cold. During engine operation, expansion of the disk decreases the clearance. This causes the
blade root to fit tightly in the disk rim.

Turbine blades may be either forged or cast, depending on the composition of the a l loys. Most
blades a re precision cast and finish ground to the desired shape. Many turbine blades are cast as a
single crystal, which gives the blades better strength and heat properties. Heat barrier coating, such
as ceramic coating, and air f low cooling help keep the turbine blades and inlet nozzles cooler

M o s t t u r b i n e s a r e o p e n a t t h e o u t e r p e r i m e t e r of t he bl ade s; howe ver, a s

econd t y p e c a l led t he shrouded turbine is sometimes used. The shrouded t u rbine blades, in ef
fect, for m a ba nd a round t he outer perimeter of the turbine wheel. This improves efficiency and
vibration characteristics, and permits lighter stage weights.

A turbine stage consists of a row of stationary vanes or nozzles, followed by a row of rotating blades.
In some models of turboprop engine, as many as f ive turbine stages have been utilized successfully.
It should be remembered that, regardless of the number of wheels necessary for driving engine
components, there is always a turbine nozzle preceding each wheel.

In multiple spool engines, each spool has its own set of t urbine stages. Each set of t urbine stages t
urns the compressor attached to it. Most turbofan engines have two spools: low pressure (fan shaft
a few stages of compression and the turbine to drive it) and high pressure (high pressure compressor
shaft and high pressure turbine)

Inspection for cracks in turbine section components is ver y important. Cracks are not normally
allowed. Crack detection, when dealing with the turbine disk a nd bl ade s , is most ly v isua l ,
although st r uc t u ra l inspection techniques can be used, such as penetrant methods and others to
aid in the inspection.

Deformation caused by over-temperature, may appear as waviness and/ or areas of varying airfoil
thickness along the leading edge

The extreme temperatures in the turbine area of an turbine engine promote creep in turbine blades.
Creep increases with temperature and can result in observable dimensional changes to the blades
Rfr pg 80

EXHAUST SECTION

The exhaust section of the gas turbine engine consists of severa l components. A lthough the
components have individual purposes, they also have one common function: they must direct the
flow of hot gases rearward.

The components of the exhaust section include the exhaust cone, tailpipe (if required), and the
exhaust nozzle. The exhaust cone collects the exhaust gases discharged from the turbine section and
gradually converts them into a solid flow of gases. In performing this, the velocity of the gases is
decreased slight ly and the pressure increased. This is due to the diverging passage between the
outer duct and the inner cone; that is, the annular area between the two units increases rearward.

The outer shell or duct is usually made of stainless steel and is attached to the rear flange of the
turbine case

The radial str uts act ually have a t wofold function. They not only support the inner cone in the
exhaust duct, but they also perform the important function of straightening the swirling exhaust
gases that would otherwise leave the turbine at an angle of approximately 45°

The cone is supported by the radial struts.

t wo of the most common are insu lation blankets and shrouds. The insulation blanket, illustrated in
Figures 7-2 and 7-3, consists of several layers of aluminum foil, each separated by a layer of
fiberglass or some other suitable material.

Although these blankets protect the fuselage from heat radiation, they are used primarily to reduce
heat loss from the exhaust system. The reduction of heat loss improves engine performance. There
are two types of exhaust nozzle designs: the converging design for subsonic gas velocities and the
converging diverging design for supersonic gas velocities

If the nozzle area is too large, thrust is wasted; if the area is too small, the engine could choke or
stall. A variable- area exhaust nozzle is used when an augmenter or afterburner is used due to the
increased mass of flow when the afterburner is activated.

EXHAUST NOZZLES

Turbine engines actually have several different types of exhaust nozzles depending upon the type of
engine. Turboshaft engines in helicopters can have an exhaust nozzle that forms a divergent duct.
This type of nozzle provides no thrust. All engine power is used to rotate the rotors, improving
helicopter hovering abilities.

Through the use of a converging nozzle, the exhaust gases increase in velocity before they are
discharged from the exhaust nozzle
Adjusting the area of the exhaust nozzle changes both the engine performance and the exhaust gas
temperature. When the velocity of the exhaust gases at the nozzle opening becomes Mach 1, the
flow passes only at this speed—it does not increase or decrease. Sufficient flow to maintain Mach 1
at the nozzle opening and have extra flow (flow that is being restricted by the opening) creates what
is called a choked nozzle.

after they emerge from the throat and become supersonic. As the gas flows from the throat of the
nozzle, it becomes supersonic (Mach 1 and above) and then passes into the divergent section of the
nozzle. Since it is supersonic, it continues to increase in velocity. This type of nozzle is generally used
on very high speed aerospace vehicles. Pg 87

In the aerodynamic blockage type of thrust reverser, used mainly with unducted turbofan engines,
only fan air is used to slow the aircraft. A modern aerodynamic thrust reverser system consists of a
translating cowl, blocker doors, and cascade vanes that redirect the fan airflow to slow the aircraft.

Since the fan can produce approximately 80 percent of the engine's thrust, the fan is the best source
for reverse thrust.

A thrust reverser must not have any adverse effect on engine operation either deployed or stowed,
Generally, there is an indication in the flight deck with regard to the status of the reverser system.
The thrust reverser system consists of several components that move either the clam shell doors or
the blocker door and translating cowl. Actuating power is generally pneumatic or hydraulic and uses
gearboxes, flexdrives, screwjacks, control valves, and air or hydraulic motors to deploy or stow the
thrust reverser systems.

THRUST VECTORING

Thrust vectoring is the abilit y of an aircraft's main engines to direct thr ust other than pa ra l lel to
the vehicle's longitudinal axis, allowing the exhaust nozzle to move or change position to direct the
thrust in varied directions

ENGINE NOISE SUPPRESSION

Engine noise comes from several sources on the engine, the fan, or compressor and the air discharge
from the core of the engine. There are three sources of noise involved in the operation of a gas
turbine engine. The engine air intake and vibration from engine housing are sources of some noise,
but the noise generated does not compare in magnitude with that produced by the engine exhaust.

This noise is caused by violent, turbulent mixing of the exhaust gases with the atmosphere and is
influenced by the shearing action caused by the relative speeds between the velocity and the
atmosphere.

As the energy of the jet stream finally is dissipated in large turbulent swirls, a greater portion of the
energy is converted into noise.
TURBINE ENGINE EMISSIONS

Engineers are introducing new combustion technology that has dramatically reduced emissions from
gas turbine engines. Lowering exhaust emissions from gas turbine, especially oxides of nitrogen
(NOX), continue to require improvement.

Rfr pg 93

BEARINGS AND SEALS

The minimum number of bearings required to support one shaft is one deep groove ball bearing
(thrust and radial loads) and one straight roller bearing (radial load only). Sometimes, it is necessary
to use more than one roller bearing if the shaft is subject to vibration or its length is excessive. The
gas turbine rotors are supported by ba l l and rol ler bea rings, which a re antifriction bearings.
(Figure 8-2) Many newer engines use hydraulic bearings, in which the outside race is surrounded by
a thin film of oil. This reduces vibrations transmitted to the engine.

Usually the ball bearings are positioned on the compressor or turbine shaft so that they can absorb
any axial (thrust) loads or radial loads. Because the roller bearings present a larger working surface,
they are better equipped to support radial loads than thrust loads.

The oil seals may be the labyrinth or thread (helical) type. These seals also may be pressurized to
minimize oil leaking along the compressor shaft. The labyrinth seal is usually pressurized, but the
helical seal depends solely on reverse threading to stop oil leakage. These two types of seals are very
similar, differing only in thread size and the fact that the labyrinth seal is pressurized

A nother t y pe of oil sea l used on some of the later engines is the carbon seal. These seals are
usually spring loaded and are similar in material and application to the carbon brushes used in
electrical motors. Carbon seals rest against a surface provided to create a sealed bearing cavity or
void; thus, the oil is prevented from leaking out along the shaft into the compressor airflow or the
turbine section

Rfr pg99

LUBRICANTS AND FUELS

Gas turbine engine oil must have a high viscosity for good load-carrying ability but must also be of
suff iciently low viscosit y to provide good flowability. It must also be of low volatility to prevent loss
by evaporation at the high altitudes at which the engines operate. In addition, the oil should not
foam and should be essentially nondestructive to natural or synthetic rubber seals in the lubricating
system. Also, with high-speed antifriction bearings, the formation of carbons or varnishes must be
held to a minimum. Synthetic oil for turbine engines are usually supplied in sealed one-quart cans

TURBINE ENGINE FUELS

In the distillation process from crude oil, the kerosene cut from which jet fuel is made condenses at a
higher temperature than the naphtha or gasoline cuts.
TURBINE ENGINE FUEL TYPES

Three basic turbine engine fuel t y pes are available worldwide, although some countries have their
own unique fuels. The first is Jet A. It is the most common turbine engine fuel available in the
continental United States. Globally, Jet A-1 is the most popular. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 are
fractionally distilled in the kerosene range. They have low volatility and low vapor pressure. Flash
points range between 110 °F and 150 °F. Jet A freezes at –40 °F and Jet A-1 freezes at –52.6 °F. Most
engine operations manuals permit the use of either Jet A or Jet A-1. The third basic type of turbine
engine fuel available is Jet B. It is a wide-cut fuel that is basically a blend of kerosene and gasoline. Its
volatility and vapor pressure reflect this and fall between Jet A and AVGAS. Jet B is primarily
available in Alaska and Canada due to its low freezing point of approximately –58 °F, and its higher
volatility yields better cold weather performance. All grades of jet fuel are colorless or straw colored.

PURITY

The use of filters in the various stages of transfer and storage of jet fuel removes most foreign
sediment from the fuel. Once in the aircraft fuel tanks, debris should settle into the fuel tank drain
sumps to be removed before flight. Filters and strainers in the aircraft fuel system can successfully
capture any remaining sediment. The purity of aviation fuel is compromised most often by water.
Water a lso set t les into t he sumps g iven enough time

Rfr pg106

Oil tank

All oil tanks are provided with expansion space. This allows expansion of the oil after heat is
absorbed from the bearings and gears and after the oil foams as a result of circulating through the
system. Some tanks also incorporate a deaerator tray for separating air from the oil returned to the
top of the tank by the scavenger system. Usually these deaerators are the can t ype in which oil
enters at a tangent. The air released is carried out through the vent system in the top of the tank. In
most oil tanks, a pressure buildup is desired within the tank to ensure a positive flow of oil to the oil
pump inlet. This pressure buildup is made possible by running the.

vent line through an adjustable check relief valve. The check relief valve is usually set to relieve at
about 4 psi, keeping positive pressure on the oil pump inlet

MAGNETIC CHIP DETECTORS

Magnetic chip detectors are used in the oil system to detect and catch ferrous (magnetic) particles
present in the oil.

TURBINE ENGINE WET-SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEM

In some engines, the lubrication system is the wet-sump type.

Rfr pg 122
TURBINE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEMS

The fuel system must deliver fuel to the combustion chambers not only in the right quantity, but also
in the right condition for satisfactory combustion. The fuel nozzles form part of the fuel system and
atomize or vaporize the fuel so that it ignites and burns efficiently. The fuel system must also supply
fuel so that the engine can be easily started on the ground and in the air. This means that the fuel
must be injected into the combustion chambers in a combustible condition during engine starting,
and that combustion must be sustained while the engine is accelerating to its normal idling speed.
Another critical condition to which the fuel system must respond occurs during a rapid acceleration.
When the engine is accelerated, energy must be furnished to the turbine in excess of that necessary
to maintain a constant rpm. However, if the fuel flow increases too rapidly, an over rich mixture can
be produced, with the possibility of a rich blowout or compressor stall

Turbofan, turbojet, turboshaft, and turboprop engines are equipped with a fuel control unit which
automatically satisfies the requirements of the engine

TURBINE FUEL CONTROLS

Gas turbine engine fuel controls can be divided into three basic groups: 1. Hydromechanical 2.
Hydromechanical/Electronic 3. Full Authority Digital Engine (or Electronics) Control (FADEC

The fuel metering device meters the fuel using only outputs from the EEC.

The fuel control can sense many different inputs, such as power lever position, engine rpm for each
spool, compressor inlet pressure and temperature, burner pressure, compressor d ischa rge pressu
re, and many more pa rameters as needed by the specific engine

HYDROMECHANICAL FUEL CONTROLS

Fuel controls have two sections, computing and metering, to provide the correct fuel flow for the
engine.

. Once the computing section determines the correct amount of fuel flow, the metering section
through cams and servo valves delivers the fuel to the engine fuel system

HYDROMECHANICAL/ELECTRONIC FUEL CONTROL

The addition of the electronic control to the basic hydromechanical fuel control was the next step in
the development of turbine engine fuel controls. Generally, this t ype of system used a remotely
located EEC to adjust the fuel flow.

During normal engine operation, a remotely mounted elec t ron ic f uel cont rol u n it (EF CU ) (sa me
a s a n EEC) performs the functions of thrust setting, speed governing, acceleration, and
deceleration; l imited through EFCU outputs to the fuel control assembly in response to power lever
inputs
A true FA DEC system has no hydromechanical fuel control back up system.

The metering valve area is modulated by the torque motor, which receives variable current from the
ECU.

Fuel f lows from the metering valve out of the fuel control unit (FCU), through the solenoid shutoff
valve and on to the atomizer. Initial flow is through the primary nozzle tip only.

FADEC FUEL CONTROL PROPULSION ENGINE

The EEC is generally placed in an area of the engine nacelle that is cool during engine operation.

Power for the EEC comes from the aircraft electrical system or the permanent magnet alternator
(PMA). W hen the engine is r unning, the (PM A) supplies power to the EEC directly. The EEC is a two
channel computer that controls every aspect of engine operation. Each channel, which is an
independent computer, can completely control the operation of the engine.

The cross-talk logic compares data from channels A and B and uses the cross-talk logic to find which
EEC channel is the best to control the output driver for a torque motor or solenoid bank. The
primary channel controls all of the output drivers. If the cross-talk logic finds that the other channel
is better for control of a specific bank, the EEC changes control of that one bank to the other
channel. The EEC has output driver banks that supply the control signals to engine components. The
EEC has both volatile and nonvolatile memory to store performance and maintenance data. The EEC
can control the engine thrust in two modes which can be selected by use of a mode selection switch.
In the normal mode, engine thrust is set through engine pressure ratio (EPR); in the alternate mode,
thrust is set by N1. When the fuel control switch is moved from run to cutoff, the EEC resets. During
this reset, all fault data is recorded in the nonvolatile memory. The EEC controls the metering valve
in the fuel metering unit to supply fuel flow for combustion. (Figure 11-6) The fuel metering unit
(FMU), is mounted on the front face of the gearbox and is attached to the front of the fuel pump.

The programming plug selects the proper software in the EEC for the thrust rating of the engine.

The pressures that are read by the EEC are ambient pressure, burner pressure, LPC exit pressure,
and fan inlet pressure.

FUEL SYSTEM OPERATION

The fuel pump receives fuel from the airplane fuel system. The low pressure boost stage of the
pump pressurizes the fuel and sends it to the fuel/oil cooler (FOC). The fuel f lows from the FOC,
through the fuel pump filter element, and then to the high pressure main stage of the pump. The
high pressure main stage increases the f uel pressure and sends it to the f uel metering unit (FMU). It
also supplies ser vo fuel to the servo fuel heater and engine components. Fuel for combustion
(metered fuel) goes through the fuel flow transmitter to the distribution valve. (Figure 11-9) The fuel
distribution valve supplies metered fuel to the fuel supply manifolds. (Figure 11-10) The fuel
injectors get the metered fuel from the fuel supply manifolds and spray the fuel into the engine for
combustion
ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

MAIN FUEL PUMPS (ENGINE DRIVEN)

The engine-driven fuel pump must be capable of delivering the maximum needed f low at
appropriate pressure to obtain satisfactory nozzle spray and accurate fuel regulation. These engine
driven fuel pumps may be divided into two distinct system categories: 1. Constant displacement 2.
Non-constant displacement

The term "positive displacement" means that the gear supplies a f ixed quantity of fuel to the engine
for every revolution of the pump gears.

FUEL HEATER

Gas turbine engine fuel systems are very susceptible to the formation of ice in the fuel filters. When
the fuel in the aircraft fuel tanks cools to 32 °F or below, residual water in the fuel tends to freeze,
forming ice crystals. W hen these ice cr ystals in the fuel become trapped in the filter, they block fuel
flow to the engine, which causes a very serious problem. To prevent this problem, the fuel is kept at
a temperature above freezing.

FUEL FILTERS

A low-pressure f ilter is installed bet ween the supply tanks and the engine fuel system to protect
the engined riven f uel pump and va rious control dev ices. A n additional high-pressure fuel filter is
installed between the fuel pump and the fuel control to protect the fuel control from contaminants
that could come from the low pressure pump.

The cellulose material also absorbs water, preventing it from passing through the pumps. If water
does seep through the filter, which happens occasiona l ly when f ilter elements become saturated
with water

FUEL SPRAY NOZZLES AND FUEL MANIFOLDS

. It is very important that the fuel be evenly distributed and well centered in the flame area within
the liners. This is to preclude the formation of any hot spots in the combustion chambers and to
prevent the flame burning through the liner

The two types of fuel nozzles generally used are the simplex and the duplex configurations.

FLOW DIVIDER

A f low div ider creates primar y and secondar y f uel supplies that are discharged through separate
manifolds, providing two separate fuel f lows. (Figure 11-19) Metered fuel from the fuel control
enters the inlet of the flow divider and passes through an orifice and then on to the primary nozzles.
FUEL PRESSURIZING AND DUMP VALVES

The f uel pressurizing va lve is usua l ly required on engines incorporating duplex fuel nozzles to
divide the flow into primary and secondary manifolds. At the fuel flows required for starting and
altitude idling, all the fuel passes through the primary line. As the fuel flow increases, the valve
begins to open the main line until at maximum f low the secondary line is passing approximately 90
percent of the fuel.

FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING UNITS

As fuel passes through the measuring element of the flowmeter, it sends electrical impulses to the
fuel counter.

RFR pg 140

AIR SYSTEMS

The burning process in a gas turbine engine is continuous, and nearly all of the cooling air must be
passed through the inside of the engine. If only enough air were admitted to the engine to provide
an ideal air/fuel ratio of 15:1, internal temperatures would increase to more than 4 000 °F. In
practice, a large amount of air in excess of the ideal ratio is admitted to the engine. The large surplus
of air cools the hot sections of the engine to acceptable temperatures ranging from 1 500° to 2 100
°F.

Secondar y air passing through the engine cools the combustion-chamber liners.

Cooling-air inlets are frequently provided around the exterior of the engine to permit the entrance
of air to cool the turbine case, the bearings, and the turbine nozzle. Internal air is bled from the
engine compressor section and is vented to the bearings and other parts of the engine. Air vented
into or from the engine is ejected into the exhaust stream. When located on the side of the engine,
the case is cooled by outside air flowing around it. The engine exterior and the engine nacelle are
cooled by passing fan air around the engine and the nacelle. The engine compartment frequently is
divided into two sections

ACCESSORY ZONE COOLING

Turbine powerplants can be divided into primary zones that are isolated from each other by
fireproof bulkheads and seals. The zones are the fan case compartment, intermediate compressor
case compartment, and the core engine compartment. (Figure 12-1) Calibrated airflows are supplied
to the zones to keep the temperatures around the engine at levels that are acceptable. The airflow
provides for proper ventilation to prevent a build-up of any harmful vapours. Zone 1 is around the
fan case that contains the accessory case and the electronic engine control (EEC). This area is vented
by using ram air through an inlet in the nose cowl and is exhausted through a louvered vent in the
right fan cowling. If the pressure exceeds a certain limit, a pressure relief door opens and relieves
the pressure. Zone 2 is cooled by fan air from the upper part of the fan duct and is exhausted at the
lower end back into the fan air stream. This area has both fuel and oil lines, so removing any
unwanted vapours would be important. Zone 3 is the area around the high-pressure compressor to
the turbine cases. This zone also contains fuel and oil lines and other accessories.
A secondary function of the compressor is to supply air for various purposes on the aircraft. Bleed air
can be taken from any of the various pressure stages of the compressor.

Bleed air is utilized in a wide variety of ways. Some engine bleed air external air services include: 1.
Cabin pressurization, heating, and cooling; 2. De-icing and anti-icing equipment; 3. Pneumatic
starting of engines; and 4. Auxiliary drive units (ADU).

ANTI-ICE CONTROL SYSTEMS

An anti-ice control system is a particularly important use for bleed air. The engine and airframe both
require anti-icing. Electrical and chemical anti-ice systems are common and well-suited for small
aircraft.

RFR pg 146

STARTING SYSTEMS

GAS TURBINE ENGINE STARTERS

Gas turbine engines are started by rotating the highpressure compressor. To start a gas turbine
engine, it is necessar y to accelerate the compressor to provide sufficient air to support combustion
in the combustion section, or burners. Once ignition and fuel has been introduced and the lite-off
has occurred, the starter must continue to assist the engine until the engine reaches a self-sustaining
speed.

The basic types of starters that are in current use for gas turbine engines are direct current (DC)
electric motor, starter/generators, and the air turbine type of starters

ELECTRIC STARTING SYSTEMS AND STARTER GENERATOR STARTING SYSTEMS

Electric starting systems for gas turbine aircraft are of two general types: direct cranking electrical
systems and starter generator systems. Direct cranking electric sta r ting systems a re used most ly
on sma l l t urbine engines, such as Auxiliary Power Units (APUs), and some sma l l t u rbosha f t eng
ines

AIR TURBINE STARTERS

Air turbine starters are designed to provide high starting torque from a small, lightweight source.

The air to operate an air turbine starter is supplied from either a ground-operated air cart, the APU,
or a cross-bleed start from an engine already operating.

The transmission housing also provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil. (Figure 13-9) Normal
maintenance for air turbine starters includes checking the oil level, inspecting the magnetic chip
detector for metal particles, and checking for leaks. Oil can be added to the transmission housing
sump through a port in the starter.
TURBINE ENGINE IGNITION SYSTEMS

It is used to ignite the fuel in the combustor and then it is switched off. Other modes of turbine
ignition system operation, such as continuous ignition that is used at a lower voltage and energy
level, are used for certain flight conditions. Continuous ignition is used in case the engine were to
flame out. This ignition could relight the fuel and keep the engine from stopping. Examples of critical
f light modes that use continuous ignition are takeoff, landing, and some abnormal and emergency
situations. Most gas turbine engines are equipped with a highenergy, capacitor-type ignition system
and are air cooled by fan airflow. Fan air is ducted to the exciter box, and then flows around the
igniter lead and surrounds the igniter before flowing back into the nacelle area. Cooling is important
when continuous ignition is used for some extended period of time. Gas turbine engines may be
equipped with an electronic-type ignition system, which is a variation of the simpler capacitor type
system

The typical turbine engine is equipped with a capacitortype, or capacitor discharge, ignition system
consisting of two identical independent ignition units operating from a common low-voltage (DC)
electrical power source: the aircraft battery, 115AC, or its permanent magnet generator.

A typical ignition system includes two exciter units, two transformers, two intermediate ignition
leads, and two high tension leads. Thus, as a safety factor, the ignition system is actually a dual
system designed to f ire two igniter plugs.

IGNITION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE SAFETY

It is absolutely necessary to use caution and follow all manufacturer's instructions when working
with turbine engine ignition systems. Residual high voltage and current in the ignition exciter can be
present and injury or death may occur if it is released into the human body.

Again, follow all manufacturer's procedures whenever working on a turbine engine ignition system.

The exciter is a dual unit that produces sparks at each of the two igniter plugs.

Rfr pg 64

ENGINE INDICATING SYSTEMS

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE INDICATOR (EGT)

E x h a u s t g a s t e m p e r a t u r e ( E G T ), t u r b i n e i n l e t temperature, (TIT), turbine gas

temperature (TGT), interstage turbine temperature (ITT), and turbine outlet temperature (TOT) are
all relative temperatures used to monitor the temperature of the exhaust gases entering the first
stage turbine inlet guide vanes. Even though these temperatures are taken at different locations on
the engine (each engine having one location), they are all relative to the temperature of the gases
entering the first stage turbine inlet guide vanes

Several thermocouples are usually used, that are spaced at intervals around the perimeter of the
engine exhaust duct near the turbine exit. The EGT indicator in the flight deck shows the average
temperature measured by the individual thermocouples. (Figure 14-1) Several thermocouples are
used to measure EGT, TIT, or any of the other temperature parameters mentioned. They are spaced
at intervals around the perimeter of the engine turbine casing or exhaust duct.

. One set of these thermocouples is paralleled to transmit signals to the cockpit indicator. The other
set of parallel thermocouples provides temperature signals to engine monitoring and control
systems. Each circuit is electrically independent, providing dual system reliability

ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO (EPR) INDICATOR

Turbine engines have a pressure indicator that relates the power being developed by the engine. It
is called the engine pressure ratio (EPR) indicator or EPR gauge. This gauge compares the engine t
urbine discharge pressure to the pressure of the ram air at the inlet of the engine and is considered a
measure of the thrust being developed. With adjustments for temperature, altitude, and other
factors, the EPR gauge presents an indication of the thrust being developed by the engine. Since the
EPR gauge compares two pressures, it is a differential pressu re gauge.

It is instrumented by total pressure pickups in the engine inlet (Pt2) and in the turbine exhaust (Pt7).

TORQUEMETER (TURBOPROP ENGINES)

Engine pressure ratio is not used as an indicator of the power produced by a turboprop engine.
Turboprops are usually fitted with a torquemeter that measures torque applied to a shaft t urned by
the gas generator and power t urbines of the turbine engine. The torquemeter can be operated by
engine oil pressure metered through a valve that is controlled by a helical ring gear that moves in
response to the applied torque.

TACHOMETER

Gas turbine engine speeds are measured by engine rpm. The rpm of each rotating spool (compressor
section/ t u rbine combination) is measu red. Most t u rbofan engines have two or more spools that
turn independently at different speeds. Tachometers are usually calibrated in percent rpm so that
various t y pes of engines can be operated on the same basis of comparison. (Figure 14-6) Also,
turbine speeds are generally very high and the large numbers of rpm would make it confusing
especially when operating different aircraft. Turbofan engines with two spools or separate shafts,
high pressure and low pressure spools, are generally referred to as N1 and N2, with each having
their own indicator. The main purpose of the tachometer is to be able to monitor rpm under normal
conditions, during an engine start, and to indicate an overspeed condition, if one occurs. Turbine
engine tachometers are t ypically electric or probe-t y pe

ENGINE OIL PRESSURE INDICATOR

The oil pressure indicator usually shows the engine oil pump discharge pressure.

ENGINE OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR

An oil inlet temperature indicator frequently is provided to show the temperature of the oil as it
enters the oil pressure pump. Oil inlet temperature is also an indication of proper operation of the
engine oil cooler

VIBRATION MONITORING

An engine v ibration indication on a t ubing engine aircraft is a secondar y engine instrument

parameter that indicates the amount of vibration measured on the engine low pressure rotor and/or
the high pressure rotor. Vibration is displayed in non-dimensional units, and is used for condition
monitoring, identif ication of the affected engine after foreign object ingestion, and detection of fan
unbalance due to icing.

Modern engines equipped with vibration monitoring sy stems use piez o-elect r ic sensors. A mass
inside the sensor housing impinges on the piezo causing a current flow in proportion to the
vibration. This can be amplif ied and displayed via an analog ammeter type gauge or digitalized for
indication on an EICAS or ECAM display

RFR PG 174

POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

AFTER BURNING/THRUST AUGMENTATION

Some low-bypass turbofan engines used in military aircraft use bypass (fan air) to flow into the
exhaust nozzle. Just as in a ducted fan, this air is used in the afterburner. It contains more oxygen
and assists combustion in the afterburner.

O p e r at ion i n t he a f te r bu r ne r mo d e i s somewhat limited by high fuel consumption, which

can be almost double normal consumption.

WATER INJECTION SYSTEM

The rating is restricted to takeo ff, is time-limited, and has an altitude limitation. Water injection is
not used ver y much on t u rbine engines any more. On warm days, thrust is reduced because of the
decrease in air density.
TURBOPROP ENGINES

The turboprop (turbo-propeller) engine is a combination of a gas t urbine engine, reduction gear
box, and a propeller. (Figure 16-1) Turboprops are basically gas turbine engines that have a
compressor, combustion c h a mb er (s), t u rbi ne , a nd a n e x h au st no z z le ( g a s generator), all
of which operate in the same manner as any other gas turbine engine. However, the difference is
that the turbine in the turboprop engine usually has extra stages to extract energy to drive the
propeller

GEAR COUPLED / FIXED TURBINE AND FREE TURBINE

T h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s o f m u l t i p l e s t a g e t u r b i n e conf igurations in turboprop engines:

gear coupled, also known as fixed turbine and free turbine. In a gear coupled /f i xed turbine engine,
all turbine stages are connected to a single shaft. This shaft not only turns the engine compressor
but also turns the propeller through a gear reduction gearbox. In a free turbine, the turbine stages
are connected to t wo completely independent shafts. One shaft turns the engine compressor. The
second shaft turns the propeller through a reduction gearbox.

Smaller turboprop engines, such as the PT-6, are used on single and twin engine designs; the power
ranges from 500 to 2 000 shaft horsepower

TURBOPROP CONTROLS

The propeller control system is divided into two types of control: one for flight and one for ground
operation. For flight, the propeller blade angle and fuel flow for any given power lever setting are
governed automatically

Here, the ground handling range, referred to as the beta range, is encountered. In the beta range of
the throttle quadrant, the propeller blade angle is not governed by the propeller governor, but is
controlled by the power lever position.

Power changes are effected by changing the fuel flow. An increase in fuel flow causes an increase in
turbine inlet temperature and a corresponding increase in energy available at the turbine. The
turbine absorbs more energy and transmits it to the propeller

REDUCTION GEAR ASSEMBLY

The function of the reduction gear assembly is to reduce the high rpm from the engine to a propeller
rpm that can be maintained without exceeding the ma ximum propeller tip speed (speed of sound).

Rfr pg 188
TURBOSHAFT ENGINES

As mentioned with the turboprop, the free turbine rotates independently. This principle is used
extensively in current production of turboshaft engines. The turboshaft engine's output is measured
in horsepower instead of thrust because the power output is a turning shaft. A turboshaft engine
may be made up of t wo major parts assemblies: the 'gas generator' and the 'power section'. The gas
generator consists of the compressor, combustion chambers with ignitors and fuel nozzles, and one
or more stages of turbine. The power section consists of additional stages of turbines, a gear
reduction system, and the shaft output.

Turboshaft engines are commonly used in applications t hat requ i re a susta ined h igh power out
put, h igh reliability, small size, and light weight. In aviation, these include helicopters and auxiliary
power units (APUs).

COUPLINGS AND DRIVE SYSTEMS

A freewheeling unit or over-running clutch is located somewhere bet ween the engine and the main
rotor shaft to allow for autorotation without the rotor driving the engine. A seizure of the engine
could prevent the autorotation. A spray clutch is commonly used on the engine output shaft for this
purpose.

REDUCTION GEARING

About two thirds of the energy produced by a helicopter turboshaft engine is used to operate the
gas generator. The remaining one third is extracted to drive the high ratio reduction gearbox which
in a helicopter is called a transmission. Helicopter rotors tend to rotate at only 300-400 rpm. This is
the reduction from approximately 35 000 rpm of the turbine shaft.

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Power control of helicopter engine is regulated via a hand throttle (twist grip) built into the side
collective stick. The collective stick, when raised, will increase the angle of attack of all rotor blades
at the same time. As this will increase drag, the rotor assembly will tend to slow

Rfr pg 194

AUXILIARY POWER UNITS (APUs)

Before the intake air passes into the APU's compressor (Figure 18-1), it first passes down the plenum
through a FOD and ice screen. Because an APU is primarily a ground operating engine, it could be
very prone to FOD damage by ramp debris if the screen wasn't in place to protect the intake.
The centrifugal compressor configuration is used for several reasons: it creates a larger pressure rise
per stage, it creates a smaller engine area, and is more FOD and surge/stall resistant than axial flow
compressors.

Honeywell's GTCP 131 APU engine can offer air at a pressure of 52 PSI (3.5Bar).

. Surge and stall prevention in the compressor is often accomplished through the use of IGVs (inlet
guide vanes) or surge valves. The IGVs help by de-turbulating the inlet air flow, and the surge valve
bleeds off compressor pressure should a surge/stall event become eminent

INSTALLATION

APU enclosures are commonly fabricated from high temperature stainless steel and perform several
functions: to provide a sealed space for engine fire suppression and cooling air flow; to reduce noise
through the use of sound absorbing materials; and to provide ballistic containment in case of
catastrophic engine failure.

ENGINE SYSTEMS

The APU engine systems are separated into four main categories: fuel, oil, starting, and ignition and
are very comparable to similar systems on other turbine engine designs.

The APU's FCU is the metering portion of a supervisory configuration controlled by the Electronic
Engine Control (EEC)

Fuel is offered to the combustion chamber normally through the use of a flow divider and a duplex
style nozzle that atomizes the fuel for ignition in a can or annular type combustors.

APU starting RPM is provided by a 28V DC series starter unit. Electrical power is usually supplied by a
designated 28V battery, with charging unit separate from the main aircraft batteries

APU CONTROL

The EEC, prov ides a l l control, monitoring, and management functions. The EEC is also sometimes
referred to as the APCU (Auxiliary Power Control Unit), a computing device that uses internal logic
and data base memory and is the brains of the engine

FLIGHT CERTIFIED APUS

. Two of the largest differences bet ween ground and in-f light APUs are ballistic containment and
ram air intake. Flight critical systems cannot fail in f light due to FOD created by debris due to an
internal engine failure

The ram air scoop is necessary to deliver intake air to the APU and prevent degradation of engine
performance while operating in the low air density environment of high altitude flight. In-flight APUs
usually require a lower starting altitude (around 15 000 to 17 000 ft. to ensure enough
primary/combustion air and secondary/ cooling air for start but are then capable of operation up to
40 000 ft. altitude

ETOPS (Extended Twin Operational Performance

s. One of the primary re qu i rement s to ac h ie v e t h is c er t i f ic at ion is t he aircraft's possession

of an in-flight APU

rfr pg 204

POWERPLANT INSTALLATIONS

The engine and its necessary accessories, including the gearbox, fuel control, intake cowling,
exhaust, thrust reverser assembly, fire protection equipment, sensors, generators, ducting, wiring,
cowling, mounts, control cables and rods, drains and firewalls are referred to as the powerplant.
Essentially, everything associated with the engine on the engine side of the firewall is part of the
powerplant installation.

FIREWALLS

A firewall is a partition between the engine powerplant installation and the aircraft. Its function is to
isolate the powerplant from the airframe structure in case of f ire and from the heat created during
normal engine operation. Firewalls are typically sheet metal shields made from stainless steel or
some other high heat resistance metal.

ACOUSTIC PANELS

Effor ts a re made by designers to reduce the noise associated with turbine engine operation. One
method of suppressing the noise from the fan stage of a high by-pass ratio engine is to incorporate a
noise absorbent liner around the inside wall of the by-pass duct. The lining is comprised of porous
face sheeting that inhibits the motion of the sound waves. The depth of the cavity bet ween the
absorber and solid back ing is tuned to suppress the appropriate part of the noise spectrum

MOUNTS FOR TURBOFAN ENGINES

The engine mounts on most turbofan engines perform the same basic functions of supporting the
engine and transmitting the loads imposed by the engine to the aircraft structure. Most turbine
engine mounts are made of stainless steel in Figure 19-4. Some engine mounting systems use two
mounts to support the forward end of the engine and a single mount at the rear end
TURBINE VIBRATION ISOLATION ENGINE MOUNTS

The forward vibration isolator engine mounts carry vertical, side, and axial (thrust) loads and allow
engine growth due to thermal expansion. The aft mounts take only vertical and side loads

FUEL LINES

Bond meta l l ic f uel l ines at each point where they are clamped to the structure.

Place support clamps or brackets for metallic lines as follows close to bends as possible to reduce
overhang .

Never reuse o-ring seals because they tend to swell from exposure to fluids, and become set from
being under pressure

Rfr pg 220

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

A complete fire protection system includes both a fire detection and a f ire extinguishing system.

Two common t ypes used are spot detectors and continuously loop systems. Spot detector systems
use individual sensors to monitor a fire zone.

Continuous loop systems are typically installed on transport type aircraft

The thermocouple fire warning system operates on an entirely different principle than the thermal
switch s y s tem

FIRE ZONES

The powerplant installation has several designated fire zones: (1) the engine power section; (2) the
engine accessory section; (3) except for reciprocating engines, a ny complete p ower pl a nt compa r
t ment i n wh ic h no isolation is prov ided bet ween the engine power section and the engine
accessory section; (4) any APU compartment; (5) any fuel-burning heater and other combustion
equipment installation; (6) the compressor and accessor y sections of t urbine engines; and (7)
combustor, turbine, and tailpipe sections of turbine engine installations that contain lines or
components carrying flammable fluids or gases
The most common extinguishing agent still used today is Halon 1301 because of its effective
firefighting capability and relatively low toxicity

THERMAL DISCHARGE INDICATOR (RED DISK) The thermal discharge indicator is connected to the
fire container relief fitting and ejects a red disk to show when container contents have dumped
overboard due to excessive heat. The agent discharges through the opening created when the disk
blows out. This gives the flight and maintenance crews an indication that the fire extinguisher
container needs to be replaced before the next flight.

YELLOW DISK DISCHARGE INDICATOR

If the flight crew activates the fire extinguisher system, a yellow disk is ejected from the skin of the
aircraft fuselage. This is an indication for the maintenance crew that the fire extinguishing system
was activated by the f light crew, and that the f ire extinguishing container needs to be replaced
before the next flight

Rfr pg 241

ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND OPERATION

TURBINE ENGINE OPERATION

A turbofan engine has only one power control lever.

A separate fuel shutoff lever is usually provided on engines equipped with thrust reversers.

The engine is started by using an external air power source, APU, or an already operating engine.

Hot starts are not common, but when they do occur, they can usually be stopped in time to avoid
excessive temperature by observing the exhaust gas temperature constantly during the start.

. A hung start is when the engine lights off, but the engine will not accelerate to idle rpm

ENGINE SHUTDOWN

preferably at idle for a period of 5 minutes to prevent possible seizure of the rotors

Under extreme conditions, the turbine blades may squeal or seize; thus a cooling period is required
if the engine has been operating at prolonged high speed.

When an accurate reading of the oil level in the oil tank is needed following an engine shutdown, the
engine should be operated and shut down with the oil check taking place within not more than 30
minutes after shutdown. Check the engine manuals for specific procedure
SPECTROMETRIC OIL ANALYSIS PROGRAM

The Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program allows an oil sample to be analyzed and searched for the
presence of minute metallic elements.

INSPECTION AND CLEANING

Trailing edge damage may be blended, if one-third of the weld seam remains after repair.

COMBUSTION SECTION INSPECTION

The entire external combustion case should be inspected for evidence of hotspots, exhaust leaks,
and distortions before the case is opened.

MARKING MATERIALS FOR COMBUSTION SECTION PARTS

Do not use a wa x marking pencil on a liner surface or a turbine rotor. The use of carbon alloy or
metallic pencils is not recommended because of the possibility of causing intergranular corrosion
attack that could result in a reduction in material strength and cracking

TURBINE BLADE REPLACEMENT PROCEDURE

T he code let ters, indicating the moment weight balance in ounces, are marked on the rear face of
the f ir-tree section of the blade (viewing the blade as installed at final assembly of the engine). The
pair of blades having the heaviest moment-weight is numbered 1 and 28; the next heaviest pair of
blades is numbered 2 and 29; the third heaviest pair is numbered 3 and 30.

. If there are several pairs of blades having the same code letters, they are installed consecutively
before going to the next code letters. If a blade requires replacement, the diametrically opposite
blade must also be replaced.

COMPRESSOR WASHING AND CLEANING

The gradual accumulation of dirt and contaminants on the rotor and stator blades of a compressor
will change the shape of and thus reduce the efficiency of each blade affected.

RFR PG 262

CORROSION-PREVENTIVE MATERIALS

An engine in active storage is def ined as having at least one continuous hour of operation with an oil
temperature of at least 165 °F to 20 0 °F and storage time not to exceed 30 days. Temporary storage
describes an aircraft and engine that is not f lown for 30 to 90 days, and indef inite storage is for an
aircraft not to be flown for over 90 days or is removed from the aircraft for extended time.

CORROSION-PREVENTIVE COMPOUNDS

when an engine is stored in a shipping case or container, some dehydrating (moisture removing)
agent must be used to remove the moisture
DEHYDRATING AGENTS

T here a re a nu mber of substa nces (refer red to a s desiccants) that can absorb moisture from the
atmosphere in sufficient quantities to be useful as dehydrators. One of these is silica gel. This gel is
an ideal dehydrating agent since it does not dissolve when saturated. As a corrosion preventive, bags
of silica gel are placed around and inside various accessible parts of a stored engine.

PRESERVATION AND DEPRESERVATION OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES

Before the engine can be returned to ser vice, the preser vative oil must be completely f lushed from
the fuel system by motoring the engine and bleeding the fuel system. Always follow the
manufacturer's instructions when performing any preservation or depreservation of gas turbine
engines.

RFR PG 270