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A comprehensive review on the grinding process: Advancements, applications

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Article in ARCHIVE Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 1989-1996 (vols 203-210) · June 2022
DOI: 10.1177/09544062221110782
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Proc IMechE Part C:

J Mechanical Engineering Science
A comprehensive review on the grinding 2022, Vol. 0(0) 1–30
© IMechE 2022
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DOI: 10.1177/09544062221110782
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Kamal Kishore1, Manoj K Sinha1, Amarjit Singh2, Archana3, Munish K Gupta4  and
Mehmet Erdi Korkmaz5 
Abstract
Grinding is a manufacturing process which significantly contributes in producing high precision and durable components
required in numerous applications such as aerospace, defence and automobiles. This review article is focused to uncover
history, witness the present and predict the future of the grinding process. While going through the literature, it has been
observed that minimal work has been done in explaining the history, present status and future scopes of the grinding process.
In this era of information and environmental awareness, sustainability aspects have become a primary concern of almost every
research field. In the grinding process too, the research work includes ecological elements such as reducing the consumption
of cutting fluids through minimum quantity lubrication, utilizing cryogenics, hybrid lubrication and cooling techniques that are
still required to be explored critically. Further, some significant findings of the prevailing research in grinding include
modification in grinding wheel surface, merging different grinding principles such as usages of the textured grinding wheel,
ultrasonic grinding, 3D printing of grinding wheel and artificial intelligence in grinding are also presented. Another un-
ascertained problem is the management of grinding swarf, which is being attended to by recycling it to fabricate composites
which is expected to be another prominent domain of research. Further, the advancements taking place exhibit the potential
of the grinding process, suggesting that its future is bright and ever-growing.
Keywords
Grinding, grinding burn, sustainable grinding, textured grinding wheel, ultrasonic-assisted grinding, artificial intelligence in
grinding, ground surface integrity, grinding swarf management
Date received: 13 March 2022; accepted: 8 June 2022
Introduction fulfilling the basic needs of human beings. With the con-
tinuous growth in all aspects of life with technological
The present scenario and the advancements in the developments, there extends the demand for improved,
manufacturing processes are certainly a matter of appre- complex and dynamic systems to manufacture quality
ciation. Its concept and theory evolved from the stone-age products.3 In the present scenario, the manufacturing
when the first weapon was probably built to kill animals. technology can be classified into four main subgroups, as
Subsequently, the manufacturing processes continuously shown in Figure 2.4-8
progressed through multiple stages by introducing and Among the manufacturing processes mentioned above,
implementing newer concepts and techniques; conse- the subtractive class includes the machining processes used
quently, we are on the cusp of Industry 4.0. During the 18th extensively in manufacturing a wide variety of industrial
century, the development of steam-powered machines
brought about the first industrial revolution, and from there,
it had been continuously evolving with time. Further, the 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology
mass production and use of conveyor belts introduced Hamirpur, Hamirpur, India
2
Industry 2.0 and the development of computers and elec- Central Workshop, National Institute of Technology Hamirpur,
tronic systems, which is the backbone of automation, is the Hamirpur, India
3
Bharti School of Telecommunication Technology and Management, IIT
pillar of Industry 3.0. The introduction of a cyber-physical
Delhi, Delhi, India
system such as the information and communication tech- 4
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Opole University of Technology,
nologies, robotics to provide more flexibility, versatility and Opole, Poland
5
higher productivity in manufacturing systems led to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karabuk University, Turkey
foundation of Industry 4.0. The industrial revolutions with
Corresponding author:
their respective themes are shown graphically in Figure 1.1 Munish Kumar Gupta, Opole University of Technology, 76
Earlier manufacturing was referred to as converting the raw Proszkowska St, 45-758 Opole 45-758, Poland.
materials into more valuable and tangible products for Email: [email protected]
2 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 0(0)
Figure 1. Evolution of the industrial revolutions.2
Figure 2. Classification of the manufacturing technologies.4–8
competitive price is the key challenge for the manufacturing

industry. The desired surface integrity of a component is an
important aspect for a quality product. Normally, quality
products must have to pass through one of the finishing
processes. Grinding is one of the commonly used finishing
processes for providing the final shape and dimensions to
the components.11-13 Here, material removal takes place in
the form of numerous multi-scratches induced by the in-
teraction of randomly distributed hard abrasive grits. Ear-
lier, the grinding process was primarily applied to generate
the finished surface with close tolerances. However,
Figure 3. Contribution of significant machining processes in nowadays, with the advancement in grinding technology, it
manufacturing industries.9 is equally capable of bulk material removal. Grinding and
its associated techniques are explored partially, and a lot of
research is continuing. Scopus database has been chosen to
products. The industrial contribution of the different sub- extract the grinding related data as it has the most extensive
tractive machining processes is depicted in Figure 3. In the collection of peer-reviewed research papers in engineering.
present era of globalization, making a quality product at a Figure 4 represents the countrywide distribution of research
Kishore et al. 3
Figure 4. The worldwide distribution of articles published related to the grinding process from the year 1900 to 2021.
Figure 5. Research articles published related to the grinding process from the year 1990 to 2021.10
articles published related to grinding and allied methods. depth of cut; wheel speed and grinding direction on re-
This Figure has been plotted using the Tableau 2020.4 sponses like specific grinding energy, surface integrity and
software. Figure 5 shows the trend of grinding related grinding forces. The surface grinding was performed on
published articles indicating the importance of grinding to Inconel 625 during the experimentation decided using a
the techno-economy world. Figure 6 shows the co- fractional factorial design. The wheel speed, followed by
occurrence network of all keywords concerning grinding the depth of cut, was shown to impact the ground surface’s
related articles found in the last five years plotted using surface integrity substantially. During grinding, Inconel 625
VOSviewer. The co-occurrence network shows that the was found to be vulnerable to work hardening.
grinding is the most critical group. Along with natural
abrasives, synthetic grits are also widely used to manu-
facture grinding wheels. Table 1 lists the widely used
Thermal damages
synthetic grits in grinding wheel manufacturing.14,15 The excessive heat generated at the grinding contact zone
might result in thermal damage such as surface oxidation,
surface fractures, surface tempering and unfavourable re-
Grinding challenges sidual tensile stress generation, which govern the work-
Grinding operation generates a substantial amount of heat, surfaces microstructural attributes.19 Different types of
which adversely affects the characteristics of the ground thermal damages in grinding are shown in Figure 7. The
surfaces. In metal grinding, the workpiece itself absorbs role of temperature on the occurrence of these thermal
nearly 75% of the total heat generated, while chips and damages is graphically exhibited in Figure 8. Grinding burn
grinding wheels absorb the rest. This leads to the accu- refers to the undesirable changes to the workpiece’s surface
mulation of a large amount of heat over the work-surface and subsurface region caused by the generation of a con-
which needs to be dealt with care.17 Ruzzi et al.18 inves- siderable amount of heat during grinding.20 Chen et al.21
tigated the effect of grinding parameters such as grit size, investigated D 24 superalloy grinding characteristics to
Figure 6. Different keywords related to grinding found in the last five years.
Table 1. Application areas of synthetic grit materials.16,17
Grits Range of applications Grinding process Bond
White fused corundum Wheels, rings, abrasive belts, Centreless, internal, belt, surface, thread Mostly vitrified bond
(WfC) segments, cup wheel
Ruby Al2O3 Like WfC, not used in abrasive Especially in profile grinding Mostly vitrified bond
belts
Mono-crystalline Like ruby Al2O3 Centreless, external, internal, gear flank grinding Mostly vitrified bond
corundum (MCC)
Pink fused corundum Similar to WfC in the abrasive Like WfC, universal for precision grinding Mostly vitrified bond
belt
Brown corundum Grinding tools Rough, cut-off, cleaning, deburring, belt grinding Mostly resins bond
Zircon Al2O3 Wheels, grinding belts Rough, high-pressure, high performance, belt Mostly resins bond
grinding, cleaning, deburring
Sintered corundum Wheels Centreless, internal, belt, surface, thread Mostly vitrified bond
Sintered bauxite Wheels High-pressure grinding Mostly resins bond
corundum
Silicon carbide (green) Wheels All grinding processes Mostly resins bond
Silicon carbide (black) Wheels, grinding belts, cut-off Roughing operation, offhand, cut-off and belt Mostly resins bond
wheels grinding
cBN (cubic boron Wheels as loose abrasive grits Centreless, internal, belt, surface, thread Galvanic metal, resin and
nitride) vitrified bonds
Diamond Same as cBN Surface, profile, dressing, lapping, polishing Mostly metal bond and
resin bond
Kishore et al. 5
Figure 7. Different types of grinding burn.23
Figure 8. Onset of different grinding burns at different grinding temperatures.23
enhance grinding efficiency and dimensional accuracy. It Madopothula et al.27 studied the effect of grinding mech-
was concluded that when the grinding temperature rises to anisms using an alumina grinding wheel on the formation of
1100°C, a yellow-black colour appears on the ground white layers in AISI 52100 steel. Further, the grinding
surface, which rapidly deteriorates the surface integrity. power variation was correlated with the metallurgical
Different types of grinding burns may be classified as changes noticed in the ground material. Huang et al.28
follows:22,23 investigated the effect of grinding parameters such as
grinding depth, wheel speed, wheel wear, workpiece speed
Oxidation burn. The oxidation burns are visually identifiable and cooling condition on the thickness of the white layer by
from the dark blue stripes on the workpiece surface. The performing a grinding experiment on AISI 52100 hardened
possible reason for this damage is low work speed; steel. It was concluded that the grinding depth, wheel speed,
therefore, this can be avoided by increasing the work wheel wear and coolant significantly affect the thickness of
speed.24 Nathan et al.25 studied the time required to cause the white layer.
the grinding burn during cylindrical plunge grinding of steel
under different conditions. The burn marks on the ground Residual stress. The grinding process is often described as a
surface were adopted as a criterion to define the wheel life. thermo-mechanical process; hence, affects the wheel wear
They developed an artificial neural network (ANN) model and work-material properties. The microstructural stresses
to predict the burn time and monitor the spark temperature confined in the material even after removing external
for burn detection. It had been reported that during the mechanical and thermal loads aroused during the grinding
grinding of C60 steel, burning was observed above the process are known as residual stress.29 The nature of the
temperature of 900°C. residual stress will tend to be compressive if the mechanical
effect dominates, whereas it will be tensile if the thermal
Rehardening burn. While grinding of steels, rehardening effect dominates. The existence and distribution of residual
occurs when the work-material temperature at the contact stresses in a material’s microstructure significantly influ-
zone exceeds its hardening temperature. Due to this, a hard ence the component’s service life and reliability. Therefore,
and brittle martensitic white layer is formed on the work- the estimation of residual stress induced in the ground
surface interface. Further, rehardening is accomplished by surfaces is essential in assessing the ground component’s
secondary residual stress due to the larger density of the performance during their service life. Many residual stress
newly created layer than the original material. The nature of measurement techniques can be found in the literature,
the white layer generated in the centreless grinding of EN which can be broadly grouped into non-destructive, semi-
24 steel was explored by Tomlinson et al.26 and reported the destructive and destructive methods. Classification and
influence of workpiece speed and grinding wheel speed on subclassification of residual stress measurement techniques
the thickness of the white layer. The thickness of the white are presented in Figure 9. X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a non-
layer was found to have a linear relationship with wheel destructive and efficient method for determining residual
speed and an inverse relationship with workpiece speed. stress in the vicinity of the machined surface. This method is
Figure 9. List of residual stresses measurement techniques.27
commonly used in grinding to detect residual stress in non-destructive methods include Barkhausen noise (BN)
crystalline materials that can diffract rays in any direction. analysis, acoustic emission (AE) analysis and eddy current
The XRD works on the principle that when a material is technique. Acid etching method is also known as surface temper
subjected to applied residual stress, the associated elastic etching and is commonly used as a standardized method to
strains cause the atomic planes to shift their spacing. The detect grinding burns.37,38
difference in interplanar spacing (d spacing) is used to Further, automation in industries requires in-process
determine the residual stress of the material. methods for the detection of defects and process control in
Mahdi and Zhang30–32 performed the finite element grinding. Webster et al.39 suggested that acoustic emission
simulation to investigate the correlation between the residual sensing could detect the grinding burn and control the grinding
thermal stress and the surface grinding conditions. The process. Saravanapriyan et al.40 developed an online method for
analysis showed that the temperature-dependent effect must detecting the grinding burn using integrated sensors. These
be considered for accurate estimation of the residual stress. sensors consist of force sensors, AE sensors, vibration sensors,
They concluded that the residual stress became tensile when optical and temperature sensors. ANN was used to determine
phase transformation took place and showed linear distri- the best possible solution. It was suggested that sensors inte-
bution in the direction of grinding both in the martensite and grated with ANN achieved the goals effectively.41 Tonshoff
non-martensite zone. Ali and Zhang33 proposed a fuzzy logic et al.42 suggested the effective use of the micromagnetic system
approach to estimate residual stresses induced in the surface in monitoring the grinding process. It was concluded that this
grinding. This model helped in considering the parameters system was able to control and determine the tolerance limit of
that were not numerically defined and had a vogue nature. the workpiece successfully, and the increased signal in BN
They concluded that fuzzy logic could predict the residual detected the thermal damage. Some critical work on grinding
stresses and needed the standard procedures to minimize the burn inspection is listed in Table 2. These grinding burns are
errors compared to the experimentation. Kuschel et al.34 generated either due to dry grinding or inefficient cooling
performed the experimental and numerical analysis of techniques used in grinding. The details of dry machining and
change in residual stresses aroused due to thermal loading in different cooling techniques used in grinding are presented in
grinding. Using finite element simulation, they investigated the upcoming section.
the heat partitioning during the grinding and predicted the
residual stress due to thermal load. They opined that the
knowledge of heat partition helps in determining the residual
Way to control thermal damages
stresses in the work material. The friction between the work material and the grinding
wheel generates a lot of heat at the tool-workpiece interface
during dry grinding. It will not only affect the dimensional
Grinding burn inspection
accuracy but also induce grinding burns on workpiece and
Due to high heat generation while grinding, there are always wheel wear. Therefore, coolant and lubricant become a
possibilities of microstructural alteration of the work surface. It necessity to avoid or control the thermal damage for the
results in the reduction of strength, hardness and appearance better surface quality of the ground surfaces and to mini-
alteration to the ground surface due to residual stresses and mize the grinding wheel wear.56
phase transformation. The detection of grinding burn becomes
crucial in metallic components as it directly affects their fatigue
Solid Lubricant
strength.35,36 Methods to measure temperature during grinding
include both destructive and non-destructive, as depicted in Solid lubricants form a continuous adherent film between
Figure 10. Destructive methods comprise acid etching, whereas the rubbing surfaces, reducing friction and unwanted wear.
Kishore et al. 7
Figure 10. Different methods to measure grinding temperature.43
Table 2. List of research articles describing different aspects of grinding burn.
Author (s) Monitoring method Used for and type of grinding Salient observations
Srivastava Barkhausen noise (BN) Thermal damage detection/IS This combination of techniques effectively monitors the
et al.44 analysis and hysteresis loop 2062 steel/plunge grinding residual stress in poor magnetic response materials.
technique
Lanzagorta Eddy current technology In-process grinding burn The result obtained from this method is compared to
et al.45 inspection/F-522 steel/face standard acid etching technique and provides good
grinding results and is able to distinguish between good and
rejected workpiece.
Sackmann BN multi-parameters analysis Detection of grinding burn/AISI The RSM-value, the coercively and peak position of the
et al.46 4820 steel/cylindrical grinding magnetization frequency maximize the sensitivity of the
detection in the BN method.
Yun et al.47 Molecular system dynamics Residual stress/titanium alloy/ Molecular dynamics simulation precisely described metal
belt grinding deformation, energy dissipation and temperature.
Teixeira Hall effect Assessing thermal damages Combination of Hall effect method and micromagnetic
et al.48 theory is used to avoid the drawback of BN analysis,
destructive methods, high cost and output variability
due to external energy.
Gao et al.49 Wavelet coherence analysis Detection of grinding burn This method reduced unwanted AE source and
by acoustic emission (AE) background noise. Cross wavelet transform and
signal wavelet coherence were applied to distinguish
between pure metal burn and grinding burn.
Ribeiro Piezoelectric, diaphragm of Detection of surface condition/ This method was less expensive and also the results
et al.50 PZT (lead zirconate SAE 1045 steel/surface obtained were verified using AE analysis. This showed
titanate) grinding that this method was good in the detection of surface
burn.
Neslusan Magnetic BN analysis+ Monitoring of grinding burn/ The use of a magnetic BN analysis technique is one or
et al.51 positron annihilation case hardened steel/external reliable technique suitable for large production in
spectroscopy + plunge grinding which calibration of magnetic BN is done on basis of
X-ray diffraction microstructural transformation.
Wang et al.52 Binary image + neural Grinding burn/20CrMnTi steel/ This method effectively identified the degree of burn
network form grinding based on the metallographic structure using the binary
image and neural network.
Cillikova Magnetic BN emission Surface burn/100Cr6 bearing BN emission strongly correlates the properties of the
et al.53 steel/ring grinding heat-affected zone of the machined surface.
Gu et al.54 Ansys simulation Micro-crack detection Higher-order strain mode was used as it is sensitive for
detection of micro-cracks.
Neto et al.55 AE signals + vibration signals Monitoring of grinding burn/ By analysing the frequency spectra signals obtained by
+ artificial neural networks SAE 1025 steel/surface combine technique determines the frequency bands
grinding that best characterized the phenomenon of burn.
of adverse effects of residual heat, a suitable medium is a

coolant, which helps to take the heat away from the grinding
zone either by conduction and convection. This has a
considerable contribution to increase productivity with an
acceptable quality of products at a competitive price. The
surface finish is related to the aesthetic looks of ground
surfaces and improves the component’s fatigue strength and
tribological properties. Hence, it can be considered as an
indicator of the quality and performance of the product.
Proper coolant in a specific way should be used to get better
surface integrity of the work surface. Irani et al.64 reviewed
the application of cutting fluid in the grinding process to
limit the heat generation by flushing the debris, lubrication
and cooling of the grinding zone. It was summarized that
coolant’s benefits could be achieved by using a metal
Figure 11. Application of solid lubrication in grinding cutting fluid (MCF) while machining a product. Taylor was
operation.63 probably the first to use the liquid in the metal cutting
operations.65,66 A heavy stream of water was applied to the
cutting zone for cooling purposes, increasing the cutting
These are generally applied during the machining of nuclear speed by 30–40%. However, the water was found to have
reactors, aggressive environments and vacuum applica- good heat carrying capacity but inadequate lubricating
tions.57 Application of solid lubricant to the grinding zone is capacity and prone to corrode the work material and ma-
an important aspect as far as the efficiency of the lubrication chine parts. To overcome such drawbacks, mineral oils with
is concerned. The pressing brick, impregnation method and high lubricating ability were developed. But due to their
mixing the solid lubricant with a carrier such as oil/air are poor cooling capabilities, they could be used at low cutting
commonly used strategies.58 The application of solid lu- speed only. To inculcate the cooling and the lubrication
bricant in grinding operation is schematically shown in effects in one medium, soluble oils were developed in the
Figure 11. Krishna et al.59 reviewed the various solid lu- 1910s.69 Today, a blend of chemical additives and lubri-
bricants such as calcium fluoride, boric acid, molybdenum cants with water is used to meet the manufacturing in-
disulphide and graphite in various machining operations. It dustries’ performance demands.70 Lavine et al.71,72 claimed
has been recommended to use graphite and calcium fluoride that the coolant played a substantial role in removing heat
to grind materials with a hardness ranging from medium to from the grinding zone in creep feed grinding. The parti-
hard. Malik et al.60 studied the surface roughness produced tioning ratio was lowered for cBN and diamond wheels.
using a solid lubricant such as MoS2, nano-graphite and Rowe et al.73 showed that coolants play a significant role in
nano-hBN powder during Ti-6Al-4V grinding. When the removing heat from the grinding zone when super abrasive
findings were compared, it was revealed that hBN powder is wheels are used. The primary function of a cutting fluid is to
more effective at lowering the coefficient of friction than the act as a coolant and a lubricant simultaneously. The in-
other lubricants used. Ding et al.61 proposed a new concept fluence of coolant kinds, composition, and supply tech-
of self-lubrication using dry grinding and solid lubrication. niques on the grinding process was shown by Brinksmeier
They designed a wheel using a solid powder lubricant and a et al.74 Generally, cutting fluid is used to fulfil three pur-
centrifugal impeller inside it to grind TC4 alloy. The ex- poses, that is, cooling, lubrication and flushing away the
perimentation showed that pore size from 1 to 1.5 mm is the chips. The water is considered the ideal cutting fluid
best suited for powder discharge and exhibits less wear. considering its high heat-carrying capacity and availability.
Similarly, Shaji and Radhakrishan62 developed a graphite However, it cannot provide a lubrication effect, and the
sandwiched wheel in which graphite was placed in the slots resulting corrosion of the surfaces limits its wide accep-
that were cut on the working surface of the wheel. This way, tance. Therefore water mixed with mineral oils is used in
the principle of interrupting grinding was utilized along industries as the cutting fluid. Usually in high heat gen-
with solid lubricant to obtain low temperature, grinding eration processes such as grinding, the water-based mineral
forces, good surface finish and specific energy. Thus, this oil is used in the ratio of 1: 5–20, whereas this mixing ratio
method was found significant for imparting overall im- may be in the range of 1:2 to 3 in low heat generation
provements in the surface integrity of the ground surfaces. processes such as broaching.24,70 Apart from using oil-
based cutting fluids, researchers have explored the use of
ionic fluid as a lubricant to minimize heat generation in
Application of cutting fluids machining processes. Ionic liquids are salts comprising
In modern manufacturing, high productivity and sound cations and anions and usually liquids at or below 100°C.67
quality are the most desirable aspects of high-speed ma- Such liquids consist of large and asymmetrical cations
chining using high-depth cut and minimum feed rates. As a which develop a weak ionic bond with the anion. Due to this
result of this relationship, high temperatures are generated nature, ionic liquids have a low melting point. These liquids
at the tool and workpiece interface. Solid lubricants can are sometimes referred to as green chemicals as they are
reduce the amount of heat generated by friction between the non-volatile and thermally stable over a wide range of
grinding wheel and the work material. For further reduction temperatures. The common ionic liquids used in machining
Kishore et al. 9
Figure 12. Commonly used cutting fluids.76
Table 3. Effectiveness and application of various cooling and lubricating strategies.70
Effects of cooling and Cryogenic

lubricating strategy Dry Wet (emulsion/oil) MQL (oil) (LN2)
Primary Cooling Poor Good Marginal Excellent

Lubricating Poor Excellent Excellent Marginal
Chip removal Poor Good Marginal Good
Secondary Machine cooling Poor Good Poor Marginal
Workpiece cooling Poor Good Poor Good
Dust control Poor Good Marginal Marginal
Product quality Poor Good Marginal Excellent
Sustainability concerns Poor surface integrity due to Water pollution, microbial Harmful oil High initial
thermal damage infestation and high cost vapour cost
processes are trihexyl phosphonium 1,2,3-triazolide, 1- Cutting fluids are primarily used to reduce heat gener-
butyl-3-methylimidazolium-trifluoromethanesulfonate and ation and increase heat removal rates inside the machining
tributyl phosphonium 1,2,3-triazolide.68 Different types of zone via cooling and lubrication. The selection of proper
commonly used cutting fluids are presented in Figure 12. coolant is not the only way to avoid thermal damage as the
Table 3 highlights the effectiveness and application of grinding has a larger contact area. Ge et al.77 studied various
various cooling and lubricating strategies. The different grinding coolant’s performance with three different coolant
functions of the MCFs can be summarized as follows:74,75 application methods. These methods include the tapping
torque test, real grinding test and four-ball test. None of the
i. Cooling function: The cooling efficiency of cutting grinding coolants was found useful in grinding force,
fluids is governed by the specific heat, latent heat surface roughness, material removal rate (MRR) and burn
and thermal conductivity, which help transfer the extent. It was proposed that attention should be paid to the
heat away from the machining area. ways of applying coolants and nozzle design. Webster
ii. Lubricating function: It reduces friction between the et al.78 presented the round nozzle as a new design and
abrasive grit, the workpiece, the flank and the chip. compared it with the conventional expensive profiled
Lubrication efficiency is primarily determined by nozzle design and observed long coherent jets. The effect of
the type of fluid used and the extent to which the parameters like nozzle position, stand-off distance and jet
fluid penetrates the faces. This is especially true for velocities were also evaluated. It was concluded that the
near-dry machining. optimization of these parameters obtained a substantial
iii. Flushing function: It is very important because it increment in wheel life. In grinding, besides the coolant
removes damaged grains and swarf from the ma- types and composition, the air boundary layer around the
chining area. This also helps the surface of the grinding wheel periphery must be considered while de-
machined part and the wear of the wheel. signing the coolant supply system before selecting the
iv. Entrapment and cleaning function: It is a process in supplying methods. Because of its high rotating speed, a
which abrasive dust is gathered and entrapped in boundary layer of air forms around the grinding wheel. The
fluids. Additionally, the cleaning function aids in thickness of the boundary layer mainly depends on the
wheel cleaning, assists in preventing wheel glazing wheel guarding, its surface roughness and wheel speed.
and reduces dressing frequency, hence increasing Sometimes, these boundary layers are so strong that fluids
wheel life. are not able to penetrate the grinding zone. Wu et al.79
pictorial representation of the flood cooling technique is

presented in Figure 13. According to Li et al.,86 merely 10%
of cutting fluid enters into the grinding zone during grinding
operations. Further, a high volume of the cutting fluid re-
sults in their storage, circulation and disposal problems.
These require additional arrangements and pumping power;
consequently, the total manufacturing cost increases. Many
researchers had highlighted that in wet cooling, cutting
fluids and accessories account for 15%–20% of the entire
production cost of the component.57,58,76,87 Therefore, this
aspect requires the researchers’ special attention where a
reduction of the cooling cost maybe the culminating point.
Figure 13. A pictorial representation of a typical flood cooling Disposal of the metal cutting fluids (MCFs) is another
technique.70 important post grinding issue that must be addressed ac-
cording to the prevailing environmental and health regu-
lations. According to a preliminary estimate, the cost of
investigated the nature of the boundary layer on the disposing of cutting fluids is roughly 54% of the cost of
grinding wheel. Laser Doppler technique was used for cutting fluids. The untreated waste of the cutting fluids can
understanding the airflow motion and air pressure on the pollute soil, groundwater and habitats of living beings.
rotating grinding wheel. The most prevalent suggestion for Further, soil contamination can affect agricultural pro-
reducing or eliminating the influence of the boundary layer duction and finally lead to food contamination. Further-
is to match the jet velocity to the wheel speed. Mandal more, wet cooling, which is widely used in industry, has
et al.80,81 developed a pneumatic barrier for controlling the been identified as one of the major sources of environment
stiff air layer. Before the fluid flows into the grinding zone, pollution and health risks.84
this barrier tends to break the air layer. The grinding ex- Prolonged and continuous exposure to MCFs may lead
periments were performed in three conditions, that is, dry, the worker to develop skin and respiratory difficulties.
flood cooling and flood cooling with the pneumatic barrier, MCFs can cause a variety of occupational problems when
to check the beneficial effects of this pneumatic barrier they come into direct touch with the operator’s skin.
breaker. It was observed that the flood cooling with a Working for an extended period of time without enough
pneumatic barrier reduced both normal and tangential ventilation can result in serious health problems such as
forces considerably and the reduction of the surface upper respiratory tract cancer, asthma, itching and irritation
roughness compared to the other cooling systems. Further, a of the eyes.88,89 The widespread use of MCFs in wet
complete grinding fluid delivery system was developed cooling looks to be more expensive and detrimental to the
with a pneumatic barrier which reduced almost air pressure environment, particularly to the operator. On the other hand,
by half. The above discussions suggest that along with a severe international pollution standards, concern for human
proper selection of cutting fluids, a suitable method of fluid health, and a commitment to green and sustainable
introduction of the machining area is of prime importance. manufacturing in accordance with the ISO 14000 standard
are compelling researchers to reduce their reliance on MCFs
in bulk.90 These complex situations necessitated either the
Cooling techniques minimal and practical usages of the MCFs or adopting dry
Following are the two basic types of the cooling techniques: or near dry machining by the complete exclusion of the
MCFs.
1. Conventional cooling technique and
2. sustainable cooling techniques Sustainable cooling techniques. Dry machining and near dry
machining led to the development of sustainable tech-
Conventional cooling technique. Flood/wet cooling techniques, reducing the use of MCFs and minimizing the
niques are synonymous and have been used in almost all manufacturing cost, saving the environment and the op-
machining processes for decades. These are the most erator’s health. Byrne and Scholta91 analysed the various
commonly used techniques to supply coolants to the ma- possible ways for achieving the clean machining process
chining zone, wherein a steady stream of the coolant jet is without being compromised with the efficiency and reli-
applied. In conventional cooling techniques, coolants’ flow ability of the manufacturing processes. All the significant
rate varies from 10 L/min to 225 L/min.82,83 For decades, concerns such as input materials, energy requirements and
manufacturing industries have benefited from and im- significant sources responsible for cleaner production were
plemented this strategy. However, because of its inherent investigated. They focused on usages of coated tools during
restrictions, the scope of this technique’s applicability has dry machining and minimum quantity lubrication for re-
been significantly reduced. Only a small amount of the duced heat generation. It has been found that serious efforts
cutting fluid supplied is used for cooling and lubricating in are needed to address the core issues directly responsible for
the wet cooling mode, and a large portion of the cutting fluid cleaner manufacturing. Kopac92 suggested that sustainable
supplied remains unused. The quantity of cutting fluid machining techniques require less power, less cost, lower
flowing through the grinding zone and influencing grinding waste, enhanced environmental and health safety in addi-
performance is referred to the useful flow rate.84,85 The tion to eco-friendly nature. Methods like dry machining,
Kishore et al. 11
coolant and lubrication regime that can address the prob-

lems caused by high-temperature generation.98
Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). MQL is a possible

option for reconciling the limitations of dry machining and
flood cooling. This technique is also known as near dry
machining (NDM), small quantity lubrication (SQL),
minimum quantity cooling and lubrication (MQCL). MQL
aims to enhance the efficiency of MCFs and minimize their
consumption with the aid of a suitable carrier (air) at high
pressures. The basic idea of MQL is to mix a small amount
of cutting fluid with compressed air and deliver it to the
cutting area through the atomizing nozzle. The cooling
impact of the jet of air during MQL is amplified manifold.
Forced convection removes heat from the cutting zone,
while the cutting fluid provides the necessary lubrication.
Because water has a larger thermal capacity and conduc-
tivity than liquid and air, adding water to the cutting fluid
can sometimes improve the cooling effect. Because its
boiling point is lower than the temperature of the contact
zone, it increases heat dissipation by removing heat from
the cutting zone by evaporation. A typical MQL system is
Figure 14. Advantage of dry machining.56 shown in Figure 15; the compressed air passes through the
narrow converging section, which induces a partial vacuum,
which helps to draw the reservoir’s cutting fluid. The
near-dry machining, cryogenic machining and compressed compressed air acts as a carrier and assists in dispersing
air cooling are the main types in this category. small droplets of liquid throughout the stream. These tiny
droplets enhance the cooling capacity through heat ex-
Dry machining technique. Due to environmental protec- traction, mostly in latent heat mode. It also provides lu-
tion laws, health and safety regulations, dry machining has brication by generating metastable fluid film between the
become a necessity for the manufacturing industries. In dry mating surfaces. MQL finds an essential position in ma-
machining, no cutting fluid is applied to the cutting zone. chining from economic and environmental considerations,
Still, protective coatings on the cutting tools are preferred to which has shown promising results in a high heat generation
achieve lubrication advantages using cutting fluids.93 It has process.99
techno-economic benefits such as no production of pol- Rahim et al.100 performed the orthogonal cutting on AISI
lutants, no disposal and cleaning costs, negligible health 1045 to investigate MQL lubrication’s sustainability. The
hazards, which reduces the overall manufacturing cost of synthetic ester-based MQL was used, which reduced the
the components.94 The whole idea and advantages of dry cutting temperature by 10–30% and cutting force by 28–
machining are pictorially represented in Figure 14. Klocke 51% compared to the dry machining. They found that the
and Eisenblatter95 presented a keynote on dry machining of MQL cooling technique is beneficial compared to dry
cast iron, aluminium, steel and titanium. Sreejith and Ngoi96 machining. For enhancing the effectiveness of MQL, Sinha
presented state-of-the-art dry machining. They discussed et al.101 optimized the MQL parameters such as droplet
the different approaches, such as using coated tools, tools quality, flow rate, nozzle position, air pressure experi-
made from diamond, cBN and refectory materials to mentally and this optimality was further used for studying
achieve dry machining conditions. The strategies like the grindability of Inconel 718. The optimal value for air
providing indirect cooling to the workpiece and tool in- pressure was 8 bar, the flow rate was 150 mL/h and the
terface through internal cooling vaporization, undercooling minimum grinding force was found at the nozzle’s inter-
system and thermoelectric effect were discussed. Thakur mediate and bottom position compared to the top position.
et al.97 investigated the feasibility of using a multilayer- Tawakoli et al.102 investigated the effect of MQL input
coated tool to machining Incoloy 825 in dry conditions. It parameters on the grindability of hardened steel (100Cr6)
was concluded that during the finish mode, the surface and soft steel (42CrMo4) using an alumina grinding wheel.
integrity was found better; on the other hand, during the It has been reported that tangential force was considerably
rough mode, the cutting temperature was relatively high. low due to the lubrication caused by MQL by providing
Dry machining, particularly in high-strength materials, better slipping of grains at the tool-workpiece interface. The
may not be a viable option because of its limits in terms of improved surface quality, higher MRR and lower grinding
excessive heat production, which may result in rapid tool force were observed during MQL compared to flood
wear, unacceptable surface quality, thermal flaws and the cooling. Rabiei et al.103 presented the application of MQL
accumulation of residual stresses. Therefore, such situations in the grinding of engineering materials as an eco-friendly
tend to explore the middle path and choose alternate cooling technique due to the minute consumption of the MCFs.
methods for machining high strength materials, leading to Thus, MQL has established itself as a clean, environ-
sustainable practices. The primary concern is to develop a mentally friendly process that has been extensively used by
Figure 15. The schematic of a typical MQL setup with aerosol formation.70
a variety of manufacturing industries. Further, the primary specific energy and grinding force decreased compared to
benefits of the MQL are deliberated as follows:104-106 traditional MQL. Sato et al.111 added more water instead of oil
and performed a grinding experiment on AISI 4340 with cBN
i. Eco-friendly coolant delivery system: Waste dis- wheel and concluded that the cooling capacity increases the
posal is minimal and biodegradable fluids are clogging with the addition of water problem reduced
used, resulting in a non-polluting process. significantly.
ii. The operator’s health and the working environ-
ment are less at risk.
Advancements in MQL
iii. A cleaner and safer work environment.
iv. No undesirable thermal shock to the workpiece or Choi coined the word ‘nanofluid’ in 1985 to characterize
tool. nanotechnology-based heat transfer fluids that outperform
v. There is no requirement for component cleaning standard fluids in terms of thermal characteristics. Nano-
prior to further processing. fluids are fluids created by evenly suspending nanoparticles
vi. MQL mixtures have superior anti-corrosion with an average size of less than 100 nm in a base fluid such
properties almost equivalent to those of neat oils. as water, oil or glycol. Nanofluids’ main goal is to achieve
vii. Ready-to-use fluid: no preparation required. the highest possible thermal conductivity at the smallest
viii. Minimal storage space requirements. concentration of nanoparticles in the host fluids.112,113 In
ix. There is no requirement for a costly coolant. comparison to the conventional fluids, the nanofluids fluids
x. Reduced power consumption due to a lesser have the following advantages:114
number of accessories.
· Heat transfer increases between fluid and particles
In addition to the MQL technique’s numerous benefits, some due to the larger surface area.
problems include insufficient cooling to control dimensional · Nanofluids require less power compared to con-
tolerances since the cooling effect depends on the heat-carrying ventional fluid.
capacity of compressed air. Another problem is the wheel’s · The thermal conductivity of fluid may be governed
clogging as it cannot flush away the debris, which needs to be by varying the concentration of nanoparticles.
addressed to enhance its overall effectiveness.107 Hadad and
Sharbati108 developed the analytical model to study the heat The addition of nanoparticles to the MQL further in-
conduction aspect. The semi-infinite bodies with moving heat creases its effectiveness; hence, known as the nano-MQL
sources on the surface were chosen as a boundary condition. (nMQL) system. An ample amount of study has been
The experiments were performed using 100Cr6 steel to validate carried out in the field of machining using nMQL. The
the finite element model. It was concluded that the MQL different types of nanoparticles generally dispersed in
provided good and efficient lubrication but could not meet the cutting fluid are presented in Figure 16. Said et al.115 re-
grinding’s cooling requirements. Oliveira et al.109 investigated viewed the various nano-cutting fluids used in MQL. They
the use of compressed air jets with MQL in external cylindrical studied the utilization of nanofluid lubrication in milling,
plunge grinding of AISI 4340 with cBN grinding wheel to drilling, turning and grinding. Srikant et al.116 reviewed the
overcome the disadvantages of MQL such as wheel clogging. utilization of nMQL in the machining processes using MQL
They concluded that using MQL with a compressed air jet with techniques. They examined the different nanofluids avail-
the nozzle at 30ᴼ for cleaning the wheel surface provides ef- able as a potential candidate to increase the effectiveness of
ficient results. Rodriguez et al.110 performed a similar experi- the MQL.
ment and concluded that MQL with a wheel cleaning jet Shabgard et al.118 examined the effect of nanoparticle’s
increased the grinding ratio (G-ratio). At the same time, the synergetic physical properties such as atomic structure and
Kishore et al. 13
Figure 16. Classification of metalworking nanofluids according to the chemical composition of the dispersed nanophase.112, 117
morphology to determine MQL performance. Liao et al.119 nMQL on the responses such as grinding force, tempera-
analysed the effect of nanoparticles in grinding of Ti-6Al- ture, surface integrity and specific grinding energy. The six
4Valloy. The grinding force and surface roughness were the conditions, that is, dry, pure MQL and four nMQL having
responses under investigation. They compared the nMQL different concentrations of graphene particles, were adopted
technique’s results with the wet grinding using water-based in grinding TC4 alloy. Among the six states, nMQL with
cutting fluid containing 6% Besol-37 emulsifiers. Sinha 0.1 wt % nanoparticles was the best, resulting in lower
et al.120 developed a water-based Ag and ZnO nMQL re- specific energy, least surface roughness and surface mi-
gime for improving the grinding performance of a Ni-based crohardness, minimum grinding peak temperature, least
superalloy. The nMQL results showed a reduction of grinding force and friction coefficient. Mishra et al.125 had
grinding temperature, lower grinding forces, minimal investigated the performance of laser textured cutting tools
sticking of debris, smaller friction coefficient and better using vegetable-based MQL and alumina suspended de-
ground surfaces than the other modes of grinding. Setti ionized (DI) water-based nMQL environment. They com-
et al.121 developed MQL by adding Al2O3 as nanoparticles pared the results with the conventional tools under dry
in water for surface grinding of Ti-6Al-4V. The authors machining conditions while machining of Ti6Al4V alloy.
studied the effect of nMQL on the wheel’s surface mor- The nMQL was concluded to be more suitable for low-
phology, surface integrity of the product, chip character- speed machining using a laser textured tool than dry ma-
istics and coefficient of friction. They concluded that the chining using an untextured tool. Moreover, the coefficient
flow rate of nMQL and nanoparticle’s concentration played of friction was reduced significantly attained in the order of
an essential role in reducing friction coefficient. The 13.7%. Lee et al.126 performed the experimental study in
grinding zone temperature and tangential forces were also micro-grinding process using nMQL. The nano-Al2O3 and
reduced. Attar et al.122 developed a water-based graphene nano-diamond particles were selected for this experiment.
nanoplatelets (GnP) nanofluids during grinding of Nimonic They concluded that nMQL effectively reduced the
90 Alloy using the MQL technique. They studied the effect grinding forces and enhanced the surface quality. They
of the fluid on the surface integrity and grinding forces. claimed that the size, type and volumetric concentration of
They compared the result of grinding force and average nanoparticles were the most important factors influencing
roughness of dry grinding with the MQL. They concluded micro-grinding performance.
that in using nMQL, the normal and tangential force got
reduced compared to dry conditions. Further, stereo zoom Cryogenic machining. Cryogenics has been used for more
microscope (SZM) images exhibited clear grinding tracks, than a century for providing low-temperature environments in
uniform and burr-free surface during nMQL grinding. different fields. The application of cryogenic cooling methods to
Pavan et al.123 investigated the graphene nanoplatelets the machining is a critical environment-friendly machining
performance-based MQL lubrication in grinding of Inconel condition.127 It is based on the concept of supplying the low-
718. They developed different nanofluids by varying the temperature refrigerant in the machining zone with the help of a
concentration and specific surface area of the nanoparticles. pressurized nozzle. As per the Cryogenic Society of America
They investigated concentration and individual nano- guidelines, cryogenic machining refers to the conditions where
particles’ role on the grinding temperature, forces, grinding the temperatures are below 153°C. Uehara and Kumagai used
coefficient, specific grinding energy and surface roughness. the name cryogenic machining in 1968.128 In cryogenic ma-
They found that the 0.3 wt % of GnP with a particular area chining, a liquefied gas such as liquid nitrogen (LN2), oxygen or
of 750 mm2/g was more effective in enhancing the surface helium is used as a cooling medium. During cryogenic ma-
quality of Inconel 718. Li et al.124 experimented with chining, a cryogen’s-controlled flow rate is allowed to penetrate
evaluating the effect of concentration of graphene-based the machining zone through a nozzle. Typically, cryogens are
Figure 17. Photographs of (a) the experimental setup and (b) cryogenic Dewar used in cryogenic grinding experiments.132
stored in an especially designed self-pressurized vessel known as conditions during the machining of 17-4 PH stainless steel. The
cryogenic Dewar. Figure 17 depicts the cryogenic setup and input parameter and depth of cut were varied while feed rate and
cryogenic Dewar. As per available literature, in 1919, Reitz used the cutting velocity were kept constant. The responses like
liquid carbon dioxide first time as a coolant in a machining surface integrity, tool wear and cutting temperature were at the
operation.128 Afterwards, different cryogens have been suc- centre of the investigation. It was noted that during all ma-
cessfully explored for enhancing the machining characteristics of chining conditions, with an increase in depth of cut, all the
necessary engineering materials. However, LN2 (liquid nitrogen) output responses were showing increasing trends. They con-
apprehended a significant dominance in the machining and cluded that cryogenic machining produced superior outcomes
grinding of various steels, titanium and Ni-based alloys. It is the in terms of tool wear, cutting temperature, surface integrity and
most abundant, colourless, odourless, inert and non-toxic gas chip shape across a broad range of cutting depths. Chetan
having excellent heat dissipation capability.129 et al.134 used uncoated tungsten carbide inserts to examine the
Cryogenic cooling is often categorized according to its dry, MQL, and cryogenic cutting regimes during machining of
various supply strategies at the tool-chip interface. Indirect Nimonic 90 alloy. The chip thickness, tool wear, surface finish,
cooling is one of the strategies, where circuits are made for chip morphology and chip contact length were taken as re-
passing the coolants to provide the cooling effect. Secondly, sponses. They concluded that at low speed (40 m/min), dry
indirect cooling, the coolant is directly supplied in the ma- machining with cryogenically treated inserts outperformed
chining zone through the nozzle. The expansion of cryogens in compared to the other two modes. However, at medium (60 m/
atmospheric conditions leads to the desired effect, followed by min) and high speed (80 m/min) machining, MQL and cryo-
sublimating the cooling media to fulfil the sustainable re- genic showed the better result in terms of wear and chip
quirement.130 Paul et al.131 studied the impact of cryo-cooling thickness. Khanna et al.135 presented an exhaustive study on
on the specimens of different types of steels such as mild steel, comparative analysis of dry, wet, MQL and cryogenic tech-
high carbon steel, cold-hot die steel and high-speed steel. They niques during precipitation-hardened stainless steel machining.
investigated the effect of cryo-cooling on chip formation, The machining performance was investigated through the
grinding forces, surface burns and specific energy. They findings of flank wear, crater wear, power consumption, surface
compared the result of cryo-cooling conditions with dry and wet roughness and microhardness of the machined surface. Yil-
machining conditions. They concluded that cryo-grinding im- dirim136 investigated the cryogenic cooling and nMQL strat-
proved the product quality as well as the grindability of the egies on AISI 420 steel’s hard turning. They experimented with
steels. The surface burns were eliminated and resulted in the LN2 and nMQL (with GnP as nanoparticles) environment. The
requirements of less force, specific energy and enhanced life of input variables were cutting speed, feed rate and two cooling
the grits during cryo-grinding. Moreover, the direct discharge of settings, with the output responses being tool-chip interface
LN2 into the atmosphere during machining processes further temperature, surface roughness, tool life, tool wear and chip
makes its disposal easy and less costly. Sinha et al.132 inves- morphology. They concluded that better results for tool life, tool
tigated improvements in grindability of Inconel 718 using LN2 wear, tool chip temperature and chip morphology were obtained
and soluble oil-based MQL environment. The grinding force in cryogenic cooling, whereas better surface finish was obtained
and central line roughness were considered as response pa- in nMQL.
rameters. The scanning electron microscope, atomic force
microscopy and dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were used to Hybrid cooling. Nowadays, much significant research aims
investigate the wheel morphology, chip formation character- to develop a system capable of infusing MQL and cryo-
istics and surface integrity, respectively. The obtained results genics cooling’s beneficial features.137 These types of
were compared with the dry and wet grinding. They concluded strategies are known as the hybridization of the systems.
that LN2 grinding provides more effective results in terms of The comparison between wet cooling, MQL and cryogenic
lowest grinding forces, better surface integrity and minimal is presented in Table 4. Sanchez et al.138 developed an allied
ground surface damage. Sivaiah et al.133 carried out a com- MQL system in which cold CO2 is supplied along with mist
prehensive comparison among cryogenic, wet, dry and MQL lubricant to reduce lubricant quantity. The grits were
Kishore et al. 15
Table 4. Comparison between wet, MQL and cryogenic grinding conditions.130–132
Sr.
No. Parameters Wet grinding MQL grinding Cryogenic grinding
1 Amount of Thousands of litres per hour Few millilitres per hour Few litres of cryogen per hour
cutting fluid (50–500 mL/h)
2 Cost About 20% of the total manufacturing Cost is very small as A significant percentage of total
compared to wet manufacturing cost is required
grinding
3 Efficacy Small percentage of cutting fluid is effective Almost whole amount of Less wastage as compared to wet
cutting fluid is utilized grinding
4 Accessories Accessories such as pump, big storage tank and Requirement of Essential accessories like Dewar,
other things accessories is less nozzle and pump
5 Disposal and Problematic and expensive Not necessary Not required
recycling
6 Vulnerabilities This grinding condition is harmful for all No problem to Has same effect as MQL
sustainability factors as well as vulnerable to environment and
the operator’s health operator
7 Current status Partial used Widely used In the early stage
protected by the frozen oil in this manner, which resulted in wheel and ultrasonic grinding are presented in the following
increased grinding wheel life and component surface sections.
quality. Yuan et al.139 combine MQL and Cryogenics
cooling’s favourable aspects to evaluate their influences:
cutting force, tool wear, chip morphology and surface
Grinding with textured wheels
roughness during milling Ti-6Al-4V alloy using uncoated The textured grinding wheel is a specially designed wheel that
cemented carbide inserts. The MQL, dry machining and consists of active and passive grinding areas on its working
MQL with cold air at 150°C were compared wherein the surface. The passive area is used to serve as a reservoir to
MQL with cold air resulted in lower cutting force, less tool transport more lubricant/coolant in the machining zone, which
wear, lower surface roughness and chips with short length. also acts as a chip disposal place, whereas the active site
Hanenkamp et al.140 developed a hybrid system for cryo- performs actual grinding action. The word texture dimension is
genic cooling while drilling 50CrMo4 and milling Ti-6Al- used to classify textured wheels, and it represents the minimal
4V. The durability of tools was investigated using CO2- repeated geometrical width of the passive area on the surface of
based MQL cryogenic cooling. They concluded that the the textured wheel. Figure 18 illustrates the different types of
combination of MQL and CO2 exhibited better results grinding wheel with the active and the passive areas of the
compared to conventional wet cooling. Some important textured wheels. Denkena et al.163 proposed a novel patterning
research work on sustainable lubrication and cooling in approach for structuring the wheel surface based on fly-cutting
grinding is listed in Table 5. kinematics. They performed face grinding experiments to an-
alyse the performance of the patterned wheel. They concluded
that patterning helped to reduce thermal and mechanical loads
Advancements in grinding resulting in a reduced grinding force and increased the coolant
In recent years, several new engineering materials such as flow rate. Moreover, many researches have been carried out in
composites, ceramics and superalloys have been developed, the domain of structured grinding wheels. Yu et al.164 fabricated
which finds numerous applications in the electronic, military, the nature-inspired bionic grinding wheel to perform grinding
space, medical, power and automobile sector. These materials experiments using Ti-6Al-4V workpiece. The output responses
are used in the manufacturing of precision components such as surface roughness and specific grinding energy were
bearing advanced properties with their ever-increasing de- evaluated. They concluded that better surface roughness and
mands. These material’s advanced properties, such as the lower specific grinding energy were obtained using a fabricated
ability to sustain in harsh environments, high hardness, anti- wheel as it had a specific arrangement of grains which enhanced
wear and anti-corrosive nature, limit their grindability using the flow of grinding fluid in the grinding zone. Also, Monier
the conventional grinding techniques. Therefore, successful et al.165 investigated the effect of the designed parameter of the
grinding of these advanced materials requires new strategies. structured wheel on the geometrical parameter of the ground
In addition to the advanced materials, the enhanced cutting components. The simulation and experimental results were
speed of machining is another hurdle. In high-speed ma- compared, and it was concluded that different design parameters
chining, the penetration of cutting fluid in the grinding zone of the wheel affect the ground components at different rates.
and their boiling hinder the purpose. Consequently, many
research pieces are being carried out to address the problems
Ultrasonic-assisted grinding (UAG)
related to machining these materials at high speeds. Some
significant findings of the prevailing research in grinding, such In today’s scenario, the application of difficult-to-machine
as modification in grinding wheel surface, merging of different materials (DTM) such as superalloys, composites and ce-
grinding principles such as usages of the textured grinding ramics is often used to manufacture defence equipment,
16
Table 5. List of the paper describing the different sustainable techniques in grinding.
Input parameters
Reference Cooling/lubrication technique Material Wheel speed Feed Depth of cut Output responses
141
Schoop et al. Cryogenic (LN2) Ti-6Al-4V 120,240 and 0.01 mm/rev 0.1 mm SR
360 m/min
Zhang et al.142 nMQL (Al2O3) Ti-6Al-4V 24 m/s 4 m/min 15 μm GF, SGE
Amini et al.143 Cryogenic (LN2 and CO2) MO40 steel - 3.18,5 and 6.45 m/min 0.2, 0.4 and SR, H
0.6 mm
Nadolny and Kieras144 Cold air and solid lubricant 100Cr6 50 m/s 0.83 m/s - VW, GR, SR
Khoran et al.145 Cryogenic (CO2) Polyether ether ketone 5, 10,15 m/s 2000 mm/min 30 µm GF, SR, SGE
Manimaran and Cryogenic (LN2) AISI 316 31.4 m/s 0.1, 0.125 and 0.15 m/s 10–40 µm GF, SR, GT
Pardeepkumar146,147
Ni et al.148 nMQL (pure water + graphene + sodium alcohol AISI 1045 - - - GR, GF
ether sulphate)
Singh et al.149 nMQL (canola oil + graphene/graphite/MoS2) Ti-6Al-4V-ELI 22 m/s 3000 mm/min 10 µm GF, SR
Sato et al.150 MQL (Accu-Lube LB 1000–100% vegetable oil- AISI 1020 steel 30 m/s 0.50 mm/min 1.2 μm/s (specific) SR, GP, DD
based)
Majumdar et al.151 MQL (soybean oil) AISI 1019 steel 29.3 m/s - 20 µm GF, WL, SR, SM
Virdi et al.152 nMQL (sunflower and rice bran oil with nano- Inconel 718 28 m/s 2.1 m/min 20 µm GE, GF, GR, SR
AL2O3)
Jia et al.153 MQL (lecithin bio-lubricant) Ti-6Al-4 V 30 m/s 3.5 m/min 10 µm GF, GT, SM
Pashmforoush et al.154 nMQL (CuO) Inconel 738 — 3000,6000 and 9000 mm/ 10,20 and 30 µm WL, SR
min
Esmaeili et al.155 MQL (corn oil) Carbon fibre reinforced silicon 25, 35, 40 and 500, 1000, 2000 and 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and GF, GP, SR, GR
carbide composite 45 m/s 3000 mm/min 0.4 mm
Awale et al.156 MQL (deionized water (DIW) liquid paraffin oil Hardened H13 hot die steel 39.42 m/s 10 m/min 6, 12, 18 and GF, SGE, SM, MH
(LP) vegetable oil (VO)) 24 μm
Ibrahim et al.157 nMQL (palm oil+ graphene nanoplatelets) Ti-6Al-4V 1800 r/min 4 m/min 10 µm GF, SR
Shabgard et al.158 nMQL (emulsion of canola oil+ distilled water + AISI 1045 hardened steel 30 m/s 5 and 15 m/min 10,25 and 40 µm SR, H
CuO nanoparticles)
Ruzzi et al.159 MQL+ cleaning system (MEI semi-synthetic oil) SAE 4340 steel 30 m/s 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 mm/ 3.09; 6.17 and SR parameters
min 9.26 µm
Garcia et al.160 MQL (emulsion of BIOCUT 9000 with water) + AISI 52100 steel 32 m/s 0.5 mm/min 0.1 mm SR, RD, WW, GP,
wheel cleaning jet MH
Javaroni et al.161 MQL+ wheel cleaning jet AISI 4340 hardened steel 32 m/s 0.5 mm/min 0.1 mm SR, MH, RD,
WW, GP
Awale et al.162 MQL (groundnut oil and air) AISI H13 tool steel 39.25 m/s 10 m/min 15 µm GF, SGE, SR, GT
GF = grinding forces, GT = grinding temperature, SR = surface roughness, GR = grinding ratio, SGE = specific grinding energy, WW = wheel wear, GP = grinding power, WL = wheel loading, SM = surface morphology, DD =
dimensional deviation, MH = microhardness, H = hardness, GE = grinding energy, VW = volumetric wear, RD = roundness deviation.
Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 0(0)
Kishore et al. 17
Figure 18. Comparison of conventional, segmented and textured grinding wheels.166
assisted by ultrasonic vibrations are used for material re-

moval through cavitation and therefore the process is named
ultrasonic-assisted machining (UAM).169 Ultrasonic-
assisted grinding (UAG), generally known as rotary ul-
trasonic machining (RUM) has emerged as a potential
technology for the machining of hard and brittle
materials.170,172,173 In the UAG system, the conventional
grinding machine is incorporated with an ultrasonic system
that makes the operation multi-complex, which is now
characterized by spindle speed, feed velocity rate, the
amplitude of vibration and vibration of frequency.171 The
UAGs are classified into two types based on the way of
vibrations introduced in a wheel or workpiece as presented
in Table 6:174,175
Wang et al.176 developed a novel method of 1D-UAG
inducing horizontal vibration to the platform on which the
workpiece is fixed. Chen and Tang177 established a new
model to forecast surface roughness in the UAG as the
trajectory of the grit in the UAG in the form of a 3D space
curve, whereas most of the models built using traditional
Figure 19. Percentage of research performed by assisted hybrid grinding viewed the abrasive trajectory as a 2D curve.
machining.171
Subsequently, the simulation was validated through ex-
perimental findings using the UAG of C45 carbon steel.
Liang et al.178 suggested a novel 2-D UAG technique for
aeronautics, marine and space industries. Their properties machining monocrystal silicon, a hard and brittle material,
like high hardness, high strength, corrosion resistance and with high material removal rates and better surface quality.
creep life enabled them to be used in the above applica- The workpiece was connected to the elliptical ultrasonic
tions. The machining of these materials using conven- vibrator. They concluded that a significant decrement in
tional machining is not a smart and lucrative solution. the grinding force with marginally increased ground
Therefore, as a result of research in this field, ultrasonic- surface roughness. Moreover, the tool path exhibits a
assisted technology has come up as an effective machining spatial elliptical curve as presented in Figure 20(a).179,180
strategy to process DTM. The first use of vibration- Zhao et al.181 designed a system for ultrasonic-assisted
assisted machining was dated back to the late 1950s for elliptical vibration grinding (UAEVG) for machining
regular macro scale-metal cutting operations. The devel- nano-ZrO2 to improve its grindability. The integrated
opments in DTM led to researcher’s increased interest in nonresonant design method was used to develop a cup-
ultrasonic-assisted machining in mid of the 1980s.167 The shaped tool transformer while optimizing the conical horn
percentage of researches performed by assisted hybrid length. The better surface topography with increased
machining and its advancement is shown in Figure 19. surface compressive residual stress was obtained com-
pared to conventional grinding. The comparison between
Basic principle of ultrasonic-assisted machining. The ultrasonic trajectory of single grit in conventional and ultrasonic
wave is one of the principal components of an ultrasonic grinding is shown in Figure 20(b).
machining system. Magnetostrictive and piezoelectric
ceramics-based transducers convert frequency electric Surface integrity. Surface integrity is a very important pa-
signal into vibration at ultrasonic levels.168 The interactions rameter to assess the quality of the product produced by
between the medium and ultrasonic waves during trans- a machining operation. Many authors compared the
mission enable the system to produce mechanical, thermal surface quality and machining parameters of UAG with
and cavitation effects. Further, the conventional processes the conventional grinding process. Chen et al. 183
Table 6. Classification of UAGs.
1-Dimensional UAG (1-D UAG) 2-Dimensional UAG (2-D UAG)
Direction of Vibrations are given either along or perpendicular to the axis of Workpiece vibrates simultaneously along two
vibration wheel rotation horizontal directions
Trajectory of tool Tool motion follow sine curve with periodic reciprocating Tool motion follow elliptical curve (refer Figure
characteristics 20(a))
Other name 1D axial UAG and 1D-vertical UAG Elliptical UAG
Figure 20. (a) Path of the tool in 2D UAG181 and (b) 3D motion trajectory of single grain in UAG.182
investigated the influence of ultrasonic vibration on the 3D dressed grain model. Further, the superposition
surface roughness produced during the grinding of C45 theory was adopted to consider adjacent grains’ overall
carbon steel. They evaluated the effect of vibration in effect in the final mathematical model.
the cross feed direction experimentally. The results were
compared with the conventional grinding, and it was Lubrication and Cooling techniques in UAG. Like Conven-
found that there was a 20% reduction in R a and Rz values tional Grinding (CG), heat is also developed during
for surface roughness of workpiece machined using UAG machining. To increase the performance of UAG,
UAG. Similarly, Li et al.184 proposed for combining of several authors have investigated various machining
ultrasonic vibration and plasma electrolytic oxidation to conditions such as dry machining, MQL machining and
improve the grindability of Ti-6Al-4V. This technique nMQL machining. Tawakoli et al. 188,189 performed the
was applied experimentally, and results were compared dry UAG of 42CrMo4 to investigate the surface
with conventional grinding in terms of grinding forces roughness, thermal damages and normal grinding force.
and surface roughness. The comparison revealed that They concluded that due to the multiple impact inter-
there was 60% and 70% reduction in normal and tan- action in UAG, there was a significant reduction in
gential forces, respectively, as well as a 46% reduction thermal damages and grinding force compared to the
in surface roughness. Bhaduri et al. 185 investigated the conventional grinding process. Further, the result re-
influence of grinding infeed and vibration amplitude vealed the improvements in surface roughness of the
during on creep feed grinding of Inconel 718 using an UAG ground surface. 3D surface topography of dif-
open structure alumina wheel. The results indicated that ferent grinding strategies: (a) CG, (b) UAG, (c)
amplitude has a linear relationship with surface UAG(MQL) and (d) UAG(nMQL) is shown in
roughness, but has an inverse relationship with grinding Figure 22. Although there is an improvement in the
forces. Figure 21 illustrates the surface quality of the process performance using UAG in dry machining, still
ground surface obtained during dry grinding and dry the surface roughness exhibited increasing trends. 190
UAG. To investigate the surface texture mechanism in MQL and nMQL machining techniques are being used
UAG, Jiang et al.186 proposed a mathematical model by to mitigate this problem along with vibration assistance
combining a single grain trajectory model and 2D and to improve the machined surface quality.
Kishore et al. 19
Figure 21. Surface quality during (a) dry conventional grinding and (b) dry ultrasonic-assisted grinding.187
Figure 22. 3D surface topography of different grinding strategies: (a) CG, (b) UAG, (c) UAG (MQL) and (d) UAG (nMQL).191
Madarkar et al.192 conducted an experimental investi- MQL-assisted CG. Molai et al.193 studied the effects of
gation to determine the effect of MQL aided UAG on the water-based nMQL-assisted UAG. The nanoparticles such
grinding performance of Ti-6Al-4V. The water mixed with as multiwalled carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, Al2O3,
sunflower oil was used as the base fluid for MQL. The graphite and hybrid Al2O3 were used in their experimen-
surface quality, topography, grinding forces and chip tations. The experimentation was aimed to determine the
morphology were investigated for both dry and MQL efficiency of UAG, its effect on forces, specific energy and
conditions. A significant reduction in tangential and normal surface quality. It was concluded that nMQL required lower
forces by 32% and 38%, respectively, was found. The energy due to reduced frictional losses, promoting the
phenomena of burning and redeposition were prevented material removal rates. In comparison to CG-dry condition,
effectively with the MQL condition compared to the dry the UAG reduced the normal force, specific energy and
UAG. They concluded that surface roughness was surface roughness by 52%, 47% and 61%, respectively. The
high in MQL-assisted UAG when compared with the effect of nMQL on normal force and surface roughness with
Figure 23. Effect of nMQL with and without UV on normal grinding forces.193
Figure 24. Effect of nMQL with and without UV on surface roughness.193
and without ultrasonic vibration is shown in Figures 23 and and surface roughness and concluded that the wheel having
24, respectively. coolant channels performed significantly better than the
wheel without coolant channels. To address the disad-
vantage of a metal bond grinding wheel, which is the lack of
3D printing of grinding wheels coolant transportation in the grinding zone, Denkena
Grinding is one of the oldest known machining processes, et al.195 applied the laser powder-based fusion AM method
yet it has gone through many noble advancements with time to introduce pores in the metal bond layer of the grinding
to overcome the barriers hindering its true utilization po- wheel. Likewise, to increase the amount of cutting fluid in
tential. In grinding, the shortcomings like high heat gen- the grinding zone, Li et al.196 fabricated the porous metal
eration, random grit orientation and their distribution in bonded grinding wheels having octahedron and honeycomb
grinding wheels can be surmounted using the concept of structures using the Selective laser melting technique.
additive manufacturing (AM). AM, also known as 3D These wheels had controlled the pore’s size, shape and
printing, is a booming concept that has the capabilities to distribution to realize the concept of porosity in the metal
revamp the outlook of the manufacturing industries. In AM, bonded grinding wheel. The experiments were performed to
a complex shape can be easily produced by printing layer by compare the grinding efficiency of the printed wheel with
layer in a controlled manner. AM provides flexibility to that of the electroplated grinding wheel. It was observed
design and manufacture the products. A grinding wheel that the porous wheel outperformed the electroplated wheel
with specific features such as internal coolant channels, substantially in terms of grinding forces and specific
particular orientation of the grits and optimum stability grinding energy. The researchers have also tried to over-
during grinding can be produced through AM. Ai et al.194 come the problem of the random grits orientation on the
prepared resin-bonded SiC grinding wheel using Digital grinding wheel using AM techniques. It is believed that the
light processing AM technique. They manufactured two methodical distribution of grits on wheel surfaces can in-
types of grinding wheels: one with coolant channels inside crease wheel life and improve surface roughness and
it and other without coolant channels. They compared the eventually the grinding efficiency.197 Qiu and Huang198
results of both wheels in terms of wheel loading, wheel wear fabricated the controlled arrangement of grinding wheels
Kishore et al. 21
Figure 25. A typical illustration of possible arrangement of grit in 3D printing of grinding wheel.198
et al.201 devised software that automatically picks the

grinding wheel and its job to grind the helical flute. To
monitor the grinding wheel, Lee et al.202 created an
auditory-based system that was combined with deep
learning concepts. This system incorporates a microphone
and acoustic emission sensors for collecting audio, and
obtained audio was analysed by spectrum analysis. To
assess the wheel’s condition, the data from the spectrum
analysis was fed into deep convolutional neural networks. A
total of 820 trials were carried out to validate the system,
with 410 sharp wheels and 410 worn-out wheels, with the
system achieving accuracy and precision of nearly 98%. As
a result of the integrated AI-based grinding, a large amount
of data is generated. All this generated data is collectively
known as big data. Indeed, these data are important in the
present and as well in future also. Big data is eventually
used to retrieve the information stored previously for
Figure 26. A typical illustration of 3D printing of a grinding
wheel.199
making the work easier. The resourceful information of big
data can predict the trends, which eventually helps in re-
ducing wastage and also save time and money. Guo et al.203
with the help of light resins-based AM technique which is developed an intelligent wheel wear monitoring system
shown in Figure 25. The FEM simulation of the fabricated based on the deep learning network structure. The results of
wheel is performed to know the MRR, which is further this system were compared with conventional machine
verified by conducting the experiments. It was concluded learning systems. It was concluded that the developed
that the fabricated wheel had a longer grinding effective system could predict the wheel wear more accurately even
time and higher MRR as compared to the traditional wheels. with fewer features than the conventional system.
Yang et al.199 designed a metal bonded diamond grinding
wheel with a uniform grain distribution utilizing a Ni-Cr
Waste management of grinding swarf
alloy as the substrate and diamond as the grit, as shown in
Figure 26. Product quality enhancement with continuous process
enhancement is an ongoing process. However, the sus-
tainability aspect is the key concern that must be addressed
Artificial intelligence (AI) in the grinding process with the process enhancement. It has been estimated that
One of the most significant developments in human history 1610.7 million tons of steel are being used in the
has been the emergence of AI in recent years. The Internet manufacturing industries to manufacture different products
of things, robots and intelligent systems have entirely using various processes in the year 2018–19 globally.204
revolutionized the manufacturing process. The integration The volume of metal chips produced is approximately 15–
of these systems improved the quality of the manufactured 30 times that of the raw material. Most of the time, the chips
product and contributed to its long-term viability. AI is are either used for landfilling or sold to a third party which
primarily used in the creation of simulation-based tools and causes a considerable loss in terms of environment and
the integration of closed feedback systems with self- economy.205 Waste management is a useful tool towards a
optimizing controller programs in grinding.200 For online green economy that follows 3R, that is, Recover, Recycle
monitoring of grinding burn, wheel selection, different and Reuse. For sustainable manufacturing, waste man-
sensors and additional auxiliary devices such as cameras agement is mandatory as it prevents excessive use of natural
and microphones are utilized in conjunction with smart resources, controls emissions and protects public health.
algorithms. Figure 27 indicates the application of AI in The recycling of metal chips enhances the profit of
grinding. To create solid rotatory cutting tools, Rowe manufacturing industries and, at the same time, reduces the
Figure 27. Use of AI in grinding process.
Figure 28. Classification of grinding sludge.206,207
environmental impacts as well. 206 Specifically, the grinding Table 7. Composition of grinding sludge.207
produces two types of wastes: the grinding sludge/swarf
Elements Metal swarf Abrasive Oil Water
and the other are used grinding wheels. The grinding waste
generated during dry machining is called grinding dust; it is Weight fraction 40–80% 4–40% 0–30% 0–40%
called grinding sludge/swarf. The different types of
grinding sludge and its composition is shown in Figure 28.
Nikiforov et al.207 investigated the globules of grinding recycling method, centrifugal separation system, magnetic
sludge based on their microstructure and defects. They separation method and biological recycling method. They
explained them in terms of physicochemical combustion experimented with removing cutting fluid from the grinding
metal theory. This theory explained the formation of swarf using an aqueous washing process. The effect of two
spherical inclusions and their flaws while chip combustion commercial chemicals, namely Micro 90 and Detergent 8
in metal grinding. Further, they described the stages of chip was investigated to remove cutting oils from the swarf.
combustion. They observed that diffusional oxidation of Gravimetric analysis was used to assess the oil content of
metal chips led to the formation of globules. The compo- the sample. They concluded that detergent 8 had better oil
sition of the grinding sludge is shown in Table 7. removal efficiency as pulp density was low, and the solution
It is estimated that 3391 tons of metal swarf are being could be reused again. The grinding swarf obtained from
produced annually, which contains 2.29% of cutting fluid. It various cleaning methods can be reused in multiple fields.
will save 107,922 USD yearly if the entire amount of Punmatharith et al.210 conducted an experimental investi-
cutting fluid from the swarf is reduced to less than 1%.207 gation to explore the feasibility of grinding sludge as a raw
Tso208 proposed various techniques for the separation of material in the manufacturing of Portland cement clinker.
grinding swarf from the cutting fluid, such as settling tanks, The introduction of grinding sludge in the cement industry
centrifuge systems, hydro cyclone systems and integrated has introduced various metals such as nickel, cadmium and
systems. Lee et al.209 reviewed the various technologies zinc at varying concentrations. They concluded that the
used for recycling the MCFs using different viable tech- introduction of grinding sludge in cement enhances its
nologies. They mentioned membrane system, chemical performance and, at the same time, reduces the raw material
Kishore et al. 23
cost. The grinding swarf is also used in making com- conclusions can be drawn from the present comprehensive
posites. Aslan et al.211 studied the microstructure and review work:
mechanical properties of metal matrix composites
(MMCs) synthesized using spheroidal cast iron chip as I. Dry grinding remained the unique choice in
reinforcement and bronze chip as a matrix. The hot grinding of the industrial components for decades.
isostatic pressing process was used with variation in However, different surface integrity concerns of the
bronze chip contents (90 wt %, 80 wt %, 70 wt % and 60 ground surfaces aroused by the inflow of high
wt %) to make the composites. The characterization of strength alloys, superalloys and ceramics need to
MMCs was executed using Brinell hardness test, density be fixed through the advancements in the grinding
test and compression test. They concluded that no in- technology.
termetallic compound formed between the chip, and II. The government’s strict environmental policies and
physical and mechanical properties are mainly affected by rules compelled researchers and scientists to shift
composition and sintering temperature. Hankel et al.212 their domain toward sustainability. The introduc-
proposed a novel method based on super solidus liquid tion of sustainable techniques such as MQL, MQL
phase sintering to reuse the grinding swarf. Washing, dry with nanoparticles, cryogenic, hybrid techniques
screening and magnetic separation procedures were used and grinding wheel texturing ensured the grinding
to separate the grinding swarf from the grinding sludge. process to tackle the concerns evolved from flood
The half of grinding swarf and abrasive were recovered cooling techniques.
from the grinding sludge. The morphology and the mi- III. The amalgamation of grinding with other ma-
crostructure of recovered densified metallic swarf still chining principles leads to the introduction of new
possess some abrasive particles still trapped in grinding grinding techniques, one of them is ultrasonic-
swarf. assisted grinding (UAG). Although the cutting
The grinding used wheels or broken wheels while ma- fluids are used in UAG, the dry grinding through
chining can be reused in various other processes. Sabar- UAG provides promising results compared to the
inathan et al.213 investigated the recovery of alumina grains dry grinding process.
from the flange of a previously used vitrified grinding IV. By incorporating textured wheels into the grinding
wheel. The recovered grains were then chemically treated process, heat generation in the grinding zone is
with hydrofluoric acid to remove the bond material. Taguchi reduced considerably by increasing coolant flow
approach was used to optimize the lump size, acid con- rate. As a result, thermal loading on the ground
centration and period of immersion. Friability, micro- surfaces decreases and compressive residual
hardness, SEM and energy dispersive X-ray tests were stresses become more prevalent, prolonging the
performed to determine the grain’s properties. At last, they ground product’s fatigue life.
concluded that recovered grains were tougher than roasted V. The potential research on 3D printed grinding
grain and can be used in vitrified grinding. Datar214 had wheels, precision grit types and artificial intelli-
performed a case study for the recycling of the used gence in grinding led to improvement in grinding
crankshaft grinding wheel. The crankshaft wheels had a size process responses such as MRR, surface roughness
of 900 mm–1025 mm in diameter with 30 mm–90 mm in and tolerances.
width. After the wheel was used up, the wheel’s size re- VI. Implementation of the waste management tech-
mained 600 mm–750 mm in diameter. These used up niques in grinding increases the profitability of the
wheels can be used to grind other components, which could machining sector through significant cost reduction
save machining cost and increase the organization’s profit. in cutting fluid and material disposal. Moreover,
Based on the previous study, Sabarinathan et al.215 ex- usage of the grinding swarf for synthesizing
perimented using the recovered grain as abrasive in abrasive composites and surface coating increases the re-
jet machining. They concluded that recovered grain cut usability of the grinding waste endorsing the theme
deeper by 23% in alumina and 12% in marble than that of of sustainability.
new garnet abrasives.
Future scope
Conclusions
From the above conclusions, it appears that the grinding
The machining challenges posed by advanced materials like process is accepting and adopting technological advance-
superalloys, ceramics and composites have successfully ments. The rapid development of new engineered materials
been accepted and overcome by researchers and engineer’s such as superalloys and their vast utilization in high per-
collective efforts. One of the limitations of grinding was its formance applications make grinding one of the most
lower material removal rate than the other machining adaptable machining processes. This article highlights the
processes. Secondly, due to high heat generation and its potential future of 3D printing of grinding wheels, precision
adverse effect on work surfaces have made the grinding shaped grits and artificial intelligence applications in the
process more noticeable. The successful development and performance improvement of the grinding process. More-
advancement in grinding wheel materials, lubrication and over, grinding swarf management has been enforced after
cooling techniques have contributed inherently towards re- ignorance for several decades. Nowadays, the grinding
establishing the grinding operations in this ongoing era of swarf is being recycled to synthesized metal matrix com-
the techno-economic world. In a nutshell, following key posites. Even few works have reported usage of the
grinding swarf for depositing hard coating directly. It is 13. Malkin S and Guo C. Grinding Technology: Theory and
assumed not only as a solution for solid waste management Application of Machining with Abrasives. New York USA:
but also to make the grinding process more efficient. Industrial Press Inc., 2008.
14. Hatami O, Adibi H and Rezaei SM. Application of a com-
Acknowledgements pressed air jet for cleaning of wheel surface in grinding
nickel-based super alloy Inconel 718. CIRP J Manufacturing
The authors would like to thank National Institute of Technology
Sci Tech 2022; 37: 233–244.
Hamirpur for providing the platform which immensely helped
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16. Sinha MK, Ghosh S and Paruchuri VR. Modelling of specific
Declaration of conflicting interests
grinding energy for Inconel 718 superalloy. Proc Inst Mech
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with re- Eng B: J Eng Manufacture 2019; 233(2): 443–460.
spect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. 17. Rowe WB. Principles of Modern Grinding Technology.
USA: William Andrew, 2013.
Funding 18. de Souza Ruzzi R, da Silva RB, da Silva LR, et al. Influence
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A comprehensive review on the grinding process: Advancements, applications

Kamal Kishore Manoj Kumar Sinha

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Amarjit Singh Mehmet Erdi Korkmaz

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Tribological Behavior of Titanium View project

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Proc IMechE Part C:

Date received: 13 March 2022; accepted: 8 June 2022

Figure 1. Evolution of the industrial revolutions.2

Figure 2. Classiﬁcation of the manufacturing technologies.4–8

competitive price is the key challenge for the manufacturing

Table 1. Application areas of synthetic grit materials.16,17

Grits Range of applications Grinding process Bond

Figure 7. Different types of grinding burn.23

Figure 8. Onset of different grinding burns at different grinding temperatures.23

Figure 9. List of residual stresses measurement techniques.27

Figure 10. Different methods to measure grinding temperature.43

Table 2. List of research articles describing different aspects of grinding burn.

of adverse effects of residual heat, a suitable medium is a

Figure 12. Commonly used cutting ﬂuids.76

Table 3. Effectiveness and application of various cooling and lubricating strategies.70

Effects of cooling and Cryogenic

Primary Cooling Poor Good Marginal Excellent

pictorial representation of the ﬂood cooling technique is

coolant and lubrication regime that can address the prob-

Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). MQL is a possible

Table 4. Comparison between wet, MQL and cryogenic grinding conditions.130–132

Figure 18. Comparison of conventional, segmented and textured grinding wheels.166

assisted by ultrasonic vibrations are used for material re-

Table 6. Classiﬁcation of UAGs.

1-Dimensional UAG (1-D UAG) 2-Dimensional UAG (2-D UAG)

Figure 24. Effect of nMQL with and without UV on surface roughness.193

et al.201 devised software that automatically picks the

Figure 27. Use of AI in grinding process.

Figure 28. Classiﬁcation of grinding sludge.206,207

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