Physics: For Cambridge
Physics: For Cambridge
Physics: For Cambridge
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Physics
for Cambridge IGCSE™
c* r~ o xx ix
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Physics
for Cambridge IGCSE™
COURSEBOOK
David Sang, Mike Follows & Sheila Tarpey
Cambridge *
UNIVERSITY PRESS
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First edition 2009
Second edition 2014
Third edition 2021
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For more information about our dedicated teachers and their stories, go to
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Brighter Thinking
Hi Cambridge
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Better Learning
• Contents *
Cambridge
UNIVERSITY PRESS
The digital teacher s resource contains detailed guidance for all topics of the
syllabus, including common misconceptions identifying areas where learners
might need extra support, as well as an engaging bank of lesson ideas for each
syllabus topic. Differentiation is emphasised with advice for
identification of different learner needs and
suggestions of appropriate interventions to
support and stretch learners. The teacher’s
resource also contains support for preparing
and carrying out all the investigations in the
practical workbook, including a set of sample
results for when practicals aren’t possible.
The teacher’s resource also contains scaffolded
worksheets and unit tests for each chapter.
Answers for all components are accessible to
teachers for free on the Cambridge GO platform.
How to use this series
Cambridge
COMING
IN 2022
COMING
IN 2022
Our research shows that English language skills are the single
biggest barrier to learners accessing international science. Physics
This write-in workbook contains exercises set within the for Cambridge IGCSE'
LEARNING INTENTIONS
These set the scene for each chapter, help with navigation through the coursebook and indicate the
important concepts in each topic. These begin with 'In this chapter you will:'.
In the learning intentions table, Supplement content is indicated with a large arrow and a darker
background, as in the example here.
GETTING STARTED
This contains questions and activities on subject knowledge you will need before starting the chapter.
Questions
EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS Appearing throughout the text, questions give you a
chance to check that you have understood the topic you
This feature focuses on developing your practical have just read about. The answers to these questions are
skills. They include lists of equipment required and accessible to teachers for free on the Cambridge GO site.
any safety issues, step-by-step instructions so you
can carry out the experiment, and questions to
ACTIVITY
help you think about what you have learned.
Activities give you an opportunity to check
your understanding throughout the text in a more
KEY WORDS active way, for example by creating presentations,
posters or taking part in role plays. When activities
Key vocabulary is highlighted in the text when it have answers, teachers can find these for free on
is first introduced, and definitions are given in the Cambridge GO site.
boxes near the vocabulary. You will also find
definitions of these words in the Glossary at the
back of this book. KEY EQUATIONS
Important equations which you will need to learn
and remember are given in these boxes.
vlll
How to use this book
PROJECT
Projects allow you to apply your learning from the whole chapter to group activities such as making posters or
presentations, or performing in debates. They may give you the opportunity to extend your learning beyond
the syllabus if you want to.
SUMMARY
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
Questions at the end of each chapter provide more demanding exam-style questions, some of which may require
use of knowledge from previous chapters. The answers to these questions are accessible to teachers for free on the
Cambridge GO site.
Supplement content is indicated with a large arrow in the margin and a darker background, as here.
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
The summary checklists are followed by ‘I can’ statements which match the Learning intentions at the beginning
of the chapter. You might find it helpful to rate how confident you are for each of these statements when you are
revising. You should revisit any topics that you rated ‘Needs more work’ or ‘Almost there’.
Core
Supplement
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>
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
> Introduction
Studying physics Thinking physics
Why study physics? Some people study physics for the How do physicists think? One of the characteristics of
simple reason that they find it interesting. Physicists physicists is that they try to simplify problems - reduce
study matter, energy and their interactions. They might them to their basics - and then solve them by applying
be interested in observing the tiniest sub-atomic particles, some very fundamental ideas. For example, you will
or understanding the vastness of the Universe itself. be familiar with the idea that matter is made of tiny
particles that attract and repel each other and move
On a more human scale, physicists study materials to
try to predict and control their properties. They study about. This is a very useful model, which has helped
the interactions of radiation with matter, including the us to understand the behaviour of matter, how sound
biological materials we are made of. travels, how electricity flows, and much more.
Other people are more interested in the applications of Once a fundamental idea is established, physicists look
physics. They want to know how it can be used, perhaps around for other areas where it might help to solve
in an engineering project, or for medical purposes. problems. One of the surprises of 20th century physics
Depending on how our knowledge is applied, it can was that, once physicists had begun to understand the
make the world a better place. fundamental particles of which atoms are made, they
realised that this helped to explain the earliest moments
Some people study physics as part of their course in the history of the Universe, at the time of the
because they want to become some other type of scientist Big Bang.
- perhaps a chemist, biologist or geologist. These
branches of science draw a great deal on ideas from
physics, and physics may draw on them.
Medicine is often seen as a biological career but this doctor will use many applications of physics, from X-rays to robotic
limbs, in her work.
X
Introduction
Physics relies on mathematics. Physicists measure The more you study physics, the more you will come to
quantities and analyse data. They invent mathematical realise how the ideas join up. Indeed, the ultimate goal
models - equations and so on - to explain their for many physicists is to link all ideas into one unifying
findings. In fact, a great deal of mathematics has been ‘theory of everything’.
developed by physicists to help them to understand their
experimental results. An example of this is the work of
Edward Witten, who designed new mathematical tools to
unify different versions of superstring theory - a theory
which tries to unite all the forces and particles you are
learning about.
Computers have made a big difference in physics,
allowing physicists to process vast amounts of data
rapidly. Computers can process data from telescopes,
control distant spacecraft and predict the behaviour of
billions of atoms in a solid material.
Using physics
The practical applications of physics are far reaching.
Many physicists work in economics and finance, using
ideas from physics to predict how markets will change.
Others use their understanding of particles in motion to
predict how traffic will flow, or how people will move in
crowded spaces. This type of modelling can be used to
help us understand the spread of pathogens, such as the
virus which caused the 2020 Covid-19 pandemic.
In April 2019 the first pictures were released of a black hole. Physics is being used to find solutions for the world’s
The central area is so dense that light cannot escape it. major problems. New methods of generating electricity
This image was the result of hundreds of scientists using a without adding to greenhouse gas emissions are helping
network of radio telescopes around the world, processing to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. Developments
many petabytes of data - 1 petabyte is equal to 1 million in battery technology allow us to store electrical energy,
gigabytes or 1 x 1015 bytes. making electric vehicles a reality.
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) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
If this child drives it will probably be in an electric vehicle like this one. Many countries aim to phase out polluting, fossil fuel
powered vehicles by the middle of the 21st century. Physicists are improving car design and battery life to make this feasible.
Joining in
So, when you study physics, you are doing two things.
i You are joining in with a big human project -
learning more about the world around us and
applying that knowledge.
ii At the same time, you are learning to think like
a physicist - how to apply some basic ideas, how
to look critically at data, and how to recognise
underlying patterns. Whatever path you take, these
skills will remain with you and help you make sense
of the rapidly changing world in which we live.
> Chapter 1
Makino
measurements
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
GETTING STARTED
In pairs, either take the measurements or write down how you would do the following:
• measure the length, width and thickness of this book and work out its volume
• measure the thickness of a sheet of paper that makes up this book
• measure the length of a journey (for example, on a map) that is not straight.
Now discuss how you would work out the density of:
• a regular-shaped solid
• an irregular-shaped solid
• a liquid.
Discussion questions
Figure 1.1: Cubit rod. 1 You cannot always depend on your eyes to
judge lengths. Look at Figure 1.3 and decide
The Ancient Egyptians were experts at using very which line is longer? Check by using a ruler.
simple tools like the cubit rod. This enabled them
to build their pyramids accurately. Eratosthenes,
a brilliant scientist who lived in Egypt in about
300 BCE, showed the same care and attention to
detail. This allowed him to work out that the Earth
Figure 1.3: Which line is longer?
has a circumference of 40000 km (Figure 1.2).
In contrast, there are many recent examples where 2 Eratosthenes may have hired a man to pace
incorrect measurements have led to problems. the distance between Alexandria and Syene
Although the Hubble Space Telescope had the most (present-day Aswan) to calculate the Earth's
precisely shaped mirror ever made, the original circumference. People have different stride
images it produced were not as clear as expected. lengths so some people take longer steps than
Tiny mistakes in measuring meant that it had the others. Discuss the possible ways that anyone
wrong shape and it took a lot of effort to account with any stride length could have measured
for these errors. the distance between these towns accurately.
2
1 Making measurements
KEY WORDS
volume: the space occupied by an object
meniscus: curved upper surface of a liquid
displace: moving something to another place so
water is moved out of the way (upwards) when an
object is lowered into it
immerse: to cover something in a fluid (usually
water) so that the object is submerged
1.2 Density
Our eyes can deceive us. When we look at an object,
we can judge its volume. However, we can only guess its
Figure 1.7: Measuring volume by displacement.
mass. We may guess incorrectly, because we misjudge
the density. You may offer to carry someone’s bag, only
to discover that it contains heavy books. A large box of
Quantity Units chocolates may have a mass of only 200 g.
length metre (m) The mass of an object is the quantity (amount) of matter
1 decimetre (dm) = 0.1m it is made of. Mass is measured in kilograms. But density
is a property of a material. It tells us how concentrated
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 m its mass is. You will learn more about the meaning of
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 m mass and how it differs from weight in Chapter 3.
1 micrometre (pm) = 0.000001 m In everyday speech, we might say that lead is heavier than
1 kilometre (km) = 1000 m wood. We mean that, given equal volumes of lead and
wood, the lead is heavier. In scientific terms, the density
volume cubic metre (m3)
of lead is greater than the density of wood. So we define
1 cubic centimetre (cm3) = 0.000001 m3 density as shown, in words and as an equation.
1 cubic decimetre (dm3) = 0.001 m3
Density is the mass per unit volume for a substance.
Table 1.1: Some units of length and volume in the SI system.
Questions
1 The volume of a piece of wood which floats in water
can be measured as shown in Figure 1.8.
a Write a paragraph to describe the procedure.
b State the volume of the wood.
KEY WORDS
mass: the quantity of matter a body is composed
of; mass causes the object to resist changes in
its motion and causes it to have a gravitational
attraction for other objects
density: the ratio of mass to volume for a
substance
weight: the downward force of gravity that acts
on an object because of its mass
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Questions
3 A brick is shown in Figure 1.9. It has a mass of
2.8 kg.
a What looks like 21 individual rings around When liquids mix, it is usually because dhe liquid dissolves
the girl’s neck is actually 21 turns of a coil of in the other. For example, orange squash is a concentrated
brass. Each turn has a circumference of 40 cm. syrup that is diluted by dissolving it in water.
Calculate (in cm) the total length of brass used
to make the girl’s neck ring.
b The coil has a height of 12 cm and the coil has
21 turns. Calculate the radius of the brass in cm.
c If the brass coil is unwound from the girl’s neck
and straightened out, it would be a long, thin,
cylinder. Calculate the volume of this cylinder
in cm3. The volume of a cylinder is given by the
=
equation V nr2 h, where
r = radius and h = height.
d Calculate the mass of brass used to make
the neck ring and express your answer in kg.
=
The density of brass 8.73 g/cm3.
ACTIVITY 1.1
CONTINUED REFLECTION
Finding the density of an irregularly shaped solid Write down one thing that you did really well in
Before you start, make a copy of your previous this activity.
worksheet and save it under a new name. Some of Write down one thing that you will try to do better
what you included in the previous worksheet can next time. Howwill you do this?
be kept and some will need to be edited.
In pairs, create a worksheet for finding the density
of an irregularly shaped solid object using a mass
balance, a measuring cylinder, some thread, a pair
of scissors and a eureka can (if you have access to
1.3 Measuring time
one). Your method explaining how to measure the The athletics coach in Figure 1 .14 is using his stopwatch
mass and how to calculate the density should be to time a sprinter. For a sprinter, a fraction of a
the same. However, you should: second (perhaps just 0.01 s) can make all the difference
• explain how to measure volume by displacement between winning and coming second or third. It is
different in a marathon, where the race lasts for more than
• say something about choosing a suitably sized two hours and the runners are timed to the nearest second.
measuring cylinder
• change your previous table
You could include an optional task to work out
the density of an irregularly shaped solid object
that is less dense than water. Finding its mass
and calculating the density is straightforward. The
challenging part is explaining how to work out the
volume of an object that floats.
Design a flowchart or decision-tree (optional)
Design a flowchart or decision-tree for use by
anyone who wants to work out the density of
any liquid or any solid object. Ensure that your
flowchart includes enough information so that
someone could take the measurements. Ask your
partner or someone else who has completed the
first two parts to check and correct your flowchart. Figure 1.14: An athletics coach uses a stopwatch to time a
hurdler, who can then learn whether she has improved.
ACTIVITY 1.2
KEY WORDS
plumb bob: a mass (usually lead) hanging from a
string to define a vertical line
oscillation: a repetitive motion or vibration
period: the time for one complete oscillation or
wave; the time it takes an object to return to its
Figure 1.16: A digital clock started when the gun fired and
stopped 9.58 s later when Usain Bolt crossed the finishing
original position
line to win the 100 m at the 2009 World Championships in
world record time.
1 Making measurements
Table 1.4
ACTIVITY 1.3
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
• define what an oscillation means (so that a student knows when to start and stop the stopwatch)
• explain why we take the time for 10 or 20 oscillations when we only need the time for one oscillation
• provide a labelled diagram of the assembled apparatus (not just a list of equipment) so that students
know how to put the equipment together
• a method (step-by-step instructions).
Swap copies of your worksheet with a classmate. Write down suggestions for any improvements on the worksheet
you receive before returning it to its owner. Note down any improvements if you have a class discussion.
PROJECT
In groups of three or four, produce a podcast (no more • Explain how a submarine or scuba diver moves up
than five minutes long) on one of the following options. and down in the water column (or perhaps explain
how a Cartesian diver demonstration works).
Option 1: Can we build on what we have learned
about density? • Explain how differences in fluid density can
lead to convection (something you will meet in
This is opportunity to revise what you have learned Chapter 11). You might want to go on to discuss
about density and then consolidate that knowledge how this relates to ocean currents or wind.
and understanding by applying it to one of the two
examples below. Option 2: What was the solution to the
longitude problem?
• You must explain how density is calculated,
including the equation. A clock based on a pendulum is impractical on the
moving deck of a (sailing) ship but knowing the time
• You should describe how to measure the mass is important for navigation as this provides your
and volume of both regular and irregular
longitude on a spinning Earth. Lines of longitude
shaped objects.
are the vertical lines on a map. When you move east
• You could describe how to work out the density or west you are changing your longitude; move far
of an object that can float. enough and you change time zone.
1 RSS Titanic • You must start with a short description of the
It was claimed that the RSS Titanic was unsinkable. longitude problem.
However the ship sank in 1912 on its first voyage. • You could describe the various suggested
• You must explain why a ship can float despite solutions to the longitude problem.
being made of material that is denser than water. • You could describe the final solution to the
• You should explain why a ship can sink, in terms longitude problem. For this, you would need to
of changes in density. look up John Harrison and his marine chronometer.
• Do some research to find out about bulkheads Option 3: How did the Ancient Egyptians build
in ships: what are they and what are they for?
their pyramids so accurately?
Why did the RSS Titanic sink despite being
fitted with bulkheads? The pyramids are an incredible feat of engineering,
even by today's standards. Using very basic tools, the
2 Submarines and scuba divers
Egyptians' pyramids are perfectly symmetrical.
You could describe one phenomenon that depends
on changes or differences in density. You could think
• You could start by introducing the dimensions
of the Giza pyramid and the number of blocks
of your own or select one of these:
required to build it.
1 Making measurements
CONTINUED
• You could explain how the Egyptians managed Option 5: How did Archimedes really work out
to get the sides of their pyramids lined up with that the goldsmith had replaced some of the
true north (without a compass) and how they got gold in Hiero's crown with silver?
the base of them absolutely level (flat) without a Archimedes was probably the most brilliant scientist
(spirit) level. of his era. He is supposed to have solved the
problem of how to work out the density of the crown
Option 4: How did Eratosthenes work out the while having a bath. Legend has it that he then ran
circumference of the Earth? into the streets shouting 'eureka' (I've solved it).
Eratosthenes was a brilliant scientist. He was told
that, at the same time every year (1 2 noon on
• You could start with a short biography of
Archimedes.
21 June), vertical columns in Syene (present day
Aswan) cast no shadows while columns where he • You could then describe the usual explanation
lived in Alexandria cast shadows. He used this of how he worked out that some gold had
to work out that the Earth is round. Eratosthenes been stolen. Silver is less dense than gold so
may have hired a man to measure out the distance the same mass of silver has a bigger volume
between Alexandria and Syene. and will displace a bigger volume of water.
However, it would be difficult to measure the
• You could start with a short biography of difference in volume, especially since bubbles
Eratosthenes. of air could cling to the submerged crown and
• You should explain why the observation with the there could be other sources of error. '
shadows shows that the Earth is a sphere. You
might want to include a diagram like Figure 1.2. • You could describe a better method, which
uses a mass balance. You would need to
• You should try and show how the man hired explain why, when the masses are equal, the
by Eratosthenes could have worked out his balance tips towards the denser mass when
stride-length (the distance of each step) and lowered into water.
kept count of his strides (steps). Think about his • Gold needs some silver impurity or it would
possible journey: did he follow a straight line; be too soft and would be easy to bend out
were there any hills in the way? Could this have of shape. Perhaps the goldsmith was falsely
introduced errors in measuring the distance accused? Perhaps this idea could form part of a
between Alexandria and Syene? piece of creative writing (some prose or a play)
• Finally, you could show how Eratosthenes did but be sure to include the physics.
the calculation.
REFLECTION
For your project, write down some thoughts making careless errors? Write down what
about what you feel went well and areas where concrete steps you need to take to improve for
you could improve. next time.
Give yourself a score out often for how much Give yourself a score out of ten for the
you know and understand the physics you quality of your presentation. Write down
included. If you scored ten, write down how what you thought was good about the other
you could have produced a more ambitious presentations or any effective presentation
project. If you scored less, do you need to ideas that you might use next time you present.
thoroughly review the material or are you
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
SUMMARY
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 Three metal cubes have the same volume but are made of different metals.
Each one is lowered into a beaker of water. Use the data in the table to
decide which one will cause the biggest rise in water level. [1]
A gold
B silver
C lead
D all will cause the same rise in water level
14
>
1 Making measurements
CONTINUED
2 Three metal cubes have the same mass but are made of different metals.
Each one is lowered into a beaker of water. Use the data in the table to
decide which one will cause the biggest rise in water level. [1]
A gold
B silver
C lead
D all will cause the same rise in water level
3 Astronauts land on another planet and measure the density of the atmosphere
on the planet surface. They measure the mass of a 500 cm3 conical flask
plus stopper as 457.23 g. After removing the air, the mass is 456.43 g (1 m3 =
1000 litres). What is the best estimate of the density of the air? [1]
A 0.000001 6 kg/m3 C 0.16kg/m3
B 0.0016 kg/m3 D 1.6 kg/m3
4 The graph shows the mass and volume of several different objects.
Volume
15
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
%
CONTINUED
a The student unwraps the string and holds it against a ruler with a centimetre
scale.
The photograph shows the first two ink marks on the string.
16
1 Making measurements
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
\fter studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
iny gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
17
> Chapter 2
Describing
motion
use the gradient of a distance-time graph to calculate speed and the gradient of a speed-time graph to
calculate acceleration.
2 Describing motion
.1 ITING STARTED
Work in pairs.
1 )n your own, quickly sketch a distance-time graph, perhaps based on your journey to school. Then ask your
I - irtner to write a description of it on a separate sheet of paper. Discuss each other's answers.
ik < Itch a speed-time graph for a sprinter running the 100 m in a time of 9.58 s. Label it with as much
information as you know. Show how your graph could be used to work out the sprinter's acceleration at
tin start of the race and the distance he travelled. Compare your sketch with your partner's and add to or
orrect your own work. Be prepared to share your thoughts with the class.
IL French writer Jules Verne wrote the book person. She held the world record for the fastest
I tour du monde en quatre-vingts j'ours (which solo circumnavigation, achieved on 7 February
n tans Around the World in Eighty Days) in 1873. 2005. However, she retired from competitive
In honour of the writer, the Jules Verne Trophy sailing to set up the Ellen MacArthur Foundation,
r prize for the fastest circumnavigation by a a charity that works with business and education
. h ht, now held by the yacht IDEC Sport, which to accelerate the transition to a circular economy.
lid it in just under 41 days in 2017. In 2002, the A circular economy would create less waste as
-American Steve Fossett was the first to make a solo things should be designed to last a long time and
ir :umnavigation in a balloon, without stopping, be easy to maintain, repair, reuse or recycle.
i if ing just over 13 days. In 2006, he flew the
ir< iin Atlantic GlobalFlyer (Figure 2.1), the first
f i - »d-wing aircraft to go around the world without
1
Discussion questions
1 What were the speeds of the six journeys
mentioned in the first paragraph? Assume that
the Earth's circumference is 40000 km.
I Igure 2.1: The Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer passes over
2 How could the fastest boat not win a round-
th Atlas Mountains.
the-world yacht race?
19
} CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
KEY EQUATION
„„
average speed
_
= total distance travelled Figure 2.3: Timing a cyclist over a fixed distance. Using
total time taken a stopwatch involves making judgements as to when the
cyclist passes the starting and finishing lines. This can
introduce an error into the measurements. An automatic
timing system might be better.
KEY WORDS
speed: the distance travelled by an object per Quantity SI unit Other units
unit of time
distance metre, m kilometre, km
average speed: the speed calculated from total
distance travelled divided by total time taken time second, s hour, h
20
>
2 Describing motion
Questions
1 a What was Usain Bolt’s average speed when he
achieved his 100 m world record of 9.58 s in
2009?
b How do you know that his top speed must have
been higher than this?
J A cheetah runs 100 m in 3.11 s. What is its speed?
I Information about three trains travelling between
stations is shown in Table 2.2.
21
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
In the second part of Figure 2.4, a piece of card, called Similarly, the crew of an aircraft might want to know
an interrupt card, is mounted on the trolley. As the how long it will take for their aircraft to travel between
trolley passes through the gate, the leading edge of two points on its flight path:
the interrupt card breaks the beam to start the timer.
When the trailing edge passes the gate, the beam is no time = distance^
speed
or ; = £v
longer broken and the timer stops. The faster the trolley
is moving, the shorter the time for which the beam
is broken. Given the length of the interrupt card, the WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2
trolley’s speed can be calculated. A spacecraft is orbiting the Earth at a steady speed
of 8.0 km/s (see Figure 2.5). How long will it take to
KEY WORDS complete a single orbit, a distance of 44 000 km?
22
2 Describing motion
(i me
_ 40 000 000 m
over a distance of 100 metres while some breeds of
gazelle, such as Thomson’s gazelle, have a top speed
of 25 m/s. This question considers how close the
8000 m/s
cheetah needs to be to catch the gazelle if they have
= 5000s both just reached top speed.
a How long does it take a cheetah to cover 100 m?
b What is the closing speed of the cheetah, that
Questions is, what is the difference in speed between the
4 An aircraft travels 900 metres in 3.0 seconds. cheetah and the gazelle?
What is its speed? c How far ahead of the cheetah would the gazelle
h A car travels 400 km in 3.5 hours. What is the speed need to be to escape? (Hint: you need the time
of the car in km/h and m/s? you calculated in a and the closing speed you
6 The Voyager spacecraft is moving at 17 000 m/s. calculated in b.)
I low far will it travel in one year? Give your answer d How long would it take the cheetah to catch the
in km. gazelle with the closing speed you calculated in
b and the distance apart you calculated in c?
ACTIVITY 2.1
Running with the wind behind you Plot your time for the 400 m (y-axis) against wind
In 2011, Justin Gatlin ran 100 metres in 9.45 seconds speed (x-axis). When you are running against the
(faster than Usain Bolt's world record by 0.13 seconds). wind on the straight section opposite the finish
However, he was pushed along by a 20 m/s tailwind line, subtract the wind speed from your normal
< pmerated by giant fans as part of a Japanese game
running speed. When you are running with the
how. A 100 m or 200 m sprint record can stand only if wind on the final straight section before the
.i tailwind does not exceed 2 m/s. Why does this rule
finish line, add the wind speed to your normal
not apply to longer events? running speed.
For example, if there is a wind speed of 1 m/s,
I irst, think about how you might approach your speed along the straight opposite the finish
this problem. line will be 9 m/s while it will be 1 1 m/s along the
The day Roger Bannister ran a mile in four minutes straight section before the finish line. Then you
(6 May 1 954) he almost decided not to race because need to add the times for each straight section
it was too windy. Imagine there is a tailwind along
to the 20 s for the bends. Repeat this, increasing
the final straight section of a 400 m track which the wind speed by 1 m/s each time, until you
•ipeeds you up, and a headwind on the opposite reach 10 m/s.
section which slows you down. Why do the 2 Could you have reached the answer without
effects of the tailwind and headwind not cancel out? plotting a graph?
(Hint: you need to think about the time it would take
3 Discuss whether it is realistic to add or subtract
you to run the straight sections.)
the wind speed to your normal running speed.
1 Imagine that you are a 400 m runner who can run 4 Design an experiment to test how wind speed
the distance in 40 s (a new world record) at the affects running speed. You might need to
same average speed of 1 0 m/s. Assume that the include equipment that you do not have access
400 m track is equally divided so that the straight to (such as the giant fans used on the Japanese
sections and bends are each 100 m long. game show).
23
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
2.2 Distance-time graphs Figure 2.6a shows abrupt (instant) changes in speed
between A, B and C. It would not be a very comfortable
You can describe how something moves in words, ride for the passengers! Instead of abrupt changes in
‘The coach drove away from the bus stop. It travelled at speed, the speed would change more slowly in the real
a steady speed along the main road, leaving town. After world and there would be smooth curves joining the
five minutes, it reached the highway, where it was able to sections (Figure 2.6b). The increasing gradient of the
speed up. After ten minutes, it was forced to stop because upward-sloping curve between A and B would show
of traffic.’ that the coach was speeding up (accelerating) and the
decreasing gradient of the curve between B and C would
We can show the same information in the form of a show that the coach was slowing down (decelerating).
distance-time graph, as shown in Figure 2.6a. This graph However, we will only look at graphs with angled edges
is in three sections, corresponding to the three sections of as in Figure 2.6a.
the coach’s journey.
Questions
9 A car pulled away from the lights and travelled at a
steady speed along an empty road. After 8 minutes
it joined a main road, where it travelled at about
twice the original speed for 12 minutes. The car then
met a traffic jam and had to quickly slow down and
stop. The traffic cleared after 5 minutes but then the
car travelled slowly, at about half the original speed.
Sketch a distance-time graph to show the car’s
journey.
1 0 Figure 2.7 shows the distance-time graph for a
woman running a mountain marathon.
24
>
2 Describing motion
2.3 Understanding
Express trains, slow buses
An express train is capable of reaching high speeds, acceleration
perhaps more than 300 km/h. However, when it sets off Some cars, particularly high-performance ones, are
on its journey, it may take several minutes to reach this advertised according to how rapidly they can accelerate.
top speed. Then it takes a long time to slow down when An advert may claim that a car goes ‘from 0 to 100 km/h in
it approaches its destination. The French TGV trains
5 s’. This means that, if the car accelerates at a steady rate,
( Figure 2.8) run on lines that are reserved solely for their
it reaches 20 km/h after 1 s, 40 km/h after 2 s, and so on.
operation, so that their high-speed journeys are not We could say that it speeds up by 20 km/h every second.
disrupted by slower, local trains. In other words, its acceleration is 20 km/h per second.
A bus journey is full of accelerations and decelerations. So, we say that an object accelerates if its speed increases.
I ‘he bus accelerates away from the stop. Ideally, the driver Its acceleration tells us the rate at which its speed is
hopes to travel at a steady speed until the next stop. A changing, that is, the change in speed per unit time.
speed means that you can sit comfortably in your
Then there is a rapid deceleration as the bus slows to When an object slows down, its speed is also changing.
halt. A lot of accelerating and decelerating means that We say that it is decelerating. Instead of an acceleration,
you are likely to be thrown about as the bus changes speed. it has a deceleration.
1'he gentle acceleration of an express train will barely
disturb the drink in your cup. The bus’s rapid accelerations
and decelerations would make it impossible to avoid Speed and velocity, vectors
tpilling the drink (Figure 2.9).
and scalars
In physics, the words ‘speed’ and ‘velocity’ have different
meanings, although they are closely related: velocity is
an object’s speed in a particular stated direction. So, we
could say that an aircraft has a speed of 200 m/s but a
velocity of 200 m/s due north. We must give the direction
of the velocity or the information is incomplete.
Velocity is an example of a vector quantity. Vectors have
both magnitude (size) and direction. Another example
of a vector is weight - your weight is a force that acts
downwards, towards the centre of the Earth.
Figure 2.8: France's high-speed trains, the TGVs (Trains a
Speed is an example of a scalar quantity. Scalars only
C <rande Vitesse), run on dedicated tracks. Their speed has
have magnitude. Temperature is an example of another
made it possible to travel 600 km from Marseille in the south
l<> Paris in the north, attend a meeting, and return home
scalar quantity.
again within a single day. You will learn more about vectors and scalars in Chapter 3.
25
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
26
2 Describing motion
i Arun gets a lift to school in his mother’s car. 14 a Copy Table 2.3 and sketch the motion graphs
The traffic is heavy so the average speed for the for each motion described.
journey is 40 km/h. How many minutes does it
take Arun to get to school? Motion of Distance-time Speed-time
b Sofia leaves home at the same time as Arun body graph graph
but she walks the 0.3 km to Hometown station,
waits 3 minutes (0.05 hour) for the train, travels at rest
on the train to Schooltown station (journey
distance 22 km) and walks the 0.7 km from moving at
Schooltown station to the school. The train constant speed
averages 88 km/h and Sofia walks at 5 km/h.
How many minutes does it take Sofia to get to constant
school? acceleration
(speeding up)
c How many minutes shorter is Sofia’s journey
time than Arun’s?
constant
d Draw a speed-time graph for their journeys deceleration
on the same axes but assume that any (slowing down)
change in speed is instant (do not show the
acceleration). Table 2.3
1 ' Look at the speed-time graph in Figure 2.13.
b Copy Table 2.4 and sketch the speed-time
graphs for each acceleration described.
60
50 Motion of constant increasing decreasing
|40
'
body acceleration acceleration acderation
®
<D
30 accelerating
CL
on 20 decelerating
10 Table 2.4
0
27
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Step 1: Distance travelled is the same as the shaded You travel 150 metres.
area under the graph. The shape is a triangle
with a height of 30 m/s and base of 10 s.
28
>
2 Describing motion
Question
1 i Draw a speed-time graph to show a car that accelerates uniformly from 6 m/s for 5 s then travels at a steady
speed of 12 m/s for 5 s.
I> On your graph, shade the area that shows the distance travelled by the car in 10 s.
i Calculate the distance travelled in this time.
ACTIVITY 2.2
I he 4 x 1 00 metre relay
II" purpose of this activity is to apply what you have learned about motion (and particularly sketching
।hh id-time graphs) to a real problem. If you get the chance to take this activity out onto a running track, you
ill need to take time and distance measurements (something you learned about in Chapter 1).
ir ess in a 4 x 100m relay race depends both on the speed of the runners and effective baton exchange
I " tween the runners. The baton must pass between runners within a 30 m changeover (or passing) zone,
v /hich includes a 10 m acceleration (or fly) zone. Figure 2.17 shows the first of these three passing zones.
29 y
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
ideal exchange 1 In what hand will runners receive and carry the
point for baton baton on subsequent legs?
2 What are the advantages of passing the baton
to the opposite hand?
Ideally, during the baton exchange the speeds
of the runners should be the same. To achieve
this the outgoing runner starts his run when the
incoming runner reaches a check mark.
3 How would you work out where to place the
check mark? (Hint: it might help if you sketch
speed-time graphs on the same axes for both
runners, starting when the runner receiving the
baton starts running.) What other information
would you need to make this accurate?
4 Even at Olympic finals teams can be disqualified
(stopped from taking part) if they drop the baton
or pass it outside of the changeover zone. Why
does this happen so often?
Figure 2.17: The first bend of a 400m athletics track.
5 Imagine you are the school's athletics coach.
Table 2.5 lists the times for runners who often
Each athlete actually sprints for more than 100 m,
compete in the senior 4 * 100 m relay.
as shown in Table 2.5. By planning for the baton to
exchange between runners at the beginning or end Use this information to select your team and
of the changeover box, you can adjust the distance decide which leg each runner should run and
each runner runs. You might have a slightly shorter enter their names on the team sheet. Do you
distance for a 60 m sprinter and a lengthened have a strategy for deciding which athlete
distance for a 100 m runner who also runs 200 m, runs which leg? What other information might
which also makes them used to running bends. you want to gather before making a decision?
Usually, each runner keeps the baton in the same For example, Sajjan suggests that he is the best
hand and passes it to the opposite hand of the starter. Some athletes are better at running
next runner to exchange the baton. Usually, the first bends. Some are better at passing or receiving
runner carries the baton in their right hand. the baton.
30 )
2 Describing motion
CONTINUED
6 Collect data from your own group. Use this to select a 4 x 100 m team and decide who should run each leg.
Copy and complete this team sheet.
Team sheet
Leg Typical distance actually run / m Athlete name 100 m personal best
1 105
2 125
3 125
4 120
Table 2.6
31
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Question
1 6 Table 2.8 shows information about a train journey.
Alternatively, because there are two velocities, we
Distance Time taken /
=
could use two symbols: u initial velocity and v = final
Station velocity. Now we can write the equation for acceleration
travelled/ km minutes like this:
Hornby 0 0
Kirby Lonsdale 10 30
Ingleton 20 45 The advantage of this equation is that if the final velocity
is less than the initial velocity, the answer is negative.
Dolphinholme 46 60
This tells you that the acceleration is negative (i.e. that
Galgate 56 80 the object is decelerating).
Table 2.8 In the example of the express train, we have initial
velocity u = 0 km/h, final velocity v = 300 km/h and time
Use the data in Table 2.8 to plot a distance-time taken t = 300 s.
graph for the train. Find the train’s average speed
between Kirby Lonsdale and Dolphinholme. Give
c
So,
. ..
acceleration a
-
= 300 km/h3000s km/h = 1, .km/h„ Fper
your answer in km/h.
second. Worked Example 2.7 uses the more standard
velocity units of m/s.
32
2 Describing motion
w ' h ked Example 2.7 will give a negative answer. If the • If the graph is sloping downwards, the object is
Hi' i aft was slowing down from 300 m/s to 100 m/s then
decelerating. The gradient of the graph is negative.
ii .i< celeration would be: So a deceleration is a negative acceleration.
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
The initial horizontal section shows that the The train’s acceleration down the hill is 0.20 m/s2.
train’s speed was constant (zero acceleration).
34
2 Describing motion
I'ri haps you can already explain why her acceleration the brakes are applied and until the car comes to a
i h. mges as she falls but it will be explained in stop is the braking distance. The stopping distance
• i ipter 3. Can you see when she opens her parachute = thinking distance + braking distance.
i l igure 2.20? Recalling how to work out distance on
A car is travelling at 20 m/s when the driver sees a
peed time graph, can you work out how far she has hazard. She has a reaction time of 0.7 s and brings
I. illen when she opens her parachute? Can you work out her car to a stop 4.0 s after seeing the danger.
ih.it she lands 160 s after she starts her jump?
a Draw a speed-time graph to represent the car’s
motion during the 4.0 s described. Assume
that the deceleration (negative acceleration) is
Question constant.
JI A car driver has to do an emergency stop. This is b Use the graph to deduce (work out) the car’s
when the driver needs to stop the car in the shortest deceleration as it slows down.
possible stopping distance. There is a delay between c Use the graph to deduce how far the car travels
•teeing a hazard and applying the brakes. This is due during the 4.0 s described.
to the reaction time of the driver, sometimes called
the thinking time. The distance the car moves in this
time (when the car has not changed speed) is the
thinking distance. The distance the car moves once
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
ACTIVITY 2.3
Dot number Time since tape started / s Distance covered / mm Speed / m/s
0 0.0
5 0.1
10 0.2
15 13 0.325
20
25
30
Table 2.10
PROJECT
i >ur teacher will decide whether you will work on Part 2: Linking motion graphs to equations
y >ur own, in pairs or as part of a small group. Your of motion
। rik is to plan a three-part revision lesson on the
Question for your classmates to answer: 'A body
material in this chapter for the rest of your class,
moving at 2 m/s accelerates for 2 seconds until
। .it t icularly the link between motion graphs and the it reaches a speed of 4 m/s. Show that the body
ju.itions of motion. Write down a plan to show travels a distance of 6 m and accelerates at 1 m/s2.'
/h it you would do and what resources you would
u If you have time, you can produce and teach You need your classmates to get the same answer
ilr lesson to small groups of your classmates or the for the question you produce using two different
h He of your class. The following points will help methods.
i as you plan the revision lesson.
Method 1: Use the relevant equations (for
• You need to be able to answer questions on acceleration and distance)
motion graphs and equations of motion so that Some of your classmates will get the distance wrong
you can then use them as a basis to write your because they do not use the average speed in the
own own questions. equation for distance.
• You need to produce model answers for your Method 2: Sketch the motion graph
questions or come up with a better way of Your classmates should use the gradient of the
getting the ideas across.
graph to find the acceleration and the area under
• Insist that your classmates show their working. the curve to find the distance. However, some of
your classmates will sketch the motion from the
• You need to label what parts of your questions origin (instead of from 2 m/s) and will work out
ire supplementary. the area of a triangle (instead of a triangle plus a
। k i are some suggested questions which you can square) so will get a distance travelled of 2 metres.
Uw In your plan for the lesson: Others will measure the horizontal and vertical
distances with a ruler to work out the gradient
Part 1: Howto interpret motion graphs instead of using the scale on the axes to work out
u .tion for your classmates to answer: 'Copy and the changes in the speed and time to work out
nplete the table by stating what feature of the the gradient.
nr lion graph can be used to obtain the variable You need to come up with similar questions
I I in the left-hand column. The first cell has (different numbers) and their model answers.
I' n done for you.' Perhaps try your question on a few of your friends
to check that it is clear and to pick up common
Distance-time Speed-time mistakes. You could provide your question and a
graph graph wrong solution and ask other members of your class
to spot and correct the mistakes.
read off the
di.tance vertical axis Part 3: Putting learning into practice
t»| >ead Questions for your classmates to answer:
deration Bloodhound LSR is being developed to achieve a
new land speed record of 1000mph. The vehicle
might want to suggest that your classmates will be timed over a 'measured mile' half-way down
I nir code the table in some way. a 12 mile long salt pan in South Africa.
। you think of a better way of getting information
i • If Bloodhound achieves WOOmph, how long
l m motion graphs? would it take to complete the 'measured mile'?
37
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
Figure 2.22: Bloodhound LSR during a practice run on You could introduce the question with a short video
the Hekskeenpan in South Africa. clip about the vehicle. Adapt the questions above
and produce a model answer so that your peers
can check and correct their solutions. For example,
Sketch a speed-time graph for its journey.
you could flip the question by telling your peers
Label it with significant speeds and times.
Assume that Bloodhound accelerates uniformly
the maximum acceleration and deceleration of the
until it reaches the 'measured mile' and then vehicle and get them to work out the minimum
decelerates uniformly so that it comes to rest distance the 'track' needs to be, or you could
12 miles from the start (and before the end of change the data while keeping it realistic^
the salt pan).
SUMMARY
38
>
2 Describing motion
AM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 this graph for questions 1 and 2.
< \ snail takes part in a snail race. The snail completes the 180 cm course in
0 minutes. What is the approximate average speed of the snail? [1]
A 0.43 m/s B 26m/s C 0.26 m/s D 0.0043 m/s
1 I he velocity-time graph shows the performance of a Formula 1® racing car as
itaccelerates from rest for 7.33 seconds and then brakes, coming to a stop in
.69 seconds. It covers a distance of 520 metres.
39
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> CAMBRIDGE 1GCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
5 The table shows Usain Bolt’s split times from his world record 100 m run in
Berlin in 2009. Each split time is for a 10 m section of the 100 m distance.
The time for the first 10 m includes his reaction time of 0.146 s before he left
his blocks.
Section / m
Time / s
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
1.89 0.99 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.83
£
o
co 90-1 0
COMMAND WORDS
a Calculate the time that Usain Bolt takes to run the first 10 metres from calculate: work out
the moment he starts moving. [1 ] from given facts,
b Calculate Usain Bolt’s average speed over the first 10 metres from the figures or information
moment he starts moving. [2] explain: set out
c Calculate Usain Bolt’s maximum speed over the first 10 metres. purposes or
Ignore his reaction time and assume his acceleration is constant. [2] reasons; make
the relationships
d Calculate Usain Bolt’s acceleration over the first 10 metres. between things
Ignore his reaction time and assume his acceleration is constant. [2] evident; provide
e Calculate Usain Bolt’s top speed in the race. Show your working. [2] why and/or how and
support with relevant
[Total: 8] evidence
6 An aircraft happened to be flying near a volcano when it erupted. The co-pilot
took some video footage. He handed the footage over to scientists for analysis.
The scientists spotted a huge boulder that was moving at a constant speed
horizontally (sideways) in the first frame and falling in subsequent frames of the
video. They wanted to work out how far the ash and rock would spread.
a Plot a graph of the position of the boulder at intervals of 5 seconds.
Plot the vertical height of the boulder (vertical axis) against the
horizontal distance travelled (horizontal axis). [3]
Horizontal distance
Time / s Vertical height / m
travelled / m
0 0 4420
5 525 4292
10 1050 3924
15 1580 3311
20 2100 2453
25 2630 1349
30 3150 0
40
2 Describing motion
[Total: 10]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
fter studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
>y gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
I can
See Needs Almost Confident
Topic... more work there to move on
Work out speed from distance travelled and time taken. 2.1
Work out average speed from total distance travelled
and total time taken.
2.1
> Chapter 3
Forces
and motion
IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:
discover the differences between mass and weight
describe the ways in which a resultant force may change the motion of a body
find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line
find out about the effect of friction (or air resistance or drag) on a moving object
define what a force is, understand the concepts of momentum and impulse and apply the principle of
the conservation of momentum
understand the difference between scalars and vectors and learn how to determine the resultant of two
vectors acting at right angles to each other.
3 Forces and motion
.1 ITING STARTED
Ir.insport systems would be much more efficient if attract) pulls the train from the front while magnetic
h 1
energy was wasted working against friction or repulsion pushes it from behind. The trains will travel
.»ir resistance. Hyperloop One promises to get rid through tubes with most of the air removed using
• I both. Elon Musk proposed it on 12 August 2013 pumps. This will allow them to travel at Mach 7 (that
i । faster alternative to air travel. It combines two is, seven times the speed of sound at sea level). This is
• -isting technologies - maglev (magnetic levitation) about 2000m/s, much faster than supersonic aircraft.
»nd vactrain (vacuum tube train). Maglev trains use In 2016, Hyperloop One launched its Hyperloop One
magnetic repulsion (like poles repel) to make the train Global Challenge and selected five countries for the
ll< ».it, which eliminates friction. A linear motor then development of the hyperloop networks: US, UK,
.!■ < elerates the train: magnetic attraction (unlike poles Canada, Mexico, and India.
.f r
I Iflure 3.2a: The idea of passengers travelling through a tube is not new. Passengers taking a ride in the first pneumatic
I ।isenger railway in the US, erected at the Exhibition of the American Institute at the Amory, New York City, in 1867.
bl A Hyperloop tube on display during the first test of the propulsion system at the Hyperloop One Test and Safety site
nil May 2016 in Las Vegas, Nevada.
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
Discussion questions
1 Describe the ways in which friction will be reduced in Hyperloop One.
2 Describe any potential dangers of travelling in Hyperloop One.
44
3 Forces and motion
I In ’ ur shown in Figure 3.5 is moving rapidly. The is no motion of one surface against another, there is no
••I' in inc
i
is providing a force to accelerate it forwards, but
is another force acting, which tends to slow down
increase in thermal energy. If you are running quickly on
concrete and fall over you may notice that the graze on
Uli < n. This is air resistance, a form of friction caused your knee feels hot. This is because your kinetic energy
I n in object moves through the air. (Friction is also transfers into thermal energy due to the solid friction
lit d drag, especially for motion through liquids.) The between your skin and concrete. A ‘shooting star’ is a
hi Ii .igs on the object, producing a force that acts in the meteor (lump of rock that bums up in our atmosphere).
tile direction to the object’s motion.
।
It shows that air resistance and drag lead to the transfer
of kinetic energy to thermal energy.
air resistance
KEY WORDS
45
>
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
along the road. The arrow in the diagram shows the force To summarise, we have seen several things about forces:
pushing the car forwards. If the driver wants to get away
from the lights more quickly, he can press harder on the
• They can be represented by arrows. A force has a
direction, shown by the direction of the arrow.
accelerator. The forward force is then bigger, and the
car’s acceleration will be greater. • A force can make an object change speed. A
forward force makes it speed up (accelerate), while a
backward force makes it slow down (decelerate).
• A force can change the direction in which an object
is moving.
This can be summarised by saying that a body will
remain at rest or will move at a constant speed in a
straight line unless acted upon by a resultant force.
There are alternative ways of saying the same thing.
For example, a resultant force will change the speed
or direction of a body. However, the problem with this
statement is that some people forget to include starting
and stopping as changes in speed. Another alternative
is to say that a resultant force will change the velocity
of a body, but as velocity is a vector, a resultant force
can change the direction as well as the speed of a body.
A resultant force can change both speed and direction at
the same time.
Question
1 Figure 3.7 shows three objects that are moving.
A force acts on each object. For each, say how its
movement will change.
46
3 Forces and motion
Question
2 The forces acting on three objects are shown in
Figure 3.9.
। WORDS
'• ’Itant force the single force that has the same Figure 3.10: The increasing speed of a falling ball is
If t on a body as two or more forces
H
captured in this multi-flash image.
47
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
48
>
3 Forces and motion
Questions
> I 1st the differences between mass and weight.
4 \ bag of sugar has a mass of 1 kg so its weight on Earth is 10 N. What can you say about the bag’s mass and its
w eight if you take it:
a to the Moon, where gravity is weaker than on Earth?
b to Jupiter, where gravity is stronger?
I <i Look at Table 3.1. Calculate the missing values i-v. Show your method.
Table 3.1
I hi many objects, the force of air resistance can affect and so the forces on the parachutist are balanced.
lln li acceleration.
Figure 3.12c shows how the parachutist’s speed changes
I'm achutists make use of air resistance. A free-fall during a fall.
put u hutist (Figure 3.12a) jumps out of an aircraft and
hi * (crates downwards. Figure 3.12b shows the forces on
। When the graph is horizontal, speed is constant and
h i' n achutist at different points in his fall. Notice that forces are balanced. When the graph is sloping, speed is
49
>
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
changing. The parachutist is accelerating or decelerating, In Figure 3.13b, an aircraft ‘banks’ (tilts) to change
and forces are unbalanced. direction. The lift force on its wings provides the
necessary force.
In Figure 3.13c, the Moon is held in its orbit around the
Earth by the pull of the Earth’s gravity.
Question
6 Look at the speed-time graph in Figure 3.12c. Find
a point at which the graph is sloping upwards.
a Is the parachutist accelerating or decelerating?
b Which of the two forces acting on the parachutist
is greater when the graph is sloping upwards?
c Explain the shape of the graph after the
parachute is opened.
so y
3 Forces and motion
51
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
line at a tangent to the circle, so long as the table is There is another factor that affects the car’s acceleration.
perfectly horizontal and there is no spin on the ball. If Suppose the driver fills the boot with a lot of heavy boxes
the Sun suddenly stopped existing the Earth would travel and then collects several children from college. He will
in a straight line in the direction that it was moving the notice the difference when he moves away from the traffic
instant the Sun disappeared. lights. The car will not accelerate so readily, because its
mass has increased. Similarly, when he applies the brakes,
Questions it will not decelerate as readily as before. The mass of
the car affects how easily it can accelerate or decelerate.
7 Draw a diagram (seen from above) to show the Drivers learn to take account of this.
forces acting on a car as it turns a comer.
The greater the mass of an object, the smaller the
8 What provides the force keeping the planets in orbit
acceleration it is given by a particular force.
round the Earth?
Throwing the hammer is an Olympic sport (Figure So, big (more massive) objects are harder to accelerate
9
3.15), where the thrower spins around inside a circle than small (less massive) ones. If we double the mass
while swinging a ‘hammer’. Throwers spin as fast of the object, its acceleration for a given force will be
as they can before releasing the hammer. Looking halved. We need to double the force to give it the same
down from above, sketch the path of the hammer acceleration.
moving in a circle followed by its path after it is This tells us what we mean by mass. It is the property of
released. an object that resists changes in its motion.
Force calculations
These relationships between force, mass and acceleration
can be combined into a single, very useful, equation:
KEY EQUATION
force = mass x acceleration
F —ma
52
3 Forces and motion
Questions
1 0 I ,ook at Table 3.3. Calculate the missing values a-d. 11 a Calculate the weight of a brick that has a mass
Show your working. of 2.4 kg.
b The same brick falls with an acceleration of
9.8 m/s2. Calculate the force on the brick.
c What can you say about your answers to parts a
and b?
12 An accelerometer is a device that can detect and
calculate acceleration. Calculate the acceleration of
a 0.15 kg mass that experiences a force of 10 N.
I 4>lc 3.3
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
If a raindrop hits a mosquito in mid-air, We can write the impulse equation like this:
the mosquito falls with the raindrop for a impulse of force = change of momentum
few centimetres and the mosquito's speed
increases from zero to 2.1 m/s in 1.5 x 10~3s. Impulse and momentum are both defined by equations:
If a raindrop hits a mosquito when it is on impulse = force x time for which it acts = FAr
a solid surface, such as a tree branch, the
change in momentum = Ap = A(mv) so
raindrop stops moving in 2 x 10-3s.
speed of raindrops = 10 m/s impulse = Fkt = A(wv)
mass of raindrops = up to 1 00 mg
mass of mosquito = 2 mg KEY WORDS
force that mosquito exoskeleton can survive
= 0.03 N
impulse: the change in an object's momentum, Ap,
or the force acting on an object multiplied by the
time for which the force acts (F x At)
momentum: the quantity mass x velocity, p = mv
54
3 Forces and motion
tin =
nu ilium mass x velocity f=~nT~
p = mv Knowing that Np = mv - mu, we can write the equation as:
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3 Forces and motion
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ACTIVITY 3.3
On your own, spend three minutes thinking carefully about the following activity and answer the questions.
Then spend three minutes sharing ideas about the activity with the person sitting next to you. Be prepared
to share your answers with the class.
PEER ASSESSMENT
Did the other group correctly and clearly:
• describe and explain what measurements to take?
• describe and explain what calculations to do?
Would you have been able to follow their method to produce reliable results?
Did the group include sensible safety precautions?
Provide constructive written and verbal feedback. As well as pointing out improvements, praise good
aspects of their work.
When you get your work returned to you, make improvements based on the feedback.
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3 Forces and motion
I il l' 3.4: Some scalar and vector quantities. Rules for vector addition
You can add two or more forces using the following
method. Simply keep adding arrows end-to-end.
Adding forces
• Draw arrows end-to-end. so that the end of one is
A hut happens if an object is acted on by two or more the start of the next.
i in i Figure 3.20a shows someone pushing a car.
I i iction opposes their pushing force. Because the forces
• Choose a scale that gives a large triangle.
<r acting in a straight line, it is simple to calculate • Join the start of the first arrow to the end of the last
arrow to find the resultant.
i la resultant force, provided we take into account the
In etions of the forces: Other vector quantities (for example, two velocities)
can be added in this way. Imagine that you set out to
h ultant force = 500N-350N swim across a fast-flowing river. You swim towards
the opposite bank, but the river’s velocity carries you
= 1 50 N to the right downstream. Your resultant velocity will be at an angle
’ hili that we must give the direction of the resultant to the bank.
Inn c, as well as its magnitude. The car will accelerate Airline pilots must understand vector addition. Aircraft
-
I .irds the right. fly at high speed, but the air they are moving through
is also moving fast. If they are to fly in a straight line
Ir lire 3.20b shows a more difficult situation. A firework
i'h ket is acted on by two forces. towards their destination, the pilot must take account of
the wind velocity (both its speed and direction).
• I'he thrust of its burning fuel pushes it towards
the right. Once you have mastered drawing a vector triangle, you
could use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the length of the
• 1 ts weight acts vertically downwards. resultant vector and trigonometry to find the angle.
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Figure 3.21 shows what your vector triangle should The resultant force acting on the rocket is 5.0 N
look like. acting at 37° below the horizontal. The rocket will be
given an acceleration in this direction.
Notice that both methods give the same answer.
Question
17 You are rowing across the Lembeh Strait at 1.5 m/s. b Use a vector triangle or calculate your resultant
a Calculate your velocity if you row against a velocity if you travel at 4 m/s in a speedboat
current of 0.2 m/s? due south and a current pushes you towards
the east at 3 m/s. Give both your speed and
direction.
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3 Forces and motion
• HQJECT
Hyr il op One was described at the beginning of The judgement
B h ipter. If Hyperloop One is successful, trains
Write the transcript from the trial (what was said and
*MaIni ivol at high speed along tubes. It will use
-tic repulsion between two unlike magnetic
who said it). This might include statements by the
prosecutor, defence lawyer, expert witnesses, and
I’"1' > lift trains off the floor of the tubes to the trial judge.
Bl inmate solid friction. By removing airfrom the
llllu , ie trains will push against less air resistance.
Optional task: promoting an efficient mass
Wl we often want to reduce friction there are transport system
«i" i tuations where friction is helpful or even
By reducing friction, Hyperloop One promises
ti.il. Later you will discover other examples more efficient use of energy. However, it requires
if ph .ics where something can be both helpful
1 h। irdous (for example, ionising radiation
the building of tubes for the trains to run inside,
which requires building materials and energy
I" 1
h.ipter23). for construction.
In" nne that there is a character called Friction who
Use the Internet to find out about efficient mass
L • I on charged with the crime of impeding the
transport systems (such as tram or subway systems
Bim dh running of the natural world. Evidence is for cities) that have a low carbon footprint. It could
i »11« < tod for and against him before his case goes
be an existing system or one that is proposed for
i Io ln.ll.
the future (such as Hyperloop One). To learn about
evidence for the prosecution the maglev technology in Hyperloop One, you
(•gainst fiction) could read Chapter 16 to discover why magnets
attract and repel.
N* m h at least one example that you have not
iy met in this chapter where it is helpful to Once you have found the most promising system,
•' i k
imagine that you are an environmental journalist
I- I solid friction or drag.
with a physics background. Write an article
evidence for the defence (of Friction) (maximum 500 words) in support of it, which urges
readers to pressure the government to adopt
M h at least one example of solid friction and
in the transport system you are proposing. As well
In ample of air resistance that is necessary
' as writing something that grabs the attention of
» I ” l| ful. For example, we need solid friction readers, you need to:
•
• i
’ <1 car tyres and the road. Without this friction
would not be able to change speed (or start • justify why you support the system you have
it l ip) or change direction in order to follow the chosen, based on physics
li i ind turns in the road. However, this friction
|i ’li' es heat and this leads to wasted energy.
• explain the relevant physics so that it can be
understood by the public
• include relevant images.
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SUMMARY
I
terationcaused by the pull of the Earth’s gravity is called the acceleration of free fall or the
ation due to gravity. It is given the symbol g and its value is 9.8 m/s2 close to the surface of the Earth.
iss of an object, measured in kilograms, tells you how much matter that object is composed of.
ight of an object, measured in newtons, is the gravitational force that acts on that object.
al velocity is the name for the maximum constant speed reached when the resultant force acting on an
becomes zero. It is often applied to parachutists when the upwards force of air resistance becomes equal
posite to weight.
bject moves in a circle, a force must be acting towards the centre of the path, perpendicular (at right
to the speed of the object.
ition in a circular path, a bigger force is required if the body is more massive, moving faster or moving in
:r circle.
- mass x acceleration, F = ma.
itum is the quantity mass x velocity, p = mv.
inciple of the conservation of momentum means that the total momentum after an interaction between
(for example, a collision) is the same as it was before the interaction.
pulse (of a force) can be defined as the change in an object’s momentum (mv - mu) or the force acting on
:ct multiplied by the time for which the force acts (Ft), so impulse = Fht.
62
3 Forces and motion
in ’014, Alan Eustace set the world record for the highest freefall parachute
I iimp (from a height of more than 41 km). As he fell towards the Earth, he
। .u hed a terminal velocity of almost 370 m/s. The air was very thin where he
I. ii ted his jump and became thicker the closer he got to the ground. What
li । p pened to his terminal velocity, before he opened his parachute? [1]
A it increased C it reduced but not to zero
11 it stayed the same D it reduced to zero
\ n object with a mass of 35 kg accelerates at 0.7 m/s2 to the right, as shown in
tin diagram.
X acceleration = 0.7 m/s2
70 N
mass = 35 kg
320 N
I here are four forces acting on the object. What are the values of the forces
Libelled T and T? [1]
A \ =70N; Y= 119.0 N C X= 320 N; y= 94.5 N
H =
\ 70N; T=94.5N D 2f=320N; Y= 119.0N
I hr diagram shows the forces during a tug of war competition. Team A has
total mass of 800 kg and pulls with a force of 1000 N to the left. Team B
hi ,i total mass of 700 kg and pulls with a force of 700 N to the right.
A . t rong rope joins them.
1000N 700 N
team A — team B
800 kg 700 kg
2.6 N 3.1 N
1.4N
1.8N 1.8N
2.6 N 2.6 N
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y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
^O^TINUED
5 An aircraft of mass 4000 kg produces a thrust of 10 kN. The aircraft needs
to travel at 35 m/s to take off.
a State the equation that links force, mass and acceleration. [1 ]
COMMAND WORDS
b Calculate the acceleration of the aircraft. [1 ]
c The aircraft starts from rest. Calculate the time it takes to become state: express in
airborne. [2] clear terms
d Sketch a speed-time graph for the aircraft from the moment it starts calculate: work out
until it takes off. Assume that its acceleration is constant. [2] from given facts,
e Calculate the minimum length of the runway required for this aircraft figures or information
to take off. [1 1
sketch: make a
f When it lands at the end of the flight, it travels on the ground (taxis) at simple freehand
a constant speed. Explain how this aircraft can accelerate even when it drawing showing the
is travelling at a constant speed. [1 ] key features, taking
[Total: 8] care over proportions
explain: set out
6 Scientists test the safety features of a car by crashing it into a large block purposes o.r
of concrete. reasons / make
the relationships
A crash test dummy sits in the driver's seat. A video camera records the
between things
crash. In one test, the car is travelling at 13 m/s and the dummy has a mass
evident / provide
of 83 kg.
why and / or how and
a State the equation that links momentum, mass and velocity. [1 ] support with relevant
b Calculate the momentum of the dummy. [1 ] evidence
c In another test, the momentum of the dummy changes by 1250 kg m/s
in a time of 0.17 s. Calculate the average force acting on the dummy
during this time. [2]
d These tests help to make our roads safer. Use ideas about momentum
to explain how seat belts and the crumple zones of a car help to reduce
injuries during a crash. [3]
[Total: 7]
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3 Forces and motion
'.ELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
un gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
Recall and use the equations for force and momentum. 3.4, 3.5
Define impulse and perform calculations by recalling
3.4
and using the associated equations.
Apply the principle of the conservation of momentum. 3.5
Define what a force is and recall and use the associated
3.4
equation.
Calculate, or draw a vector triangle to work out, the
resultant force when the forces do not act along the 3.6
same line.
> Chapter 4
Turning effects
apply the principle of moments when there is more than one moment on each side of a pivot.
4 Turning effects of forces
HUG STARTED
l| "lid 60 seconds thinking on your own, have 30 seconds of discussion with a partner and then be prepared
|| lim your answers to the following questions with the class. You might find it helpful to draw sketches.
1
। ilnin how the street performer
n|i Inn d in Figure 4.1 a appears
it h
it.ite (float in space above
pound) and the performer
tin wn in Figure 4.1b appears to
H I v lb' force of gravity.
Il i i lad fact that war creates opportunities counterweight swapped positions. Hint: Think
It n advances in technology. China invented the about the relative speeds of the two ends of
•'•■I >im het in the 5th century and it was an effective the beam. Draw a sketch if it helps.
|l»i i' weapon until the invention of gunpowder.
A n auchet is a catapult that has a swinging arm to 2 A trebuchet uses energy transfers as well as
turning forces. Can you think of other ideas
i '
• projectile (a thrown object). in physics that need more than one topic to
I lu> tn buchet is made from a long beam that pivots explain it?
in in axle. The attacking soldiers attach a sling
3 What do you think would have done more
•i nh lining the projectile to the end of the longer damage to the walls of Stirling Castle - a
M lion. They attach a counterweight to the shorter
I Io fire the trebuchet, the soldiers allow the projectile that is twice as massive or twice as
। mnterweight to fall which applies a turning force fast? (If you have already met the equation for
ii moment on the beam. Because the projectile
kinetic energy, see if you can work it out.)
I* luri her from the axle (or pivot), the projectile
Hu iv< much faster than the counterweight and
tl" ding at the end extends the effective length
il the beam, making the projectile move even beam
I • ilor. The trebuchet uses energy transfers as well
.
i lurning forces. The largest trebuchets had a
counter-
I metre beam, a 9000 kg counterweight and could
Inui a 140 kg stone block to a range of almost
I00 metres. Loup de Guerre (or Wolf of War) was
'hi biggest trebuchet ever built, by Edward I, who
i king of England in the late 13th century. He
i Tried the surrender of Scottish defenders so that
Ii" i ould use it against Stirling Castle.
I 'l’■cussion questions
1 Try explaining how a trebuchet works. Figure 4.2: Trebuchets are not a part of modern warfare.
Describe how the performance of the Here, an enthusiast uses his trebuchet to throw a pumpkin
trebuchet would change if the projectile and during a recent North American Pumpkin Launch.
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y CAMBRIDGE 1GCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Figure 4.3: Opening a door - how can the boy have a big
turning effect?
First of all, look for the pivot the fixed point about
-
which the door will turn. This is the hinge of the door.
To open the door, the person must push with as big a
force as possible, and as far as possible from the pivot
- at the other edge of the door. (That is why the door
handle is fitted there.) To have a big turning effect,
the person must push hard at right angles to the door.
Pushing at a different angle gives a smaller turning effect.
The quantity that tells us the turning effect of a force
about a pivot is its moment.
• The moment of a force is bigger if the force is bigger.
• The moment of a force is bigger if it acts further
from the pivot. Figure 4.4: Understanding moments can help in some
difficult tasks.
• The moment of a force is greatest if it acts at 90° to
the object it acts on.
Balancing a beam
KEY WORDS
Figure 4.5 shows a small child sitting on the left-hand end
turning effect: when a force causes an object to of a see-saw. Her weight causes the see-saw to tip down on
rotate or would make the object rotate if there the left. Her father presses down on the other end. If he
were no resistive forces can press with a force greater than her weight, the see-saw
will tip to the right and she will come up in the air.
pivot: the fixed point about which a lever turns;
also known as the fulcrum Now, suppose the father presses down closer to the pivot.
He will have to press with a greater force if the turning
moment: the turning effect of a force about a effect of his force is to overcome the turning effect of his
pivot, given by force xperpendicular distance daughter’s weight. If he presses at half the distance from
from the pivot the pivot, he will need to press with twice the force to
balance her weight.
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4 Turning effects of forces
।pii •> 4.5: Two forces are causing this see-saw to tip.
ii ir 1' -
weight causes it to tip to the left, while her father hinge trapdoor
1' . a force to tip it to the right. He can increase the Figure 4.6
in ; ffect of his force by increasing the force, or by
। Illi") down at a greater distance from the pivot. 3 Explain why somebody would use a spanner with a
longer handle if they needed to undo a tight bolt.
\ m ' .aw is an example of a beam, a long, rigid object 4 a Explain why a tree is more likely to be blown
'i'll pivoted at a point. The girl’s weight is making the over in a stronger wind.
I mi lip one way. The father’s push is making it tip the b Explain why a taller tree is more likely to be
><ili i Way. If the beam is to be balanced, the moments of blown over than a shorter tree.
lli. I wo forces must cancel each other out.
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In equilibrium Questions
In Figure 4.10, three forces are shown acting downwards. 9 A uniform metre ruler is balanced at its centre
There is also the weight of the see-saw itself, 200 N,
(Figure 4.13).
to consider, which also acts downwards, through its
midpoint. If these were the only forces acting, they
would make the see-saw accelerate downwards. Another 0.44 m
force acts to prevent this from happening. There is an
upward contact force where the see-saw sits on the pivot.
Figure 4.12 shows all five forces.
76 N
• us need design
। 1 1 that do to
I Awwn when the forces them change location
fall
on
structures not
or
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.16
with the loops for the spring balances about
IhmiHltude (size). For example, a building needs 5 cm from each end of the ruler. You are going
Bitty t .inding when wind blows against it with to move the load to different positions along
I dlllt". '(it strengths or from different directions. the ruler. Make sure that the ruler is horizontal
HKlduni should not bend or collapse when vehicles
1 1"" ll m. You will test whether there is a resultant
before you take each measurement by moving
the clamps holding one of the spring balances
Winn u nt on an object that is in equilibrium. You up or down its clamp-stand.
Willi I the moment of a force and the principle of
it', in this experiment. spring spring
balance A balance B ,.Q
S supported from supported from E
will need:
LI clamp stand clamp stand J
i metre ruler
H distance A distance B n
two 10 N spring balances
"1 of 100 g masses
two clamp-stands with clamps and loop A loop B
moveable
I h >sses at the 5 cm at the 95 cm
load of 9.8 N
mark mark
three cotton loops
Figure 4.16: Apparatus for investigation.
Utoty Take care not to drop the masses on
Bur iMt. 2 Hang the 9.8 N from the ruler so that distance
A = 10 cm and distance B = 80 cm.
" i ilnq started
1
• Mi.it is the moment of a force? Record all the values in a copy of the table below:
• Wl । it is the
principle of moments? Distance
from A / m fa/n fb/n fa + fb/n
• Whore would you expect the centre of gravity
t I " for a metre ruler? 0.1
CONTINUED
Questions 3 Measure the mass of the ruler and work out its
weight. Does this account for the difference in
1 Why did you have to make sure that the ruler
the last question?
was horizontal before each measurement was
made? 4 Instead of doing the experiment, it can be
solved mathematically by taking moments about
2 Calculate the mean of your (FA + FB) values.
either spring balance. For example, the force at
This should be more than the load of 9.81 N
spring balance A, FA, can be solved by taking
hanging from the ruler. Can you explain why?
moments about B (and taking into account of
the ruler to get a more accurate result).
ACTIVITY 4.2
Understanding the shadoof The shadoof has a counterweight at the short end
and a bucket at the long end of a beam. It takes as
The Ancient Egyptians used the shadoof to lift
much effort to move the bucket down as it does to
water and irrigate the land. It is still in use today
(see Figure 4.17). pull it up.
Unless your teacher gives you a time, spend
one minute thinking on your own, one minute of
discussion with your neighbour and then be prepared
to share your answers to question 1 with the class.
1 a What is the advantage of making it take as
much effort to push the bucket down as it
does to pull it up?
b Explain how the shadoof does this.
2 Draw a diagram of the shadoof and include the
pivot, the counterweight and the forces acting
on it. You could estimate the lengths of the
beam and assume that the counterweight has a
weight of 1 50 N.
Figure 4.17: A Sudanese man irrigates his land using a If you are given time and the equipment, make a
shadoof. working model.
74
4 Turning effects of forces
.
« »«. ii ll t isles such as tightrope walkers and high-wire table. The line of the glass’s weight is to the left of this
MliU'll n'ure 4.18) have developed the skill of remaining pivot, so it has an anticlockwise moment, which tends to
|mi .
upi i>< hl Io a high degree. They use items such as poles or
.ibi to help them maintain their balance. The idea of
Hwiiih nt < an help us to understand why some objects are
tip the glass back to its upright position.
In Figure 4.19c, the glass is tipped further. Its weight acts
to the right of the pivot, and has a clockwise moment,
(MW* hi Ie others are more likely to topple over.
which makes the glass tip right over.
Centre of gravity
In Figure 4.19, the weight of the glass is represented by
an arrow starting at a point inside the liquid. Why is this?
The reason is that the glass behaves as if all of its mass
were concentrated at this point, known as the centre of
gravity. The force of gravity acts on the mass of the glass
- each bit of the glass is pulled by the Earth’s gravity.
However, rather than drawing lots of weight arrows, one
for each bit of the glass, it is simpler to draw a single
arrow acting through the centre of gravity. (Because we
can think of the weight of the glass acting at this point,
it is sometimes known as the centre of gravity.)
9l«W» 4 18: This high-wire artiste is using a long pole to
M*'1 an hor stability on the wire. If she senses that her
|l< r 1 I illghtly too far to the left, she can redress the KEY WORDS
Ml* " by moving the pole to the right. Frequent, small
i its allow her to walk smoothly along the wire. stable an object that is unlikely to topple over,
often because it has a low centre of gravity and a
wide base
’ Im11 hiss can be knocked over easily - it is unstable.
1 1 1 "h I 19 shows what happens if the glass is tilted. unstable: an object that is likely to topple over,
often because it has a high centre of gravity and a
narrow base
centre of gravity: all the mass of an object could
be located here and the object would behave the
same (when ignoring any spin)
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Figure 4.20: The weight of an object acts through its centre of gravity. Symmetry can help to judge where the centre of
gravity lies. An object's weight can be considered to act through this point. Note that, for the table, its centre of gravity is in
the air below the table top.
Figure 4.21: Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly Safety: The pin and the scissors should be
shaped piece of card. The card hangs freely from the pin. handled with care to avoid cutting someone. Wear
The centre of gravity must lie on the line indicated by the eye protection if using a pin (as opposed to a thin
plumb-line hanging from the pin. Three lines are enough to metal rod). Ensure that the pin is not at eye height
find the centre of gravity. and is pointing away from the edge of the bench.
76
4 Turning effects of forces
PEER ASSESSMENT
• I । diet where the centre of gravity is located • three neatly drawn and closely intersecting
lines on their rectangular lamina (as this
in the shape you propose.
shows careful experimental technique)
• ( .in
• pivity
you suggest shapes where the centre of
would not be on the card?
• three closely intersecting lines on their
irregular shape
Method: Part 1 • correct answer to the Getting Started
th< centre of gravity of a rectangular sheet of
I H 1. 1 questions
i I I his is your lamina.
<i
• a clear and correct explanation of why the
I If., the hole punch to make three holes far centre of gravity is vertically below the pivot.
>| >nrt around the edge of the lamina. Finally, discuss anything that you can learn from
/ I l the pin horizontally in the clamp. each other.
1 Using one hole, hang the lamina from the
pin.
M<ike sure that it can swing freely. Questions
4 I Ling the string from the pin so that the weight
m.lkes it hang vertically. Mark two points on the 11 On a copy of the shapes below, mark the centre of
l imina along the length of the string. gravity for each with an X. Where possible, show lines
that helped you locate the centre of gravity.
K< ipeat steps 3 and 4 using the other two holes.
A I uy the lamina on the bench and, using a
ruler, draw lines joining each pair of points.
Where the lines cross is the centre of gravity
4 the lamina. It should be where the lines of
symmetry coincide but, if the three lines cross
• <actly at a point, you have done well!
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
PROJECT
The Italian Job You need to suggest what Croker's 'great idea'
The Italian Job was a film made in 1969. In this might have been to save the gold and get off the
film a gang steals gold worth $4 million in Turin, coach safely. You should work in groups of three.
northern Italy. As the gang escapes through Start by describing the problem using
Switzerland on a bus, the driver loses control. The correct scientific terms like 'pivot',
bus ends up with its rear half hanging over the 'centre of gravity', 'equilibrium',
edge of a vertical drop. Any attempt to reach the 'moment' and 'the principle of moments'.
gold at the back of the coach risks sending the Make a storyboard of your solution and
bus, the men and the gold crashing into the valley include it as part of a two-minute pitch
below. The film finishes with Croker saying: 'Hang for a sequel to the film.
on a minute lads, I've got a great idea'. The film is Select the best pitch (with correct or
available online but only the last five minutes are corrected physics) from three or four
important from a physics viewpoint. groups of three to present to the rest of
the class.
4 Turning effects of forces
IARY
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) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
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4 Turning effects of forces
ONTINUED
State two pieces of evidence that would tell you that a body is not in
equilibrium. [2]
pivot pivot
25 cm 3.75 N
3.75 N
pivot «— pivot
COMMAND WORDS
state: command
term not supplied
spring
calculate: work out
from given facts,
•i Write down the equation used to calculate the moment of a force. [1 ] figures or information
I alculate the moment of the 3.75 N force about the pivot when the explain: set out
arm is horizontal. [2] purposes or
< The arm is raised as shown in the diagram. reasons; make
the relationships
i Explain what has happened to the moment of the 3.75 N force
between things
about the pivot. [1 ]
evident; provide
ii Explain what has happened to the clockwise moment produced by why and/or how and
the spring. [1 ] support with relevant
[Total: 5] evidence
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
8 The diagrams show a windsurfer pulling up the sail of a sailboard. The sail
pivots where it joins with the board at point P.
a As the sail is pulled up from A to C, how does the force needed
The windsurfer and the sailboard shown in the diagram below are in
equilibrium.
The windsurfer weighs 900 N. The wind is blowing with a force of 300 N.
The windsurfer maintains equilibrium.
c Calculate how far to the right of the pivot the windsurfer has to move
his centre of gravity. [2]
d What would the windsurfer need to do if the force of the
wind decreased? Explain your answer. [2]
[Total: 7]
82
>
4 Turning effects of forces
I F-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
i tudying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
ipsin your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
>
p
recall and use the expression k = —, where k is the spring constant and F is force per unit extension
I FING STARTED
I njure 5.1 shows a pop-up popper toy. Figure 5.1a inside out, a popper can jump several metres into
hows the popper in its natural state and Figure 5.1b the air. Using your knowledge of physics, explain
hows it when it is turned inside out. Once turned how this can happen.
I ujure 5.1 a: Rubber pop-up popper in its normal state, b: When it has been turned inside out, just before springing back
•• » It normal shape.
I <l4cussion questions
1 What weapons have humans developed that acts in the same way as the shrimp's dactyl?
Can you think of other applications?
i Could a 50g mantis shrimp injure you? A punch from a mantis shrimp exerts the same force as the
weight of a typical adult.
85
>
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
86 y
5 Forces and matter
KEY WORD
WORD • At first, the graph slopes up steadily. This shows that the
extension increases in equal steps as the load increases.
Itad; the force (usually weight) stretches an object
i.i spring)
• Then the graph curves. This happens when the load
is so great that the spring has become permanently
damaged. It will not return to its original length.
I u uh ''.7 shows the pattern observed as the load is
You can see the same features in Table 5.1. Look at the
lined in regular steps. The length of the spring
Ci
।
88 y
5 Forces and matter
You need to wear eye protection because 2 Arrange the ruler with zero at the top. This
Ihrn is a danger that the spring will fly into means that, as the steel spring stretches, the
K i. tone's
", eye if it breaks under tension. Place a readings on the ruler increase.
on the floor beneath the masses so that, if the
•pi Ing snaps, the masses will not damage the floor. 3 Use the headings below to draw a results table.
Avijld standing on the mat because the masses may Remember to add more rows.
fond on your feet if the spring snaps.
Does the spring
i lotting started Load on Ruler Spring
return to original
hanger/ reading/ extension/
1 I xplain the purpose of: length when
N cm cm
a the G-clamp unloaded? Y/N
b the plumb line.
' I ach slotted weight is 100 g. Calculate what 4 Attach your hanger to the bottom of the spring
load this represents. so that the spring hangs vertically.
1 Identify the independent (input) and dependent 5 Record the load as zero and record the reading
(output) variables. on the ruler where it lines up with the bottom of
the hanger.
89
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
6 Add a slotted 100 g mass (equal to a load of 10 Plot a graph of load against extension (that is,
1.0 N) and record the new ruler reading where it extension on the horizontal axis). Include a title,
lines up with the bottom of the hanger. axis labels and a line of best fit.
7 Remove the mass and record whether the steel Questions
spring returns to its original length. 1 Did your graph pass through the origin? If not,
8 Repeat steps 6 and 7, adding another 100 g did you remember to correct for the original
mass each time until you have filled the table or length of the spring?
the spring breaks. 2 How can you identify where on the graph the
9 Remember, the extension is the difference force on the steel spring is proportional to the
between the length of the spring with the load load? What is the name of the point where this
attached and the original length when just the no longer happens to the spring and can you
hanger was attached. To calculate the spring locate it on your graph?
extension, subtract your ruler reading for a 3 What are the values for the load and extension
load of 0 N from all of your ruler readings. This corresponding to the limit of proportionality for
means that the spring extension should be zero your spring?
(0 cm) when the load is zero (0 N).
4 Did the spring continue returning to its original
length beyond the limit of proportionality?
ACTIVITY 5.1
Elastic glass front cover
Glass is brittle. It shatters once it reaches its limit of
proportionality.
So, why can glass fibres (used in optic fibres and
back cover
loft insulation) bend so easily without shattering? In
this activity you will explain why you can bend glass book This would be the
fibres into a circle but a glass block will shatter if you spine difference in length
try to bend it. between the front
and back covers if
First, think about how you would approach this the book was a solid
problem without the guidance that follows; make block of paper.
some notes of your ideas.
Figure 5.1 1: A textbook bent out of shape.
When you bend an object (such as a pencil eraser),
one surface stretches and the opposite surface You will see the book spine on the left-hand side is at
compresses (gets shorter). Take your textbook and right angles to both the front and back covers. The
measure the width of the bottom edge. It should pages slide past each other so that the length of all
be about 21 cm. Now bend it into the shape of an the pages and the book covers have not changed.
arch with the spine on the left-hand side as shown in A solid block of paper (such as a stack of paper in its
Figure 5.11. wrapper) is difficult to bend but, if you could bend it,
the top surface would stretch and the bottom surface
would compress and the right-hand edge would
be at right-angles to the top and bottom surface as
shown by the dotted red line to the right of the book.
The little triangle of paper to the right of the dotted
line would not be present. In this example, it would
90 y
5 Forces and matter
»NTINUED
b lit in an approximate difference of about 2 cm in The breaking strain of ordinary glass is much lower
Iwiqth between the top and bottom surfaces. Half than this, probably because it has microscopic (tiny)
1 1his difference would be because the top surface imperfections where stress tends to concentrate.
iii' iched and the other half would be because the
3 Would glass as thick as your book shatter if bent
j^ltom surface compressed. through the angle shown in Figure 5.11?
I Either take measurements from Figure 5.11 4 Calculate the extension (or compression) for an
or try the experiment yourself (in pairs). One individual page. You learned how to work out
person can hold and bend the book while the the thickness of a single page in Chapter 1. How
Other person uses a set square to find where the does extension vary with the thickness of the
dashed red line should be (no need to mark the object that is being bent out of shape?
book though). Use a ruler to measure the length
indicated by the red double-headed arrow. 5 Would glass as thick as a page in your book shatter
if bent through the angle shown in Figure 5.11?
The extension (or compression) is half the length
of the double-headed arrow. Other things to think about
1 1 |ineers calculate strain, which is the extension 1 What is the relationship between the length of
li ided by the original length. For the book in the the double-headed arrow and the thickness of
I" lure this will be roughly 1 cm divided by 21 cm the book?
| ( 1 05 or 5%). Engineers have also worked out that 2 What is the relationship between the length of
ll«rent materials have different breaking strains. the double-headed arrow and how much the
A • il.iss fibre has a breaking strain of about 2%.
book is bent?
lit hcliaviour of the spring is represented by the graph load is plotted against extension (i.e. with extension on
} 1 Igurc 5.10a and can be described as: the horizontal axis).
In intension of a spring is proportional to the load
i rli 'd to it, provided the limit of proportionality is
KEY WORDS
v needed. spring constant: the constant of proportionality,
liii in nlso known as Hooke's law. We can write the the measure of the stiffness of a spring
MWiour of a spring as an equation:
!•A । WORKED EXAMPLE 5.1
। 'lit।equation, Fis the load (force) stretching the A spring has a spring constant k = 20 N/cm. What
Mg, k is the spring constant of the spring, and x is the load is needed to produce an extension of 2.5 cm?
l« inion of the spring. The spring constant is defined
i ihr force per unit of extension, which is obvious when Step 1: Write down what you know and what you
law is expressed in terms of k: want to find out.
=
spring constant k 20 N/cm,
i extension = 2.5 cm
load F = ?
Step 2: Write down the equation linking these
quantities, substitute values and calculate
the result.
F=kx
F= 20 N/cm x 2.5 cm = 50 N
I’" spring constant is a measure of the ‘stiffness’ of the Answer
Bumr (he stiffer
the spring, the bigger the load required A load of 50 N will stretch the spring by 2.5 cm.
Bl IniDgc its length and the steeper the gradient when
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Table 5.3
REFLECTION
Think back to Activity 5.1. This was an example of
a thought experiment. Great scientists like Albert
Einstein have used this approach to make huge
progress in science.
92
5 Forces and matter
•
ill .ind practising it in the next two activities in
flu ( hapter and beyond?
In a fluid such as water or air, pressure does not simply act
downwards - it acts equally in all directions. This is because
the molecules of the fluid move around in all directions,
causing pressure on every surface they collide with.
5.4 Pressure
N >mi dive into a swimming pool, you will experience the
I* me of the water on you. It provides the upthrust,
•In li pushes you back to the surface. The deeper you go,
Ik it .iter the pressure acting on you. Submarines and
।
93
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
ACTIVITY 5.2
Drinking through straws and breathing
through snorkels
1 When you drink through a straw, are
you pulling the liquid up the straw or is
atmospheric pressure pushing the liquid up Now let us consider the unit of pressure. If force, F, is
the straw? Try to explain what is going on. measured in newtons (N) and area, A, is in square metre;
2 Try this with family or friends. Drink through (m2), then pressure, p, is in newtons per square metre
two straws, with the end of one straw below (N/m2). In the SI system of units, this is given the name
the surface of the liquid and the end of the pascal (Pa). It is equivalent to one newton per square
other straw above the liquid surface. Explain metre (1 N/m2).
why you or your friends fail to draw up any
liquid through either straw. KEY WORDS
3 We can modify (bend) a straw and use it to
breathe underwater. Figure 5.15a shows pressure: the force acting per unit area at right
someone using a snorkel. Normally, snorkelers angles to a surface
hold their breath and dive to explore deeper pascal: the SI unit of pressure, equivalent to one
under water. But could someone just breathe newton per square metre; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa
from a longer snorkel? Is there a practical
limit to the length that a snorkel can be or the
depth you can breathe from one? If so, try to WORKED EXAMPLE 5.2
explain why.
4 An elephant can swim under water and use Stiletto heels have a very small surface area. (‘Stiletto’
its trunk as a snorkel (Figure 5.15b). Use the is an Italian word meaning a small and murderous
Internet to research how an elephant can dagger.) Such narrow heels can damage floors, and
breathe when deeper in the water than we can dance halls often have notices requiring shoes with
such heels to be removed.
and present your work on an A4 or A3 poster.
Calculate the pressure exerted by a dancer weighing
600 N standing on a single heel of area 1 cm2. The
surface of the dance floor is broken by pressures over
5 million pascals (5.0 MPa). Will it be damaged by
the dancer?
Step 1: To calculate the pressure, we need to know the
force, and the area on which the force acts, in m2.
force F = 600 N
area A = 1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2 = 10-4m2
Figure 5.1 5a: A snorkeler. b: Elephants can use their Step 2: Now we can calculate the pressure p.
trunks as snorkels to help them breathe and can swim
deeper than humans.
_ 600 N
0.0001 m2
5.5 Calculating pressure = 6 000 000 Pa
A large force pressing on a small area gives a high = 6.0 MPa
pressure. We can think of pressure as the force per unit Answer
area acting on a surface, and we can write an equation The pressure is 6.0 x 106Pa, or 6.0 MPa. This is more
for pressure, as shown: than the minimum pressure needed to break the
force F surface of the floor, so it will be damaged.
= P-~.
94
>
5 Forces and matter
State the equation linking weight, mass and g. Explain why this happens. Think about what forces
Use the equation to calculate the weights of the are acting on the card. What is the tallest column
elephant and the woman. of water you could use before the 'trick' no longer
works?
b State the equation that links (solid) pressure,
force and area.
c Calculate the pressures exerted by the elephant
and woman. (Hint: Remember that weight is a REFLECTION
force and that you need to convert the area of
the stiletto heel into m2.) The activities in this chapter asked you to imagine
d Use the pressure values you calculated to what is happening. It can be helpful for scientists
suggest why the women might cause more to visualise (imagine something in their mind).
damage to a floor than an elephant. Can you think of ways that you can develop your
scientific imagination?
Pressure, depth and density
Wr have seen that the deeper one dives into water, the WORKED EXAMPLE 5.3
the pressure. Pressure p is proportional to depth
Fuller
I we use the letter h, for height). Twice the depth means
bee the pressure. Pressure also depends on the density
Calculate the pressure on the bottom of a swimming
pool that is 2.5 metres deep. How does the pressure
i' nl the material (where p is the Greek letter rho). If you compare with atmospheric pressure, 105Pa
Ike into mercury, which is more than ten times as dense (100 000 Pa)? The density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
•» water, the pressure will be more than ten times as great. Step 1: Write down what you know, and what you
Hi i in write an equation for the change in pressure at a want to know.
drplh A in a fluid of density p:
hh = 2.5 m
I aige in pressure = density x acceleration due to
gravity x depth =
p 1000 kg/m3
Np = pg^h =
g 10 N/kg
^p =^
I Y EQUATION
Step 2: Write down the equation for pressure,
hange in pressure = density x acceleration due to substitute values and calculate the answer.
gravity x depth
= =
Ap pg^h 1000 kg/m3 x lON/kg x 2.5 m
Ap = pg^h = 2.5 x 104Pa
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
PROJECT
96
>
5 Forces and matter
M STYLE QUESTIONS
Extension / cm
97
>
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
COMMAND WORDS
state: express in
clear terms
calculate: work out
from given facts,
figures or information
suggest:apply
knowledge and
understanding
to situations
where there are
a range of valid
responses in order
to make proposals /
put forward
considerations
98
5 Forces and matter
1 1 INUED
diagram shows two containers that store rainwater. The containers have
A pipe joins the taps. The taps are closed. Both containers have a base of
i t).O7 m2.
i s plain why the pressure at the bottom of each water butt is different. [1] COMMAND WORD
ilculate the volume of the water in water butt A. [1]
explain: set out
State the equation linking density, mass and volume. [1] purposes or
। < 'alculate the mass of water in water butt A. [1] reasons I make
the relationships
State the equation linking weight, mass and g. [1]
between things
a ( alculate the weight of water in water butt A. [1] evident I provide
State the equation that links (solid) pressure, force and area. [1] why and I or how and
support with relevant
a I sing this equation, calculate the pressure at the base of water
evidence
butt A. [1]
State the equation linking (hydrostatic) pressure difference, height,
density and g. [1]
I sing this equation, calculate the pressure at the base of water
butt A and compare it to the answer you found in e ii. [1]
I he taps between the water butts are now opened.
< >n a copy of the diagram, show the final depth of
w ater in water butt A and water butt B. [1]
I \plain in terms of pressure and forces why the water starts
to How and then stops. [3]
[Total: 14]
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
7 Car braking systems multiply forces. In the diagram below, there are three
pistons: one effort piston and two load pistons.
a The effort piston has an area of 2.0 cm2. The driver exerts a force of
50 N on the effort piston. What is the pressure of the brake fluid? [2]
b This pressure is the same everywhere in the brake fluid, including at the
load pistons. The load pistons have a total area of 40 cm2.
Calculate the force at the brake disc. [2]
[Total: 4]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
100
>
5 Forces and matter
r ( )NTINUED
I*' call the equation that relates pressure, force and area. 5.5
1' all what causes the pressure to increase with
5.5
tin leasing depth into water.
1' ill and use the equation for pressure in a fluid. 5.5
101
>
> Chapter 6
Energy stores
and transfers
I TTING STARTED
Work with a classmate to describe the energy With a classmate, draw an energy mind map to
ti.msfers that are taking place in each diagram. include everything you know about this topic,
including the principle of conservation of energy.
What do you already know about energy?
I H|ure 6.1a: Flashlight switched on. b: Wound up toy. c: Moving radio-controlled car. d: Bunsen burner, e: Loudspeaker
hi U" . f: Ringing bicycle bell, g: Solar-powered battery, h: Hair dryer.
KEY WORD
Example 1: running
At the start of a race, you are stationary, waiting for
the starter’s pistol. Energy is stored in your toned-up
muscles, ready to be released. As you set off, the energy
from your muscles gets you moving. If you are running a
marathon, you will need to make use of the energy in the Figure 6.4: Switching on the light requires a supply of
longer-term stores of the fatty tissues of your body. electricity. In the light bulb, electrical energy is transferred
light and heating.
The energy transfers involved are shown in Figure 6.3.
Your muscles store chemical energy. The energy is stored
by chemicals in your muscles, ready to be released at
a moment’s notice. Your muscles start you moving, Naming energy
and you then have kinetic energy. Running makes you Example 1 and Example 2 highlight some of the variot
hot. This tells us that some of the energy released in energy stores and transfers. We will now take a brief lo
your muscles is wasted as thermal energy, rather than at examples of these.
becoming useful kinetic energy. Fitness training helps
people to reduce this waste. A moving object has kinetic energy. The faster an object
moves, the greater its kinetic energy. We know this becau
we need to transfer energy to an object to get it moving.
If you lift an object upwards, you give it gravitational
potential energy (g.p.e.). The higher an object is above
the ground, the greater its g.p.e. If you let the object fal
you can get the energy back again. This is exploited in
many situations. The water stored behind a hydroelectr
dam has g.p.e. As the water falls, it can be used to drive
a turbine to generate electricity. A grandfather clock ha
weights that must be pulled upwards once a week. The:
as they gradually fall, they drive the pendulum to open
Figure 6.3a: At the start of a race, the runner's muscles are stores the clock’s mechanism.
of chemical energy, b: As the runner starts to move, chemical
energy is transferred to kinetic energy and thermal energy.
KEY WORDS
kinetic energy: the energy store of a moving object
Example 2: switching on a light gravitational potential energy (g.p.e): the
It is evening, and the daylight is fading. You switch on energy store of an object raised up against the
the light. Your electricity meter starts to turn a little force of gravity; more generally, it is the distance
faster, recording the fact that you are drawing more between particles or bodies
energy from the distant power station.
104
6 Energy stores and transfers
.
•ho" energy is stored by chemicals in our bodies.
If you heat an object so that it gets hotter, you are giving
energy to its atoms. The energy stored in a hot object is
Null riles are also stores of energy. When a battery is part called internal energy. We can picture the atoms of a hot
"( .i i omplete circuit, the chemicals start to react with
object jiggling rapidly about - they have a lot of energy.
Hu mother and an electric current flows. The current This picture is developed further in Chapter 9.
.
.Hi energy to the other components in the circuit.
If you get close to a hot object, you may feel thermal
energy coming from it. This is energy travelling from a
hotter object to a colder one. The different ways in which
this can happen are described in Chapter 11.
It is important not to confuse internal energy and thermal
energy. The internal energy of an object is the total
kinetic and potential energies of the particles it is made
of. The internal energy of an object will be higher if these
particles are moving faster (higher kinetic energy) or they
are further apart (bigger potential energy). Heating an
object (giving it more thermal energy) raises its internal
energy and this can raise its temperature or change its
state (from water to steam, for example). Steam has more
internal energy than boiling water even though they are
at the same temperature. The particles (water molecules)
in steam have more potential energy than water molecules
in boiling water because they are further apart. Thermal
energy spreads out from a hot object.
Very hot objects glow brightly. They are transferring energy
by light. Light radiates outwards all around the hot object.
Another way in which energy can be transferred to an
•
!<■
jure 6.5: Some stores of chemical energy - bread and
mut butter, petrol, batteries. Our bodies have long-term
object’s surroundings is by sound. An electric current
transfers energy electrically to a loudspeaker. Energy is
it .
nr of energy in the form of fatty tissues. transferred to the surroundings as sound and thermal
energy (see Figure 6.6).
in illectric current is a good way of transferring energy
1 1 1 mi one place to another. When the current flows through
i • omponent such as a heater, it gives up some of its energy. KEY WORDS
i inium is an example of a nuclear fuel, which is a chemical energy: energy stored in bonds
'•liiii of nuclear energy. All radioactive materials are also between atoms that can be released when
ilnn . of nuclear energy. In these substances, the energy chemical reactions take place
lured in the nucleus of the atoms - the tiny positively nuclear energy: energy stored in the nucleus of
uged core of the atom. A nuclear power station is
h an atom
li><igned to release the nuclear energy stored in uranium.
strain energy/elastic energy: energy stored in
II you stretch a rubber band, it becomes a store of strain the changed shape of an object
" The band can give its energy to a paper pellet and
internal energy: the energy of an object; the
wild it flying across the room. Strain energy is the energy
total kinetic and potential energies of its particles
by an object that has been stretched or squashed
hi in elastic way (so that it will spring back to its original thermal energy: energy transferred from a
dimensions when the stretching or squashing forces are hotter place to a colder place because of the
n moved). For this reason, it is also known as elastic energy. temperature difference between them
I he metal springs of a car are constantly storing and
105
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Energy stores, energy transfers the back of my sofa. I can*transfer (move) money betwet
these stores but the total money I have does not change.
Imagine that energy is like money. The amount of money
Energy stores are potential energy. Energy can also transff
you have determines what you can buy. The amount of
between stores, but the total amount of energy never
energy you have determines what you can do.
changes. So, energy can be stored or it can be transferred.
Let us imagine that the amount of money I have is fixed
Table 6.1 lists energy under two headings: energy stores
(I cannot earn any or spend it). Some of my money is stored
and energy transfers.
in my bank account, some in my wallet and some down
106
>
6 Energy stores and transfers
I Jii my can be transferred from one store to another, 4 Explain why steam is likely to lead to a more serious
fwn within the same object. skin burn than boiling water.
> ample, when you climb a hill, you are transferring 5 Look at the list of energy stores shown in Table 6. 1 .
ry from your chemical store to your gravity (or
i For each, give an example of an object or material
1 1' ) store. Here are four different ways in which energy
>
that stores this energy.
Un be transferred: 6 Look at the physical clues in the left column of
By a force (mechanical working). If you lift Table 6.2 and write down which energy store is
something, you give it gravitational potential energy changing.
you provide the force that lifts it. Alternatively,
y ou can provide the force needed to start something Which energy store is
moving - you give it kinetic energy. Firing a catapult Physical clue
changing?
( Figure 6.7) is another example of a mechanical
I riinsfer. When energy is transferred from one object material changing
Io another by means of a force, we say that the force shape
is doing work. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 8. object changes speed
• Uy heating (thermal working). We have already chemical reaction
teen how thermal energy spreads out from hot
objects. No matter how good the insulation, change of temperature
energy is transferred from a hot object to its cooler nuclear fission or fusion
mrroundings. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
distance between •
• Uy radiation (light). Light reaches us from the Sun. objects changes
That is how energy is transferred from the Sun to
I he Earth. Some of the energy is also transferred as Table 6.2
infrared and ultraviolet radiation. These are examples
of electromagnetic radiation (see Chapter 1 5).
• Uy electrical currents (electrical working). An 6.2 Energy transfers
electric current is a convenient way of transferring We have already mentioned several examples of energy
energy from place to place. The electricity may be transfers. Now we will look at a few more and think a
generated in a power station many kilometres away
little about how energy is transferred between stores
from where the energy is required. Alternatively, an during events and processes, and how these transfers can
electrical current transfers energy from the chemical be represented by energy flow diagrams.
energy store of a flashlight battery to the internal
energy of a bulb. This increased internal energy Striking a match is an example of an event while burning
store of the bulb is transferred to the surroundings is a process. An event is something that happens or
via light radiation. This is covered in Chapter 18. takes place, often at a specific time and place. A process
is a series of actions or steps, often taking place over a
I Y WORDS long period of time. Climbing a mountain would be an
example of a process, while falling over would be an event.
doing work: transferring energy by means of a Sometimes, it is difficult to tell the difference between an
lorce event and a process. The important thing to remember is
that energy is only transferred or changed during events
electromagnetic radiation: energy that is and processes; in other words, when something happens.
Imnsferred using electromagnetic waves
KEY WORDS
Questions event: something that happens or takes place,
What name is given to the energy of a moving
often at a specific time and place
1
object? process: a series of actions or steps, often taking
! What do the letters g.p.e. stand for? How can an place over a long period of time
object be given g.p.e.?
I What energy is stored in a stretched spring?
107
>
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
surroundings
Figure 6.9: The energy stores and transfers associated with a battery-powered lamp. The stores are indicated by blue boxes
and the transfers by the green boxes with arrows.
108
6 Energy stores and transfers
.
' Ml mg an arrow is an event, but a rocket launch is a
|mn r , The rocket in Figure 6.12 is lifting off from the
|i mild as it carries a new spacecraft up into space. Its
•m i K comes from its store of chemical energy (tanks
। In |iud hydrogen) and oxygen. When the hydrogen fuel
radioactive
source in radioactive along
the RTG source thermocouple
surroundings
• luui« 6.11: The energy flow diagram for the RTG. The blue boxes represent stores and the green boxes are the transfers.
109
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Inimical kinetic
energy energy Energy efficiency
billed in Most wasted energy is transferred away as heat. There
IijoI and are two main reasons for this.
gravitational
'kygen)
potential When fuels are burned (perhaps to generate electricity,
energy or to drive a car), heat is produced. Any kind of engine
needs a difference in temperature to create movement.
Thermal energy transfers from the hot part to the cold
part of the engine and kinetic energy is produced. But no
internal energy of the matter how well insulated the hot part is, it will transfer
surroundings
thermal energy to the surroundings. Or, the cold part
has to be cooled to maintain (keep) the temperature
1 '(jure 6.13: The energy changes going on as a rocket like difference. So, power stations produce warm cooling
In Figure 6.12 accelerates upwards. Chemical energy in water and cars produce hot exhaust gases.
fuel is released when it burns in oxygen and is transferred Friction is often a problem when things are moving.
I three other energy stores. Lubrication can help to reduce friction and no doubt the
Egyptians lubricated the ramps to make it easier for the
blocks to be dragged up them. A streamlined car design
I Y WORDS can reduce air resistance. But it is impossible to eliminate
(remove) friction entirely from machines with moving
S.tnkey diagram: a flow diagram that represents
parts. Friction generates heat.
Ihe principle of conservation of energy; the width
of the arrows is proportional to energy Another common wasted energy transfer is sound.
Noisy machinery, loud car engines and so on, all
I the beginning of Chapter 1 you were introduced transfer sound to the atmosphere. However, even loud
I he Ancient Egyptians and their pyramids. The noises contain very little energy, so there is little to be
yvptians built their pyramids by dragging limestone gained (in terms of energy) by reducing noise.
docks up ramps and Figure 6.14 shows the Sankey
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
KEY WORDS
lubrication: usually a liquid, it allows two surfaces
to slide past each other more easily
efficiency: the fraction (or percentage) of energy
supplied that is usefully transferred
Figure 6.1 5: Energy flows in the UK in the year 2000.
Table 6.3 shows the typical efficiencies for some important All numbers are x10,8J. A large propdrtian of the energy
devices. You can see that even the most modern gas-fired supplied by fuels is wasted in energy transfer processes
power station is only 50% efficient. Half of the energy it is and during its final use. Some of this waste is inevitable, t
supplied with is wasted. better insulation and more efficient machines could reduc
the waste and environmental damage, and save money.
Device Typical efficiency Figure 6.16 shows one way to make more efficient use
electric heater 100% of electricity. We use light bulbs to provide us with lig]
The lower light bulb is a filamtnt lamp; the other one
large electric motor 90% is an energy-efficient lamp. The Sankey diagrams show
the energy each light bulb transfers each second. The
washing machine motor 70% diagram shows that each of the two bulbs produces th
gas-fired power station 50% same amount of light. However, because it wastes mu<
less energy as heat, the energy-efficient lamp requires e
diesel engine 40% much smaller input of energy and is more efficient.
car petrol engine 30%
electrical
steam locomotive 10% energy
25 J
Table 6.3: Energy efficiencies. Most devices are less than waste heat 10 J
100% efficient because they produce waste heat. An electric
heater is 100% efficient because all of the electrical energy
electrical
supplied is transferred to thermal energy. There is no energy
problem with waste here. 100 J
Questions
9 In what way is energy usually wasted?
a
b Name another way in which energy is often wasted. Figure 6.16: Each of these two light bulbs provides the
same amount of light. The energy-efficient lamp wastes
10 Give three reasons why it is important not to waste
much less energy as heat.
energy.
6 Energy stores and transfers
not to mix stores and transfers on the same Sankey Efficiency is expressed as a number (no units) up to a
i nn. Figures 6.13 and 6.14 shows energy stores while value of 1. This number can be multiplied by 100 to get
>> h 6.16 shows transfers. Figure 6.16 shows the energy percentage efficiency. Percentage efficiency greater than
I by the light bulbs per second. Energy transferred 100% is impossible.
a cond is known as power and is something you
When the filament lamp from Figure 6.16 is supplied
meet in Chapter 8. This highlights an important
with 100 J of energy, it produces 15 J of useful light. Its
i tnce between stores and transfers. Transfers are a
efficiency is thus:
of energy.
_ .
efficiency =
useful energy output
total energy input
ergy becoming dissipated
luive seen that energy changes are usually less than = JlL
100 J =
0.15
.
efficient. Energy escapes and is wasted as heat. „ . useful energy output
i« means that objects and their surroundings are percentage efficiency = x 100%
i mod (and gain some internal energy). It is very total energy input
ult to get that energy back. We say that energy tends
^0 dissipated (spread out) during an energy transfer. = 100 J x 100% = 15%
I Imik about, for example, a battery in a flashlight. Similar equations can be used to calculate the efficiency
N |» <i convenient, compact store of energy. Once it has and percentage efficiency in terms of power as follows:
I ii Used, some of its energy has been changed to light
useful power output
h is then absorbed by the surfaces it falls on, causing efficiency = total power input
n to warm slightly (raising their internal energy). The
of the energy is dissipated as thermal energy in the useful power output
ponents of the electric circuit in the flashlight. percentage efficiency =
total power input
WORD Questions
tlpated: energy that is spread out is not 11 Describe the energy transfers taking place when
noful (wasted) charging a mobile phone, including the energy that
is wasted.
12 Calculate the efficiency of the energy-efficient lamp
from the data shown in Figure 6.16.
< .in see from Table 6.3 that efficiency is often 13 A tidal-power station is expected to produce 32 TJ
ti us a percentage. We can calculate the efficiency =
of energy (1 TJ 1012 J) when the tides provide it
11 percentage efficiency of an energy change as follows: with 100 TJ of gravitational potential energy. What
is the efficiency of the power station?
। Y EQUATIONS 14 A tungsten-filament lamp is 4% efficient. How much
electrical energy must be supplied to the lamp each
useful energy output second when it produces 6 J of light per second?
। Uh icncy = ;
total energy input
ACTIVITY 6.2
Energy changes during the pole vault try to resolve any differences. Be prepared to
Energy is transferred between different energy stores discuss your thinking with the class.
during the pole vault. Snapshots (labelled 1-5) of
an athlete at different stages of the pole vault are as
shown in Figure 6.17. Between each snapshot, the
energy is transferred between stores.
1 Copy and complete this table:
Main Additional
Wasted
Snapshot energy energy
energy
store stores
1
2
3
4
5
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Think about Activity 6.2. Did you find this activity easy? If you found it difficult, you could think about energy
transfers that you come across every day (for example, the transport you use to get to and from school) and
ask a friend to check your answer.
6.4 Energy calculations the Earth’s, because the Moon’s mass is only one¬
eightieth of the Earth’s. This means that the weight
Energy is not simply an idea, it is also a quantity that astronaut on the Moon is a fraction of his or her we
we can calculate. on the Earth. In principle, it is possible to jump higt
on the Moon than on the Earth.
Earlier, we saw that an object’s g.p.e. depends on its
Gravitational potential energy height above the ground. The higher it is, the greatei
g.p.e. If you lift an object upwards, you provide the 1
(g.p.e.) needed to increase its g.p.e. The heavier the object, t
Mountaineering on the Moon should be easy (see greater the force needed to lift it, and hence the grea
Figure 6. 1 8). The Moon’s gravity is much weaker than its g.p.e.
6 Energy stores and transfers
ACTIVITY 6.3
Moon flight high jump
Table 6.4
Table 6.4 lists the current world records for the 3 The athletes are doing physical work to raise
high jump. their centres of mass over the bar. Now that
Predict what the high jump record would be on the you know the jumpers are raising their centres
of gravity, work out a revised prediction for the
lunar surface.
records, but take care, as there is still a potenti
Now follow these steps to see if your prediction trap for the unwary.
was correct.
4 Most high jumpers now use a technique that
1 Let us assume that the Moon has the same allows their centre of gravity to pass below the
atmosphere as Earth, and that the athletes can bar, by as much as 20 cm. Explain or sketch ho'
reach the same run-up speed. Imagine that this is possible.
the gravitational field strength on the Moon is
5 Can you explain why the height gained by the
reduced to one sixth of the value it has on the
Earth's surface (1 0 N/kg) only after the jumpers
athlete when they jump is not the distance
have lifted off the ground. Predict what you think between the bar and the ground?
the high jump records would be on the Moon. 6 Use physics to explain why successful high
Write down your working and your answers. jumpers tend to be tall and slim.
2 Now assume that the centre of gravity of a person 7 Make a case for medals\being awarded to
is located half-way up their body. Through what athletes who can raise their centres of gravity
height have these athletes moved their centre of through the biggest height.
gravity in order to achieve their world records?
REFLECTION
How easy did you find this topic?
How will you learn the different energy stores and transfers and remember the difference between them?
If you do not know the difference between an event and a process, how are you going to find out?
PROJECT
Choose one of the options below and either
produce a short report (less than 500 words)
along with relevant illustrations or produce a short
presentation (two or three minutes), with suitable
visual aids.
Option 2: Efficiency
It is important to increase efficiency to reduce
waste, reduce environmental damage, and save
money. Investigate efforts to improve the efficiency
of one device (for example, a light bulb, or a car) or
create better insulation for homes.
SUMMARY
Transfers between different stores of energy can occur because of an event or process.
A collision is an event that will change the kinetic energy of a body.
Heating a body will increase its internal energy.
Changing the shape of a body will change its elastic (strain) energy.
Lifting a body will increase its g.p.e.
6 Energy stores and transfers
KAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
I This diagram shows an amusement park roller coaster ride (not drawn to scale).
.1On what part of the ride is the car moving slowest? [1]
b On what part of the ride is the car moving fastest? [1]
< The car becomes stuck at point P, which is 50 metres above the ground.
To the relief of the passengers, the car eventually moves again and passes
point R at 20 m/s. Approximately how high is point R? The car and its
passengers have a combined mass of 700 kg (though the question can be
answered without this information). [1]
A 35 m/s
B 30 m/s
C 25 m/s
D 20 m/s
[Total: 3]
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
COMMAND WOR
2 Copy and complete the table. For each description, write down the name
of the associated energy and te whether it is a store or transfer. [2] state: express in
clear terms
Description Name of energy Store or transfer
energy of a moving object
energy in a hot object
energy in a fuel
energy that we can see
energy in a squashed spring
energy carried by an electric
current
energy in the nucleus of an
atom
energy escaping from a hot
object
useful energy
energy input output
waste energy
Copy and complete the following two word equations for this energy change:
a wasted energy = [1 ]
b efficiency = [1 ]
[Total: 2]
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6 Energy stores and transfers
ONTINUED
Scientists use a ballistic pendulum to work out the speed of a projectile that
hits it. The block has a mass of 4.7 kg and moves with an initial speed of
I 24 m/s when it is hit.
before after
V.
State the equation linking kinetic energy, mass and velocity. COMMAND WORDS
Hl
b alculate the kinetic energy of the block. [2] calculate: work out
As the block swings, it gains g.p.e. What is the maximum g.p.e. from given facts,
that can be gained by the block. [1] figures or information
d Calculate the maximum height the block gains. [2] suggest: apply
It might not be easy to measure the height increase. Suggest another knowledge and
variable a researcher could measure more easily and then use to get understanding
the height. [1] to situations where
f Researchers find the kinetic energy of the projectile is much higher than there are a range
the kinetic energy of the block. What happened to the kinetic energy of valid responses
that was not transferred from the projectile to the block? [1] in order to make
[Total: 8] proposals/put forward
considerations
This is the Sankey diagram for a 100 W light bulb.
not to scale
power transmission
station lines lamp
4J
7J
208 J 93 J
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
122
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Chapter 7
nergy
esources
y understand that the Sun is the source of energy for all our energy resources except geothermal,
nuclear and tidal
GETTING STARTED
List all the energy resources that you know. Which of these energy resources are renewable?
Examples of energy resources include wood for
heating and cooking. Can any of these resources be traced back to
sunlight?
124 )
7 Energy resources
other
7.1 The energy we use renewables (4%) nuc|ear (4%)
I lore on Earth, we rely on the Sun for most of the energy
? c use. The Sun is a fairly average star, 1 50 million
hydro (7%)
1 ilometres away. The heat and light we receive from it
oil (34%)
l ike about eight minutes to travel through empty space
Io get here. Plants absorb this energy in the process of
photosynthesis, and animals are kept warm by it.
natural
I he Earth is at a convenient distance from the Sun for gas (24%)
living organisms. The Sun’s rays are strong enough, but
not too strong. The Earth’s average temperature is about
1 5 °C, which is suitable for life. If the Earth were closer
Io (he Sun, it might be intolerably hot like Venus, where
I he average surface temperature is over 400 °C. Further
out, things are colder. Saturn is roughly ten times as coal (27%)
In from the Sun, so the Sun in the sky looks one-tenth
• il the diameter that we see it, and its radiation has Figure 7.2: World energy use, by fuel. This chart shows
only one-hundredth of the intensity. Saturn’s surface people's energy consumption of different fuels across the
temperature is about - 1 80 °C. world in 2018. Around 85% of all energy comes from fossil fuels.
We will look at how most of them can be used to generate renewables: an energy resource that will be
electricity and whether or not they are renewable. replenished (replaced) naturally when used
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Questions
Explain why wind power can be traced back
to sunlight.
What is the difference between a solar panel and
a solar cell?
। Describe the advantages and disadvantages of
solar power. Figure 7.5: The giant Itaipu dam on the Parana River in
South America generates electricity for Brazil and Paraguay.
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Biomass fuels oxygen from the air. In thi^ process, the carbon becomes
carbon dioxide. The hydrogen becomes dihydrogen
For many people in the world, wood is the most important monoxide, which we usually call water. Energy is releasee
fuel. It warms their homes and provides the heat necessary
for cooking their food. Wood is made by trees and shrubs. We can write this as an equation:
It stores energy that the plant has captured from sunlight
in the process of photosynthesis. When we bum wood, we
hydrocarbon + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water
+ energy
are releasing energy that came from the Sun in the recent
Hence, we can think of a fossil fuel as a store of chemic:
past, perhaps ten or a hundred years ago.
energy. Where has this energy come from?
Wood is just one example of a biofuel. Others include
Fossil fuels (Figure 7.7) are the remains of organisms
animal dung (Figure 7.6) and biogas, generated by rotting
(plants and animals) that lived in the past. Many of the
vegetable matter.
Earth’s coal reserves, for example, formed from trees
that lived in the Carboniferous era, between 286 and
360 million years ago. (Carboniferous means coal¬
producing.) These trees captured energy from the Sun
by photosynthesis. They grew and eventually they died.
Their trunks fell into swampy ground, but they did not
rot completely, because there was insufficient oxygen.
KEY WORDS
biofuel: material, recently living, qsed as a fuel
fossil fuels: material, formed from long-dead
material, used as a fuel
128
7 Energy resources
Figure 7.9: A schematic of coal-fired power station. The details of how thermal energy is produced in power stations that i.
fuel will vary but they will all have a boiler, turbine and generator.
130
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7 Energy resources
F
|1 1 nation might occupy the space of a football
•uni and supply a town of 100000 people. To replace
di a wind farm might require 50 or more wind Questions
• ml uir ipread over an area of several square kilometres. 10 Which of the following energy resources is renewable?
I la ind is a much more dilute source of energy.
।
A oil C biofuels
I Im illustrates some of the ideas that we use when comparing B nuclear D coal
ill energy resources. Each has its advantages and
I ullages. We need to think about the following factors. 11 Which of the following energy resources is not
renewable?
M«n«wability A hydroelectric power C tidal
i have seen, there are limited reserves of fossil fuels. B wind D nuclear
I mine applies to uranium nuclear fuel. However,
In
Part 1
*i il fuel power station can be compact and still supply
Kilt" population. It would take several square metres Sanghera Island (Figure 7.10) is a remote fictitious
। I n cells to supply a small household. Alternatively, island. It has no fossil fuels. It is hot with jungle
H i ili lometimes talk about how concentrated or dilute vegetation, though it can sometimes be cold
at night. High rainfall and mountainousterrain
P i।» i py resource is. When talking about fuels, they are
i"l' 1 1 mg how much energy is stored in a certain mass of leads to fast-flowing streams. You are one of 25
Ite i it I Particularly when comparing wind turbines with members of a scientific expedition planning to
|Hi i nergy resources, people will talk about the land
। study the island for three years. At the same time
M» • ii <|uired to generate the same amount of energy.
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
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7 Energy resources
133
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
It is essential to hold the hot plasma in place for long So far, no fusion reactor Was produced more energy thai
enough for fusion to take place. In the Sun, the star’s needs to be put in to keep the plasma hot. In 1997 Joint
enormous gravitational field prevents the plasma European Torus claimed the world record for getting
escaping. In the 1950s, Soviet physicists came up with the out 67% of the input energy. It is hoped that reactors
idea of a tokamak (Figure 7.11) to contain the plasma. will get out ten times more energy than is put in. The
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
(ITER) project (Figure 7.12) is being built at Cadaracht
in France. This is an international collaboration that
involves scientists from countries that represent half the
world’s population.
134
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7 Energy resources
PROJECT
The future of energy resources for air conditioning. Or you could focus on the
There is a huge variety of potential projects in this
development of more efficient transport (such
as electric vehicles).
Important area of physics. We need energy but
getting it by burning fossil fuels contributes to global Investigate ways to increase the supply of
warming. Whatever topic you choose, you need energy. This could focus on one of the energy
to pose a question like the one describing thorium resources you have already met in this chapter,
reactors at the start of the chapter. Your answer or you might investigate one that is under
ihould be clear, concise and coherent. Write it in development (for example, one based on algae).
your own words and limit yourself to 1000 words. Investigate the challenges facing development
Use informative diagrams where you can. Whatever of the lifters you met at the start of the chapter.
medium you choose to convey your answer, try to You should look at the process and make a
reach an audience beyond your own classroom. comparison with nuclear power based on the
Or, you could promote (for example, to your friends uranium cycle.
.Ind family on social media) good work that you have Investigate fracking. You should explain the
discovered during your research. You could: process itself and offer a balanced assessment
• Investigate ways to reduce demand for energy. of the advantages and disadvantages.
In cold countries this might include efforts Investigate developments in energy storage,
to improve building insulation while, in hot including improved battery technology, which
countries, it might be worth thinking about the might include the environmental impact of
development of wind towers to reduce demand lithium mining.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
SUMMARY
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
136 y
7 Energy resources
NTINUED
>ti nergy company is proposing a new power station but has to decide
1
CONTINUED
9 Imagine that you are writing a science fiction story in which fossil fuels have
run out and the Sun stops shining. Only power stations based on three different
energy resources will continue producing power.
a You want to make your story believable, so what power stations should
people use if they want to survive? [1]
b As the temperature falls, explain why one of these power stations
might stop working. [1]
[Total: 2]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to se<
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
138
>
Chapter 8
A/ork
and power
GETTING STARTED
What is the everyday meaning of 'work'? Do you know what the word 'work' means in physics?
What is the everyday meaning of 'power'? Do you know what the word 'power' means in physics?
Figure 8.1: The Golden Boys statue in the UK, which shows Matthew Boulton, James Watt (centre) and William Murdoch
who all played a part in improving the steam engine.
140
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8 Work and power
I flure 8.3: Three examples offerees doing work. In each case, the force moves as it transfers energy, a: Pushing a shopping
Holley to start it moving. The pushing force does work. It transfers energy to the trolley, and the trolley's kinetic energy
(I • increases, b: An apple falling from a tree. Gravity pulls the apple downwards. Gravity does work, and the apple's k.e.
increases,c: Braking to stop a bicycle. The brakes produce a force of friction, which slows down the bicycle. The friction does
work, and the bicycle's k.e. is transferred to the internal energy of the brakes, which get hot.
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
142
8 Work and power
gravity
1
l(|ure 8.5: It is important to use the correct distance when
Figure 8.7: The spacecraft stays at a constant distance from
* -lie ulating work done by a force. Gravity makes the child the Earth. Gravity keeps it in its orbit without transferring any
llh Ie down the slope. However, to calculate the energy
|i '"f erred by gravity, we must use the vertical height moved. energy to it.
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
144 y
8 Work and power
PEER ASSESSMENT
When you check the plan in Activity 8.1, go through
this list.
• Does the plan include the correct
equipment? Is anything missing? 0.80 m
In physics, the word power is used with a special • A locomotive pulling a train of coaches or wagons
meaning. It means the rate at which you do work (that does work. The greater the force with which it
is, how fast you work). The more work you do, and the pulls and the greater the speed at which it pulls, the
shorter the time in which you do it, the greater your greater the power of the locomotive.
power. Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, or
the rate at which work is done.
Question
KEY WORD 5 Your neighbour is lifting bricks and placing them
on top of a wall. He lifts them slowly, one at a time.
power: the rate at which work is done, or the rate State two ways in which he could increase his power
atwhich energy is transferred (the rate at which he is transferring energy to the
bricks).
Fast working
Power tells you about the rate at which a force does work, 8.4 Calculating power
that is the rate at which it transfers energy. When you lift We know from Section 8.3, that power is the rate at
an object up, you are transferring energy to it. Its potential which work is done. Since work done is equal to energy
energy increases. You can increase your power by: transferred, we can write these ideas about power as
• lifting a heavier object in the same time equations, as shown.
• lifting the object more quickly.
KEY EQUATIONS
It is not just people who do work. Machines also do
work, and we can talk about their power in the same way.
power
_ work done power =
energy transferred
• A crane does work when it lifts a load. The bigger
the load and the faster it lifts the load, the greater _ W taken
time time taken
ACTIVITY 8.2
The meaning of work and power The pair or three chosen by each group will
Work and power have very specific meanings in present to the rest of the class.
physics. You will create a resource that helps people
understand their correct meanings in physics. You could
start by collecting definitions that are wrong in physics.
For example, collect images of powerful people or
cars, or an image of a gymnast performing the 'iron
cross' (Figure 8.11). If you are feeling creative, you
could write a poem or create a song or podcast.
• Work for a few minutes in small groups to
discuss ideas and choose one idea to develop.
• Develop your idea within the timeframe given
by your teacher.
• the class is divided into two or three large
If
groups, you will perform or present your idea to
the other pairs or threes in your group. Figure 8.11: This gymnast is performing the 'iron cross'
• Vote on the other presentations. A pair or three on rings. It is a move that requires tremendous strength in
cannot represent their group unless the physics the core, arms and wrists. But is he doing any work from a
is correct so help correct any physics mistakes. physics point of view?
146
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8 Work and power
=
You need to know that 1 lb 0.453592 kg and one a What is 2500 kcal expressed in joules?
foot = 0.3048 metres. b Calculate the power output of the average man,
a Calculate the mass of water the horse lifts in even when he is doing no work.
one minute. 9 It is estimated that the human brain has a power
b Calculate the weight of water the horse lifts in requirement of 40 W. How much energy does it use
one minute. (Assume that g = 10 N/kg) in an hour?
c Calculate the work the horse does in one minute. 10 A light bulb transfers 1000 J of energy in 10 s.
d Calculate the power output of the horse. What is its power?
8 An average man needs to eat food containing about 11 An electric motor transfers 100 J in 8.0 s. It then
2500 kcal of chemical potential energy per day transfers the same amount of energy in 6.0 s.
=
(1 kcal 4.18 kJ). Has its power increased or decreased?
SELF ASSESSMENT
Did you know most of the information for Activity 8.4, If you could not remember as much as you thought
or did your classmates need to add a lot of missing you would, you need to develop a strategy to help
information? you learn the material (for example, by developing a
set of flash cards).
148
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8 Work and power
PROJECT
How does the stopping distance of a vehicle vary When a car comes to an emergency stop all its
With its speed? kinetic energy is transformed into thermal energy
because of the work done by the brakes, W, which
apply a braking (frictional) force, F, throughout
the braking distance. So, W = Fd, where F is the
frictional force and d is the stopping distance.
We can write: |mv2 = Fd.
1 Assume that the mass of the car is 1500 kg
and the braking force is 10000 N. Show that
you get nearly the same braking distance as in
Table 8.1.
2 Find the guidelines published in your country.
Though the physics is the same, different
assumptions might have been made to arrive at
Figure 8.13: A collision between a car and a crash test different numbers. If you know how to, develop
dummy in order to raise awareness of road safety. a spreadsheet so that calculations for the
different speeds can be done at the same. time.
You are going to apply some of the physics you 3 What could reduce the braking force?
have learned to keep you and other motorists safer.
Table 8.1 shows how the stopping distance for an 4 Work out the braking distance when the
emergency stop is affected by the speed of the car. braking force is halved.
An emergency stop is when a driver attempts to
5 Work out the reaction time for the thinking
Stop in the shortest possible distance in order to
distances in Table 8.1.
avoid an accident.
6 Work out the thinking distance when the
Note that stopping distance = thinking distance +
braking distance. The driver cannot apply the brakes thinking time is doubled.
instantly. Thinking distance is the speed of the car 7 List the ways in which reaction time for a driver
multiplied by the driver's reaction time. This is the could increase.
distance travelled between the driver becoming
aware of a hazard and applying the brakes. 8 Design one of two safety campaign posters.
Use physics (and graphs) to back up your
Thinking Braking Stopping claims.
Speed /
m/s
distance distance distance • Design a poster urging people to drive
/m /m /m more slowly. A longer stopping distance
8.9 6 6 12 reduces the chance that an accident can
be avoided and increases the impact
13.4 9 14 23 speed. Emphasise that damage (and
17.9 12 24 36 injuries) depends on the kinetic energy of
the car, not its speed.
22.3 15 38 53
26.8 18 55 73 • Design a safety campaign poster
urging people not to use their phone
31.3 21 75 96 when driving as it could increase their
reaction time.
Table 8.1: Stopping distances for different speeds.
149 )
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
SUMMARY
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
He pushes with a force of 150 N along the 20 m slope. How much energy is
dissipated as thermal energy? [2]
A 250J B 500J C 2000J D 2500J
150
>
8 Work and power
CONTINUED
For each sentence, select the correct word from the list,
work energy more less
a When it moves an object, a smaller force does _ work than a
bigger force. [1]
b The greater the distance an object is moved by the force, the
work it does. [1]
Power is the rate at which is transferred. [1]
d Power is the rate at which is done. [1]
[Total: 4]
The Empire State Building in New York is the venue for an annual running
competition. Competitors race up 86 floors (1576 stairs) or 320 metres to
finish close to the top. The record fastest time is 9 minutes 33 seconds by
Paul Crake in 2003. His mass was 62.5 kg. COMMAND WORDS
a Calculate Paul Crake’s weight. [1] calculate: work out
b State the relationship between work done, force and distance. [1] from given facts,
Calculate the work done by Paul Crake. Express your answer in kJ figures or information
=
(1 kJ 1000 J). [2] state: express in
d State the relationship between power, work done, and time. Hl clear terms
Calculate Paul Crake’s average power output during his explain: set out
record-breaking run. [2]
purposes or
[Total: 7] reasons; make
the relationships
The diagram shows a section through a subway station. The track at the between things
station platform is designed to be higher up than the track in the tunnels. evident; provide
The driver uses brakes to stop the train at the platform and a motor to
why and/or how and
make the train set off. What is the advantage of having the platform higher
support with relevant
up than the track in the tunnels? Explain your answer in terms of the
evidence
work done by the brakes and the motor. [2]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
See Needs Almost Confident
I can
Topic... more work there to move on
152
Chapter 9
The kinetic
particle mode
of matter
GETTING STARTED
Work with a partner. Take a large sheet of paper
and write the words 'solid', 'liquid' and 'gas' on melting
the paper.
Around each word, write as much as you can about liquid
that state of matter. You can include drawings.
Using a different coloured pen, make as many
links as you can between the three words.
gas
154
>
9 The kinetic particle model of matter
n
Figure 9.3: Ice cubes have a fixed
shape.
A.
Figure 9.4: This coloured water
takes the shape of the flasks.
Figure 9.5: The steam leaving the
pot quickly condenses to form
water droplets.
GAS
evaporation condensing
or boiling
155
>
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Mw <
Mu
***
3 To measure the volume of a liquid, you can pour
it into a measuring cylinder. Measuring cylinders
argon atom • **
come in different shapes and sizes - tall, short, wide, Figure 9.8a: Air is a mixture of elements and compounds
narrow. Explain why the shape of the cylinder does
not affect the measurement of volume.
156
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9 The kinetic particle model of matter
KEY WORDS
9.8b: For this model we will assume all atoms and absolute zero: the temperature at which particles
>lm ules are identical spherical particles. have no kinetic energy
*
i li" Idea that matter is made up of identical, spherical
mi'Ii c ules is a great simplification, but using this model
w ill help to explain the behaviour of materials.
Table 9.2: The arrangement and motion of particles in the three different states of matter. Compare these statements with
the diagrams shown in Figure 9.9.
157
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y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Evidence for the kinetic model We can use a smoke cel) (Figure 9.10a). This is a sma
glass box which contains air with a small amount of
Atoms and molecules are far too small to see, even with a smoke. The cell is lit from the side, and the microscoj
microscope, but experiments show the effects of moving used to view the smoke particles.
atoms and molecules. These experiments do not prove
The smoke particles show up as tiny specks of light,
there are moving particles, but they do provide support
but they are too small to see any detail of their shape
for the idea.
What is noticeable is the way they move. If you watcl
In 1827, a scientist called Robert Brown was using a a single particle, you will see that it follows random
microscope to study pollen grains when he noticed tiny path, frequently changing direction. This is because e
particles jiggling about. At first he thought that they molecules repeatedly hit the smoke particle.
might be alive, but when he repeated his experiment with
tiny grains of dust suspended in water, he saw that the
dust also moved around. This motion is now known as
Brownian motion, and it happens because the moving
Explanations using the
particles are constantly knocked about by the fast¬ kinetic model
moving particles of the air.
The kinetic model of matter can be used to explain n
observations. Here are some of them:
KEY WORDS
• Liquids take up the shape of their container
Brownian motion: the motion of small particles because their particles are free to move about wi
suspended in a liquid or gas, caused by molecular the liquid.
bombardment
• Gases fill their container beca use their particles।
observations what you see happening in an move about with complete freedom.
experiment • Solids keep their shape because the particles are
packed tightly together.
We can do a similar experiment using smoke particles. • Gases diffuse (spread out) from place to place, si
The oxygen and nitrogen molecules that make up the air that, for example, we can smell perfume across t]
are far too small to see, so we have to look at something room. The perfume particles spread about becat
bigger, and look for the effect of the air molecules. they are free to move.
cover slip
smoke cell
smoke
Figure 9.10a: An experimental arrangement for observing Brownian motion. The smoke particles are just large enough t<
show up under the microscope. The air molecules that collide with them are much too small to see. b: The invisibly small .
molecules repeatedly hit the smoke particle making it change direction. The dotted line shows the path of the smoke pari
158
>
9 The kinetic particle model of matter
Forces and the kinetic model Figure 9.11: Modelling kinetic theory using marbles in
a tray.
We have seen that the kinetic model of matter can explain
I Ihe differences between solids, liquids and gases. We
<'nnexplain some other observations if we add another 1 Place some identical small balls or marbles on
scientific idea to the kinetic theory: we need to consider a shallow tray. They should cover about one-
Ihe forces between the particles that make up matter. quarter of the area of the tray.
i Why do the particles that make up a solid or a liquid stick 2 Tip the tray slightly so that the balls all roll to
j together? There must be attractive forces (forces pulling the lower end. The pattern they form is like
them together) between them. Without attractive forces the arrangement of particles in a solid.
Io hold together the particles, there would be no solids or
liquids, only gases. No matter how much we cooled matter 3 Keep the tray slightly tipped and shake it
<|own, it would remain as a gas. gently so that the balls can move about. This
is like a liquid.
Another way to refer to these forces is to say that there
.tre bonds between the particles. Each particle of a solid 4 Keep shaking the tray and tip it so that it,,
I In strongly bonded to its neighbours. This is because the becomes horizontal. The balls move around
i forces between particles are strongest when the particles are freely, colliding with each other and the sides
dose together. In a liquid, the particles are slightly further of the tray. This is like the particles in a gas.
apart and so the forces between them are slightly weaker.
In a gas, the particles are far apart, so that the particles do
not attract each other and can move freely about.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
160
>
9 The kinetic particle model of matter
tease even more. This could burst his tyres. the pressure When the gas is compressed,
the molecules hit the walls more often and the
pressure .
9 A balloon is inflated by blowing air into it. Explain
what would happen if an inflated balloon was put in
a freezer.
10 A tin can containing air is tightly sealed so no air
can escape. The can is then heated. Describe what
happens to:
a the speed of the air molecules inside the can
b how often the air molecules hit the walls of
the can
c the force with which the air molecules hit
the walls
d the pressure on the walls of the can.
1 n|ure 9.16: You need air pressure to play the trumpet.
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
162 y
9 The kinetic particle model of matter
The Celsius temperature scale The Kelvin temperature scale starts from absolute zero,
or -273 °C. Temperatures measured on this scale are
The melting and boiling points of water are used to called absolute temperatures. Scientists often measure
define the Celsius temperature scale. temperatures using the Kelvin scale. A change in
temperature of one degree is the same for both scales.
The Kelvin temperature (T) can be calculated from the
Celsius temperature (0) using the equation:
T(K) = 0(°C) + 273
KEY EQUATION
conversion between Kelvin temperature and degrees
Celsius:
T(K) = 0(°C) + 273
Figure 9.20: A modem liquid-in-glass thermometer.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9.1
Thermometers like the one shown in Figure 9.20 are used Calculate the absolute temperature of the human
in school laboratories. The bulb contains a liquid which body. Assume that the temperature of the human
expands when it gets hot. The liquid moves into the tube body is 37 °C.
and we can read the temperature on the scale.
The liquid used is usually alcohol. This expands a lot
T(K) = 0 (°C) + 273
when heated and it is safe. T= 37 + 273 = 310K
Some thermometers use mercury. Mercury thermometers
can be used at very low temperatures. Mercury is KEY WORDS
poisonous so mercury thermometers are not used in
ichools. fixed points: known values used to calibrate a
The scale was devised by the Swedish scientist Anders measuring instrument
Celsius. calibrate: to mark a standard scale on to a
1 1is scale is known as the Celsius scale. It has two fixed points: measuring instrument
• 0 °C: the melting point of pure ice at atmospheric Kelvin temperature scale: (or the absolute
pressure temperature scale) the temperature measured
from absolute zero. A difference in temperature of
• 100 °C: the boiling point of pure water at
1 kelvin is the same as a difference of 1 °C. 0 K is
atmospheric pressure.
approximately -273 °C
Bach time he made a new thermometer, Celsius would
Calibrate it. He put the thermometer in melting ice and
marked 0 °C on the thermometer. He then put it in Questions
boiling water and marked 100 °C. He then divided the
ipace between these points into 100 parts. Each part 11 Copy and complete these sentences.
represents one degree Celsius. A thermometer is used to measure ,.which is
a measure of how hot something is.
It is measured in or
The Kelvin temperature scale Temperature depends on how fast the are
1 inetic theory suggests there is a limit to how low moving.
temperatures can go. The lowest possible temperature 12 A laboratory thermometer has no temperature
( ihc point at which molecules have no kinetic energy) is markings. Describe how you could use ice and
273 °C. This is called absolute zero. boiling water to calibrate the thermometer.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
13 Calculate the temperature in kelvin of: The effect of increasing the pressure on a gas can I
a a classroom at 20 °C investigated using the simple apparatus shown in F
9.21. Adding weights increases the pressure and ca
b lava at 800 °C
the volume of the gas to decrease.
c the surface temperature of minor planet Pluto
at -233 °C. Figure 9.22 shows a more accurate method. In this
apparatus, some air is trapped inside the vertical gl
tube. The oil in the bottom of the apparatus can be
9.5 The gas laws compressed with a pump, so that it pushes up insid
tube, compressing the air. The volume of the air ca
The temperature, pressure and volume of a gas all affect read from the scale. The pressure exerted on it by tl
each other. The gas laws explain mathematically how the can be read from the dial gauge.
three affect each other. There are laws describing how each
Increasing the pressure on the gas decreases its voh
of these quantities affects the others, but we will look just
Table 9.3 shows some typical results. Boyle found a
at the law connecting the pressure of a gas and its volume.
mathematical relationship between the pressure, p,
It is important to be clear about what the terms the volume, V, of the gas.
‘temperature’, ‘pressure’ and ‘volume’ mean. The gas
laws all refer to a fixed mass of gas. Imagine the gas in a
sealed container which can be squashed or heated. The
number of molecules does not change.
The temperature of a gas is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the molecules. In a hot gas, the
molecules move faster than in a cold gas.
The pressure of a gas is caused by atoms or molecules
hitting the walls, changing momentum and so causing a
force. The pressure is the force per unit area on the walls
of the container.
164 y
9 The kinetic particle model of matter
Hoyle’s experiments showed that increasing the pressure Figure 9.23b shows that plotting p against -p gives a
ure decreased the volume. This is shown in Figure 9.23a. straight-line graph passing through the origin.
es
Finally, we can write the relationship in words: the
volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to
its pressure, provided its temperature remains constant.
he KEY WORDS
ne inversely proportional: two quantities are
oil inversely proportional when increasing one
quantity decreases the other by the same factor;
e. Volume, V doubling one quantity halves the other
d Figure 9.23: Two graphs to represent the results of a Boyle's WORKED EXAMPLE 9.2
Idw experiment, a: The graph of pressure against volume
ihows that increasing the pressure causes a decrease in the A scuba diver releases a bubble of air. The bubble has
Volume, b: The mathematical relationship between p and — a volume of 2 cm3. He watches it rise to the surface,
in be seen from this graph. It is a straight line through the expanding as it rises. The diver is at a depth where the
ijrigin, which means that pressure is inversely proportional to pressure is 5 atmospheres. What will the volume of
Volume. the bubble be when it reaches the surface, where the
volume is 1 atmosphere? Assume that the temperature
does not change.
Hoyle also found that when he multiplied pressure by
Volume, he always got the same result. You can see this in Step 1: Write down the initial and final values of the
the last column of Table 9.3. quantities that we know.
Ibis can be written mathematically as: Pi = 5 atmospheres
pV = constant =
K] 2 cm3
=
p2 1 atmosphere
KEY EQUATION /2 = ?
relationship between pressure and volume for gas at Step 2: Write down the Boyle’s law equation and
a constant temperature: substitute values.
pV = constant P\V\ =P2V2
5 atmospheres x 2 cm3 = 1 atmosphere x U,
Step 3: There is only one unknown quantity in this
This relationship can be expressed in different ways. We equation (V2). Rearrange it and solve.
can write the same idea in a way that is useful for doing
Calculations:
P2
initial pressure x initial volume = final pressure x
final volume
_ 5 atmospheres x 2 cm3 _ 3
1 atmosphere
Or: PiVi-p2V2
Answer
Where px and Vx are one pair of readings of pressure and
The volume of the air increases to 10 cm3.
Volume, and p2 and V2 are another pair.
Doubling the pressure halves the volume. This means
Worked Example 9.2 shows how to use the equation
that pressure is inversely proportional to volume. Using
Pi “ Pi ^2 to And how the volume of a gas changes
the symbol * (‘is proportional to’), we can write: when the pressure on it is changed. You can use the same
or equation to work out how the pressure changes when the
volume is changed.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Units REFLECTION
In the equation Pi^- P2^2> it does not matter what
units we use for p and V, as long as we use the same units Physics involves a lot of calculations. Presenting
for both values of p and the same units for both values your calculations clearly helps you check your
of V. work. It also helps you identify any errors.
The standard unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa). Look back over your calculations. Which steps are
1 Pa = 1 N/m2. Pressure can also be measured in kPa, you using?
N/cm2 or atmospheres. One atmosphere is approximately
100 kPa. • Identify which values are given in the question.
Volume is usually measured in m3, dm3, cm3 or litres. • Check that the units are consistent and
change them if necessary.
Questions • Write down the equation.
14 What do each of the terms in the equation • Substitute values into the equation.
Pi ^i = Pi ^2 represent?
• Rearrange the equation if needed.
15 The pressure on 6 dm3 of nitrogen gas is doubled at a
fixed temperature. What will its volume become? • Calculate the answer.
16 A flask holds 6 litres of air at a pressure of • Give units for the answer.
2 atmospheres. Calculate the volume when the Can you make your calculation answers more
gas is compressed by increasing the pressure to clear? Make a note of what you could improve and
6 atmospheres. Assume that the temperature refer to this next time you are doing calculations.
remains constant.
PROJECT
Making a game Put all the cards face down on a table, making sure
they are mixed up.
Players take turns to turn over two cards. If they
match, the player keeps them and takes another go.
If they don't match, the player turns them face down
again and the next player takes a turn.
The winner is the player with most cards at the end.
Banned words
In this game a player takes a card which has a key
word on it and a list of banned words.
Your task is to make a game to check how well you An example is shown here.
Condensation
have understood this topic. You can invent your own The player has to describe
game or use one of the ideas below. the word 'condensation' to their • liquid
Pairs
team without using any of the • gas
banned words. They could say, • cool
Make pairs of cards, one with a key word and the other 'it is the change of state that
with its definition. Do this for as many key words or ideas happens when water vapour • particle
as you can find. Be creative - for example, you could turns to water'.
draw Brownian motion rather than write a definition.
166
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9 The kinetic particle model of matter
CONTINUED
You can make your game harder or easier by the When you have made your cards, swap with another
words you choose for your banned list. group and play the game. Players take turns
choosing a card and describing the word to their
Make a set of cards for the following words team. The aim is to get through all the cards as
and phrases: solid, liquid, gas, vapour, melting, quickly as possible.
evaporation, condensation, freezing, melting point,
boiling point, kinetic model of matter, Brownian
motion, temperature, diffuse, expand, change of
state, Boyle's law, Pascal.
SUMMARY
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
CONTINUED
6 a Before going for a bike ride, a cyclist pumps his tyres up so they have a
pressure of 2.5 atmospheres. Straight after his ride, the cyclist checks his
tyre pressure. It is now 4 atmospheres. Explain why it has increased. [2]
b After a few minutes, the pressure returns to 2.5 atmospheres. He releases
the air so the pressure drops to 1 atmosphere. The tyre has a volume of
1200cm3. Calculate the volume of air that will be released from the tyre. [4]
[Total: 6]
168
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9 The kinetic particle model of matter
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
i’ter studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
ly gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
GETTING STARTED
CONTINUED
Discussion questions 2 Discuss what would happen to life on Earth
if water froze like other liquids so that ponds
1 Sketch a graph to show how the density of froze from the bottom up.
water changes from 0 to 1 0 °C.
Figure 10.3 shows an experiment that demonstrates that hot rivet cold rive
a metal ball expands when it is heated.
• When the ball is cold, it just fits through the ring.
• The ball, but not the ring, is heated strongly. It now
Figure 10.4: Joining two metal plates using a rivet.
will not pass through the ring. It has expanded.
When the ball cools down, it contracts and returns
to its original size and will once again pass through
the ring.
Figure 10.5: Steel tyres are heated so they expand and <
be fitted to train wheels. They contract and fit very tighth
KEY WORDS
heat
thermal expansion: the increase in volume of a
material when its temperature rises Figure 1 0.6: A bimetallic strip. Invar is a metal alloy whic
expands very little when heated. Copper expands more,
difference in expansion causes the strip to bend.
Uses of expansion
A bimetallic strip (Figure 10.6) is designed to bend as i
Rivets are used in shipbuilding and other industries to
gets hot. The strip is made of two metals joined firmly
join metal plates. A red-hot rivet is passed through holes
together. One metal expands much more than the othe
172
>
10 Thermal properties of matter
ACTIVITY 10.1
id Dies of a bimetallic strip
A bimetallic strip can be used in an electric circuit
i b। complete or break a circuit depending on the
Inmperature.
Design a fire alarm circuit which will sound
a buzzer when it gets hot. Design a poster Figure 10.8: As the temperature drops, so does the
to promote your invention. Include a circuit volume of the liquid in the thermometer. The alcohol in this
diagram and an explanation of how the thermometer remains liquid at very low temperatures.
device works.
• Consider how you could change your circuit Glass containers may crack when hot liquid is placed
to make an alarm to warn gardeners when in them. This is because the inner surface of the glass
temperatures are dropping and allow them expands rapidly, before the thermal energy has passed
to protect delicate plants from frost. Design a through to the outer surface. The force of expansion
poster for a frost alarm. cracks the glass. To avoid this, glass such as Pyrex has
been developed that expands very little on heating. An
alternative is toughened glass, which has been treated
Consequences of expansion with chemicals to reduce the chance of cracking.
I he expansion of materials can cause problems. For
p* ample, metal bridges and railway lines expand on hot The expansion of gases
Tn and there is a danger that they might bend. To avoid
llll'. bridges are made in sections, with expansion joints Gases expand when they are heated, just like solids and
I 'tween the sections (Figure 10.7). On a hot day, the bridge liquids. We can explain this using the kinetic model of
pands and the gaps between sections decrease. Railway matter (see Chapter 9). Figure 10.9 shows some gas in a
cylinder fitted with a piston. At first, the gas is cold and
lines are now usually made from a metal alloy that expands
its particles press weakly on the piston. When the gas
i'iy little. On a concrete roadway, you may notice that the
lei is heated, its particles move faster. Now they push with
t mad surface is in short sections. The gaps between are filled
Hh soft tar, which becomes squashed as the road expands. greater force on the piston and push it upwards. The gas
has expanded.
cylinder piston piston
rises
ii gas
molecules
KEY EQUATION
.c , , energy required
specific .t
heat capacity = mass x temperature increase
mA#
Figure 10.13: The tea is hotter than the bath so its particles
move faster. However, the bath has far more particles and where c = specific heat capacity, AE = energy required,
tores more energy. m = mass and A# = increase in temperature. A is the
Greek letter delta; it means ‘change in’.
I leating water causes the water particles to gain kinetic
The energy needed can be calculated by rearranging the
energy and speed up. It takes more energy to raise the
equation:
temperature of a large amount of water because more
particles need to have their speed changed. This section energy required = mass x specific heat capacity
deals with increasing the kinetic energy of particles. We x increase in temperature .■
I
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Worked Example 10.1 shows how to use this equation in Table 10.1 shows that there is quite a wide range of
more detail. values. The specific heat capacity of steel, for exampli
is one-tenth that of water. This means that, when you
WORKED EXAMPLE 10.1 supply equal amounts of energy to 1 kg of steel and t
1 kg of water, the temperature of the steel rises ten tir
A kettle heats 1.5 kg of water. How much energy is as much as the temperature of the water.
needed to raise the temperature of the water from
20 °C to 100 °C? Assume that specific heat capacity of
Type of Specific heat
water = 4200 J/(kg °C). Material
material capacity/J/(kg °i
Step 1: Calculate the required increase in
metals steel 420
temperature.
aluminium 910
increase in temperature = 100 °C - 20 °C
copper 385
= 80 °C gold 300
Step 2: Write down the other quantities needed to
calculate the energy. lead 130
I ufasia, for example) experience freezing winters and of heat in the winter, and stays relatively cool in the
« 0ry hot summers. People who live on islands and in summer.
t < las tai areas (such as western Europe) are protected
11 nin climatic extremes because the sea acts as a store
-
• a block of metal with holes for the
thermometer and heater
• insulation for the block
• electric heater
-
• power pack heater
thermometer
- • joulemeter (your teacher may show you an metal block
- alternative way to find the energy used) insulation
• thermometer Figure 10.14
• access to balance.
1 Measure and record the mass, m, of the block
in kg.
Safety: The electric heater can become extremely 2 Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 10.14.
hot. Leave it to cool inside the block when you have
finished your experiment. 3 Measure and record the initial temperature (0J
of the block.
Getting started 4 Turn on the power supply.
1 Should you insulate the metal block? Explain 5 When there has been a temperature rise of
your answer. 10 °C, turn off the power supply and record the
Joulemeter reading.
2 Why should you measure the mass of the
block at the start of the experiment rather 6 Watch the thermometer for a few minutes and
than the end? record the highest temperature (02) it reaches.
Calculate the change in temperature using
= 02 ~ ^1-
8 Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal using the equation:
'
c=
^
mA0
y
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Figure 10.15
178
10 Thermal properties of matter
Time / min
Figure 1 0.1 9a: The thermometer measures the temperature of the wax as it cools, b: The graph shows how the
temperature changes.
Figure 10.19a shows one way to investigate the behaviour Now the temperature of the wax stays the same for
of a liquid material as it solidifies. The test tube contains a few minutes. The tube contains a mixture of clear
a waxy substance called stearic acid. This is warmed up, liquid and white solid. The wax is solidifying. The wax
and it becomes a clear, colourless liquid. It is then left is still transferring thermal energy to the surroundings,
to cool down, and its temperature is monitored using a because it is still warmer than its surroundings, but its
thermometer (or an electronic temperature probe) and temperature does not decrease.
recorded.
The wax’s temperature starts to drop again. All the wax
Figure 10.19b shows the results. is now solid. It continues cooling until it reaches the
temperature of its surroundings.
At first, the liquid wax cools down. Its temperature drops
gradually. The wax is hotter than its surroundings, so The dashed line on the graph has been drawn to find th
thermal energy is transferred to the surroundings. The temperature at which the stearic acid changes from a
graph is slightly curved. As the temperature drops, there liquid to a solid.
is less difference between the temperature of the wax and
its surroundings, so it cools more slowly.
180 )
10 Thermal properties of matter
«l l»
ID
Figure 10.20
10 Use Figure 10.19b to determine the melting point of How can we use the kinetic molecular model of m.
stearic acid. to explain evaporation? Imagine a beaker of water,
11 Use the information in Table 9.2 to explain why water will gradually evaporate. Figure 10.22 shows
air doesn’t have a fixed melting or boiling point. particles that make up the water. The particles of t
(Hint: air is roughly 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen). water are moving around, and some are moving fa:
than others. Some may be moving fast enough to e.
from the surface of the water. They become particL
Evaporation of water vapour in the air. In this way, all of the wa
particles may eventually escape from the beaker, an
water will have evaporated.
If the temperature of the liquid is higher, more of i'
particles will have enough energy to escape. This mt
the liquid will evaporate more quickly. The hottest
particles are most likely to escape as they have most
energy. When they escape, the average energy of the
remaining particles is less, so the liquid cools down.
Cooling by evaporation
If you get wet, perhaps in the rain or after swimmin;
you will notice that you can quickly get cold. The wt
on your body is evaporating, and this cools you dow
Why does evaporation make things cooler?
Look again at Figure 10.22. The particles that are
Figure 10.21: In warm weather puddles evaporate quickly. escaping from the water are the fastest-moving ones.
They are the particles with the most kinetic energy.
A liquid can change state without boiling. After it This means that the particles that remain are those v
rains, the puddles dry up even though the temperature less energy. Now the particles of the liquid have less
is much lower than 100 °C. The water from the puddles energy (on average) and so the temperature of the wi
has evaporated. The liquid water has become a gas decreases. The water cools down.
called water vapour in the air. This is the process of
evaporation. We can think of a vapour as a gas at a
temperature below its boiling point. Comparing evaporation
A liquid evaporates more quickly as its temperature
approaches its boiling point. That is why puddles
and boiling
disappear faster on a hot day than a cold day. Evaporation and boiling both involve a liquid turnin
into a gas. Evaporation is different from boiling.
• Boiling only happens at the boiling point of the
substance. Evaporation occurs at all temperatur
gas particle
• For a liquid to boil, it has to be heated - the
particle with kinetic energy of its particles must be increased.
higher kinetic Evaporation happens when the most energetic
energy leaves particles escape, so evaporation takes energy fro
the liquid surface the substance.
liquid particle • Boiling happens throughout the liquid. Evapora
only happens at the surface.
Figure 10.22: Fast-moving particles leave the surface of a
liquid. This is how the liquid evaporates. • A boiling liquid bubbles. A liquid can evaporate
without bubbles.
182 y
10 Thermal properties of matter
it
r Ipweding up evaporation As a liquid evaporates, the remaining liquid cools. This
means that thermal energy will flow to the liquid from
ha 11 mi use the kinetic model to explain some ways of any objects in contact with it. When we get hot we sweat.
*M*<ln>i| up evaporation. The sweat evaporates, causing thermal energy to flow
er from the skin. This helps us cool down.
:a
Hvvasing the temperature
door
U WARM
pump
I iqure 10.25: A draught blowing across the surface
uh mases the rate of evaporation.
low-pressure high-pressure
A draught is moving air. When particles escape from the pipe pipe
water, they are blown away so that they cannot fall back Figure 10.27: The refrigerant liquid absorbs thermal energy
in to the water. This helps the liquid evaporate quickly. from the fridge as it evaporates.
183
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
PROJECT
• condensing * temperature.
Write three multiple choice questions for the stude
to test their understanding to go with your video.
184
10 Thermal properties of matter
n
tha PEER ASSESSMENT
ha
Present your work to another group. Ask them to answer your questions and comment on what they
have learnt.
SUMMARY
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
A The firework has the highest temperature and it contains the most internal
energy.
B The bath has the highest temperature and contains the most internal energy.
C The firework has the highest temperature but contains the least internal energy.
D The bath has the lowest temperature and contains the least internal energy.
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
state: express in
clear terms
a Brass expands more than iron. Which metal should be at the top of
the strip? [1 ]
b Describe what happens as the temperature rises in case of a fire. [3]
[Total: 4]
186
>
10 Thermal properties of matter
'NTINUED
\ c ook spills water. Some falls on the floor, some on the hot stove top.
I lie temperature of the stove top is about 80 °C. He goes to get a cloth to
wipe up. When he returns, he sees the stove is dry but the floor is still wet.
Name the process by which water becomes a gas at a temperature
below its boiling point. [11
b Explain why energy must be supplied to a liquid to turn it into a gas.
In your answer, refer to the particles of the liquid and the forces
between them. [1]
Explain why the floor will dry more quickly if the cook turns on an
electric fan. [1]
[Total: 3]
1 1 uda follows the cooking instructions for a tin of baked beans.
COMMAND WORDS
420g
© Microwave explain: produce an
answer from a given
Empty contents into a non-metallic bowl and cover.
Stir well before serving. source or recall I
650 watt 750 watt 850 watt memory
Category B Category D Category E
1 1 uda’s microwave oven has a power of 650 W. She heats the beans for the
recommended time and checks the temperature. The beans have heated from
10 °C to 90 °C.
a Use the equation energy = power x time to calculate the energy supplied. [i]
b Calculate the specific heat capacity of the beans. Give your answer to
two significant figures. [3]
She notices that the dish she heated the beans in has also become hot
and realises this will affect her calculation. Explain whether her result
will be too high or too low. [2]
Huda also measures the specific heat capacity of tinned spaghetti.
She calculates it as 3100 J/kg°C. If she heats both the beans and
spaghetti to the same temperature, which will cool down quicker?
Explain your answer. [2]
[Total: 81
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
188 y
Chapter 11
"hermal energy
transfers
GETTING STARTED
Figure 11.1 shows items that are used to transfer member of the group to report back on one of the
thermal energy or prevent thermal energy transfer. photos. If they can do this they score a point for the
Work in a group to decide what each item is for and team. If they use any of the following terms correctly,
how it works. Your teacher will stop you and pick a your teacher will award bonus points.
conduction radiation
convection infrared
convection conductor insulator
current radiation
Rules:
All members of the group need to be able to answer.
You cannot write down your ideas.
You can write a maximum of three words for each picture as a prompt.
Figure 11.1: A selection of items that transfer thermal energy, or prevent thermal energy transfer.
190 y
11 Thermal energy transfers
CONTINUED
I he reindeer's nasal passages serve as a complex Reindeer have other adaptations that make them
thermal energy exchange system. They have a suited to life in the Arctic. They need to stick
। omplex system of tubes which allow warm air together in blizzards, because they cannot see each
I feing breathed out to pass over cold air being other. Their feet make a clicking sound as tendons
I reathed in. Thermal energy is transferred to the move across bones. This means they can hear each
incoming air so that the air leaving a reindeer's other. They also have a gland in the leg that leaves a
body is cold, and the reindeer keeps the thermal scent on the ground, which helps them locate each
nergy. The warm air is cooled by about 21 °C other.
before leaving the reindeer's nose.
Reindeer's eyes change in winter. In summer, they
I he reindeer are so well insulated that they are in have a golden reflective layer at the back of the eye,
lunger of overheating when running from predators like a cat's eye. In winter, this layer turns dark blue,
as wolves. which means less light escapes and the eyes are
more sensitive.
Ihey lose thermal energy from their large tongues.
Also they circulate more blood to their legs, which are In this chapter you will study the ways in which
less insulated so can give out the thermal energy. thermal energy is transferred and how we can use
this to our advantage.
It is important that a reindeer does not lose feeling in
its nose while finding food in the snow. To keep the Discussion questions
nose warm and sensitive, it has extra blood vessels.
This means that when a reindeer is photographed 1 Human nasal passages also transfer thermal
With a temperature-sensitive camera, the nose seems energy from exhaled air. Try breathing onto
to glow. your hand, first from your mouth, then from
your nose. You will notice the air from your
nose is cooler. Discuss how we use this to help
us cool down or to keep warm.
How can this be? What you are detecting is the fact that
metal is a good conductor of thermal energy, and wood
is a poor conductor of thermal energy.
When your finger touches a metal object, thermal energy
is conducted out of your finger and into the metal.
Because metal is a good thermal conductor, thermal
energy spreads rapidly through the metal. Thermal
energy continues to escape from your finger, leaving it
colder than before. The temperature-sensitive nerves in Figure 11 .4a: Touching a metal spoon, b: Touching a
your finger tip tell your brain that your finger is cold. So, wooden spoon.
you think you are touching something cold.
When you touch a wooden object, thermal energy
conducts into the area that your finger is in direct contact KEY WORDS
with. However, because wood is a good thermal insulator, thermal conduction: the transfer of thermal
the thermal energy travels no further. Your finger loses energy by the vibration of molecules
no more thermal energy and remains warm. The message
from the nerves in your finger tip is that your finger is thermal conductor: a substance that conducts
warm. So, you think you are touching something warm. thermal energy
Note that the nerves in your finger tell you how hot your thermal insulator: a substance that conducts very
finger is, not how hot the object that you are touching is! little thermal energy
This is similar to our discussion of thermometers in
Chapter 10. A thermometer in water indicates its own
temperature, and we have to assume that the temperature
of the water is the same as this.
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>
11 Thermal energy transfers
ONTINUED
Method Method
clamp stand
paperclips
rod
Bunsen burner
hi’ 4 resistant mat
I Iflure 11.5: Experimental set-up for part 1. Figure 11.6: Experimental set-up for part 2.
1 Use small blobs of petroleum jelly to attach 1 Use small blobs of petroleum jelly to attach a
paper clips along the copper rod, as shown paper clip to the end of each metal rod.
in Figure 11.5.
2 Place the rods on the tripod, as shown in
2 Secure the rod in the clamp and heat the Figure 11.6, and heat the ends.
other end.
3 Use a table like this to record the time taken
Watch carefully what happens to the paper clips.
for each paper clip to fall.
Questions
1 Describe what happened to the paper clips. Metal Time taken for clip to fall /
seconds
What does this tell you about how thermal
energy is conducted along the rod?
CONTINUED
Part 3: Is water a good conductor of thermal Questions
energy?
1 Describe your observations.
You will need: 2 Explain why this experiment shows that wate
a poor conductor of thermal energy.
• Bunsen burner
• heatproof mat Part 4: What materials make good insulators?
• boiling tube
• small piece of wire gauze You will need:
• test tube holder • 4 equal sized beakers with cardboard lids
• cold water • 4 thermometers, pushed through the
cardboard lids
• ice cube.
• timer
Method • a range of insulating materials
• electric kettle.
Method
194 y
11 Thermal energy transfers
JUNUED
Wi.ip three of the beakers in different insulating Questions
in.lterials. Leave the fourth beaker without 1 Why was the beaker with no insulation included
insulation. in the experiment?
I >< "jign a table to record your results.
2 Draw a graph of your results. Plot temperature
• Boil the kettle and carefully pour equal
I amounts of water into each of the beakers.
on the y-axis against time on the x-axis. Plot all
four sets of results on the same axis.
M< osure the temperature of the water in each 3 Which insulator kept the water the hottest?
’ I K'.iker every minute for ten minutes. 4 List the insulators in order from best to worst.
energy flow
hot cold
III I compares conductors and insulators. In
1 1 metals are good conductors of thermal energy
•ihI nun metals are poor conductors. Air and water are
• । >m conductors of thermal energy.
aluminum,
steel
Bunsen burner
lead
ice, marble,
glass Figure 11.9: Conduction of thermal energy in non-metals.
A glass rod is heated at one end. Thermal energy travels
polyethene, from the hot end to the cold end.
nylon
rubber, wood We will start with non-metals. Imagine a long glass rod
(Figure 11.9). One end is being heated, the other end is
polystyrene cold. This makes a temperature difference between the
•> .I < onductor glass wool best insulator two ends, and so thermal energy flows along the rod.
What is going on inside the rod?
111: Comparing conductors of thermal energy, from
IlK'.l ' onductors to the worst. A bad conductor is a good
|| Almost all good conductors are metals; polymers
in i) .ire at the bottom of the list. Glass wool is an
h4 Hunt insulator because it is mostly air.
195 )
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
196 y
1 1 Thermal energy transfers
Safety: Wear eye protection when using a Bunsen 1 Cut a spiral from thin card.
burner. Wear protective gloves when handling 2 Attach a thin thread to the ceptre of the spiral.
potassium manganate(VII). Do not hold the card
spiral near a flame. 3 Hold the thread above a heat source (such as a
radiator) and observe how it moves.
Getting started
What is the purpose of the potassium
manganate(VII) crystal in this experiment?
Method part 1: Convection in a liquid
198
>
11 Thermal energy transfers
floor
18°C
hum# 11.17: Convection currents rise above the warm
Mi’ll in a room.
8 An inventor makes an electric kettle with the heating To summarise, infrared radiation:
element at the top. Explain why it will not work.
• is produced by warm or hot objects
9 a Draw diagrams to show the difference in the
arrangement of particles in a hot gas and a
• is a form of electromagnetic radiation
cold gas. • travels through empty space (and through air) in the
b Use your diagrams to explain why hot gases form of waves
rise. Use the words ‘expand’ and ‘density’ in • travels in straight lines
your answer. • warms the object that absorbs it
1 0 Explain why convection does not happen in solids.
• is invisible to the naked eye
• can be detected by nerve cells in the skin.
11.3 Radiation
At night, when it is dark, you can see much further
than during the day. In the daytime, the most distant
object you are likely to be able to see is the Sun, about
150 million kilometres away. At night, you can see much
further, to the distant stars. The most distant object
visible to the naked eye is the Andromeda galaxy, about
20 million million million kilometres away.
The light that reaches us from the Sun and other stars
travels to us through space in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. This radiation travels as electromagnetic
waves. It travels over vast distances, following a
straight line through empty space. Radiation is the only
form of thermal energy transfer which does not involve
the movement of particles. Thermal radiation does not
need a medium to travel through. It can travel through a
vacuum. As well as light, the Earth receives other forms of
electromagnetic radiation from the Sun, including infrared
and ultraviolet radiation. (You will learn much more about
electromagnetic radiation in Chapter 15.)
All objects emit infrared radiation. The hotter an object, Figure 11.21: Using an infrared-sensitive camera. Slight
the more infrared radiation it gives out. You can use this variations in temperature show up as different colours. The
idea to help you to do a bit of detective work. Imagine scale shows how the colour relates to temperature.
you arrive at a crime scene. The suspect says he has just
arrived by car. You suspect he has been at the scene for Figure 1 1.21 shows another way of detecting infrared
an hour, giving him time to commit the crime. Holding radiation: by using a temperature-sensitive camera. The
your hand over the engine compartment will quickly tell photograph of a woman sitting at a desk is taken with a
you if the engine is radiating thermal energy. camera which detects infrared radiation instead of light.
It is very sensitive to slight differences in temperature.
KEY WORDS
Questions
infrared radiation: electromagnetic radiation with
a wavelength greater than that of visible light; 1 1 Which statement about infrared radiation is true?
sometimes known as thermal energy radiation A Infrared radiation travels slower than light.
B Infrared radiation cannot be reflected.
Our skin detects the infrared radiation produced by a
hot object. Nerve cells just below the surface respond to C Infrared radiation can travel through a vacuum.
thermal energy. You notice this if you are outdoors on a
D Infrared radiation is transferred by the
sunny day.
movement of particles.
11 Thermal energy transfers
PEER ASSESSMENT
Figure 11.22: Infrared photograph of a car. Display each group's work from Activity 9.1 around
the classroom. Take a class vote on which board
best meets the brief. Discuss what makes it a good
ACTIVITY 9.1 piece of work. Adapt your board to add some of
the features you identified.
A science museum is preparing a display about Figure 11.24: A sunshield reflects unwanted radiation, which
infrared photography. You are a researcher and would otherwise make the car very hot.
I i.ive been given the following brief.
On a hot, sunny day, car drivers may park their cars with
Investigate one of the uses of this technology and a sunshield behind the windscreen (Figure 11.24). Such a
। mpare an information board about it. Your board sunshield is usually shiny, because this reflects light and
•should be one side of A4 paper. It must include infrared radation from the Sun. This stops the car getting
it least one eye-catching picture taken with an uncomfortably hot. The black plastic parts of the car
Infrared camera, and a maximum of 150 words (such as the steering wheel and dashboard) are very good
• Inscribing the science and how it is used. absorbers of infrared radaition, and they can become too
hot to touch.
201 )
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
0°C
Figure 11.25: This house is built from bottles filled with sand.
It is painted white to reduce absorption of infrared radiation.
Questions
14 Explain why the worker in Figure 11.26 is wearing a
shiny suit.
1 5 Which will stay hot longer: tea in a shiny silver teapot Figure 11.27: Beaker A will warm up, beaker B will cool
or tea in dark brown one? Explain your answer. down and beaker C will remain at a constant temperature.
202
>
11 Thermal energy transfers
Safety: Take care when using hot water. Do not matte black — shiny silver
touch or move the cans while they are full of very surface surface
hot water. Wear eye protection when using a
llunsen burner.
Getting started wooden bench
look at Figure 11 .28. Use what you know about Figure 11.29: Set-up for the experiment.
thermal energy transfers to explain why the cans
must be fitted with lids, and why they should stand
Method
on a wooden or plastic surface.
1 Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 11.29;
thermometer board to isolate cans use the same cans as in experiment A.
2 Fill the cans with equal volumes of cold water.
3 Place the cans at equal distances from the
matte black J — shiny silver Bunsen flame or electric heater.
lurface surface
4 Use thermometers or electronic temperature
probes to measure the temperature of the
water in each can every minute for ten minutes.
wooden bench
Questions
Figure 11.28: Set-up for the experiment.
1 Plot a similar graph to experiment A.
2 What can you conclude from your results?
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
I 11
can travel through empty space. Infrared radiation draught convection
can also pass through some transparent materials excluders currents, and
such as air. so prevents
Hot objects have a lot of internal energy. As we have thermal energ
seen, energy tends to escape from a hot object, spreading transfer
to its cooler surroundings by conduction, convection MKMa loft and prevents
and radiation. This can be a great problem. We may use underfloor conduction of
a lot of energy (and money) to heat our homes during insulating thermal energ
cold weather, and the energy simply escapes. We eat food materials through floors
to supply the energy we need to keep our bodies warm, | \ and ceilings
but energy escapes from us at a rate of about 100 watts
(100 W = 100 J/s). double and vacuum
To keep energy in something that is hotter than its triple glazing between glass
surroundings, we need to insulate it. Knowing about
conduction, convection and radiation can help us to
design effective insulation.
mi
ji 1
r
of windows panes cuts ou
losses or gain:
by conduction
and convectio
Remember that all three mechanisms of energy transfer
(conduction, convection and radiation) may be involved cavity walls reduces
when an object warms up or cools down. thermal energ
loss or gain bj
conduction
Home insulation
A well-insulated house can avoid a lot of energy wastage ki
MM
during cold weather. Insulation can also help to prevent foam or further reduce
the house from becoming uncomfortably hot during rockwool in thermal energ
warm weather. Figure 11.30 shows where thermal energy wall cavity transfer by
is lost from a house, and some ways to reduce thermal convection
energy losses. More details are listed in Table 11.2.
204 y
1 1 Thermal energy transfers
Keeping cool
\lcuum flasks are used to keep hot drinks hot. They
in also be used to keep cold drinks cold. Giant vacuum
links are used to store liquid nitrogen and helium at very
low temperatures, ready for use in such applications as
body scanners in hospitals. They also have medical uses,
1Uch as for storing frozen embryos for IVF treatment.
I Igure 1 1.32 shows the construction of a vacuum
flunk. Glass is generally used, because glass is a good
Figure 11.33: This couple are hoping to have a baby by IVF
uliulator. However, some flasks are made of steel for
The flask they are holding contains their frozen embryos.
ndded strength. Air is removed from the gap between the
double walls, creating a vacuum. This reduces losses by
• onduction and convection because both of them need a
material to travel through. The silver coating on the glass
induces losses by radiation by reflecting any infrared
inflation. The stopper is made of plastic and it prevents
losses by convection and evaporation.
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
A car engine bums fuel and so gets very hot. The cooling
system (Figure 11 .34a) transfers some of this thermal
Figure 11.35: The older child will feel hotter than the
energy to the surroundings so the engine does not
younger child as his black T-shirt absorbs infrared radiation
overheat. This system uses many of the things you have
whereas the white T-shirt reflects the infrared radiation.
learnt: 1
f
• Specific heat capacity: water flows around the block
to absorb thermal energy. Water is a good choice as Thermal energy transfer,
it has a very high specific heat capacity.
• Convection: as the water is heated, a convection climate and weather
current flows in the direction shown by the arrows. Radiation from the Sun is essential for life on Earth.
The pump is used to speed up this flow. The Sun’s radiation warms the Earth. The warm Earth
• Conduction: the radiator has metal fins (Figure emits some infrared radiation. Gases in the Earth’s
11.34b) so the thermal energy is conducted to all atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, absorb some of this
parts of the radiator. thermal energy and this warms our atmosphere. This is
• Radiation: the fins have a large surface area and are the greenhouse effect (Figure 11.36) and without it life
black to increase the rate of thermal energy radiation. on Earth would be impossible. However, the amount
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increasing,
trapping more thermal energy. This means that Earth
and its atmosphere are absorbing more infrared radiation
than they emit. This is the cause of global warming.
water
206
11 Thermal energy transfers
I flure. 11.37: Convection currents in the oceans flow in predictable directions. The red lines show warm surface water and
lh< blue lines show the flow of the deeper, colder water. The warm currents affect the climate. For example, the British Isles
in warmed by the Gulf steam (a flow of warm water from the Gulf of Mexico).
• onvection
oisan
currents explain the origins of winds and
currents, which are two of the major factors that
1 7 The coat in Figure 11.38 is designed for a cold
climate.
i ontrol climate patterns around the world. For example,
warm air rises above the Equator, and colder air sinks in
Mibtropical areas. This creates the pattern of trade winds
that are experienced in the tropics.
<)cean currents (Figure 11.37) help to spread thermal
nergy from equatorial regions to cooler parts of the
I arth’s surface. Warm water at the surface of the sea
flows towards the poles. In polar regions, colder water
Minks and flows back towards the Equator. Provided this
I uttern remains constant, this helps to make temperate
legions of the world more habitable. However, there is
that the pattern of ocean currents is changing,
perhaps as a consequence of global warming.
Questions
16 In a rolling mill, iron is heated to make it malleable Figure 11.38
and it is then passed through rollers to produce
thin sheets of the metal. Explain how the following Describe the features of the coat which prevent
become hot in this process: thermal energy loss by:
a the rollers which press the metal a conduction
b the face of a worker b convection
c the air in the building. c radiation.
207 y
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
PROJECT
208 )
11 Thermal energy transfers
PEER ASSESSMENT
< )nce your peers have completed your worksheet, read their answers and give them feedback. Comment on
how well they use scientific terms, and how clear their explanations are.
REFLECTION
What problems did you encounter while working on this project?
Did playing the part of the teacher tell you anything about the way you learn?
SUMMARY
1 Metals are good thermal conductors. Most non-metals are good insulators.
1 Metals are good thermal conductors because they have free electrons.
1 Hot fluids are less dense than cold fluids. This causes convection currents.
Infrared radiation transfers thermal energy using electromagnetic waves.
1 Infrared radiation does not require a medium (it can travel through a vacuum).
1 Shiny, white surfaces reflect infrared radiation. They are poor emitters and absorbers of infrared radiation.
1 Dull, black surfaces are good absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation, but poor reflectors.
1‘he amount of infrared radiation emitted also depends on the surface area and temperature of the object.
209 y
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 Which word describes a material that does not let thermal energy pass
through it? [1 ]
A conductor
B vacuum
C resistor
D insulator
2 Which states of matter can convention happen in? [1 ]
A solids and liquids
B liquids and gases
C gases and solids
D solids, liquids and gases
3 Hot fluids rise. This can be explained because, as the fluid gets hotter,
there is a decrease in the fluid’s: [1 ]
A mass
B temperature
C density
D volume
4 This diagram shows an electric water heater.
COMMAND WORDS
describe: state the
points of a topic; give
characteristics and
main features
a The copper wall is hot to touch. Name the process by which thermal suggest: apply
energy from the water passes through the wall. [1 ] knowledge and
understanding
b Describe how a heater at the bottom of the tank heats all the water in to situations where
the tank. [3] there are a range
c The hot walls transfer thermal energy to the surroundings. Suggest a of valid responses
way this thermal energy loss could be reduced. [1 ] in order to make
proposals/put forward
[Total: 5] considerations
11 Thermal energy transfers
CONTINUED
COMMAND WORD
b Explain which rod you would expect the drawing pin to fall from first. [2] explain: set out
purposes or
c Describe two features of the experiment which make it a fair test. [2] reasons / make
[Total: 5] the relationships
between things
The diagram shows a Leslie cube. It is a metal box and each side has a evident I provide
different surface. why and / or how and
support with relevant
Leslie cube shiny black evidence
shiny 'silver'
Saraya uses a Leslie cube to investigate infrared radiation. She fills the cube
with boiling water so all sides are at the same temperature. She uses the
infrared detector to investigate the radiation from each surface.
a Why is it important to keep the detector the same distance from
each side? [1]
b Match the surfaces to the temperatures. The first one has been done
for you. [2]
shiny black 64.5 °C
matte black 71.2 °C
shiny silver 60.4 °C
matte white 65.3 °C
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED *
c Saraya’s infrared detector gave the temperature to the nearest 0.1 °C.
Zain repeats the experiment using a different infrared detector which
gives the temperature to the nearest degree.
Suggest how Zain’s conclusion will differ from Saraya’s. [2]
[Total: 5]
7 Some double glazed windows have a plastic frame and two panes of glass
with a vacuum between them.
a Explain why plastic is used for the frame. [1 ]
b Name the types of thermal energy transfer which are stopped by
the vacuum. [2]
COMMAND WORD
c Double glazing reduces thermal energy losses from a house. Describe
two other ways to reduce thermal energy losses and state the type of state: express in
thermal energy transfer which each reduces. [4] clear terms
[Total: 7]
8 Two beakers are filled with water at 20 °C. Beaker A is placed outside in the
snow at -5 °C. Beaker B is placed in a room at 25 °C. The temperature of
each beaker is taken half an hour later.
a State what you would expect to happen to the temperatures of the two
beakers. [2]
b Explain your answer in terms of the energy radiated or absorbed by
the water in each beaker. [2]
c A third beaker, also filled with water at 20 °C remains at this temperature.
State and explain what you can deduce from this about where the third
beaker has been placed.. [2]
[Total: 6]
212
>
11 Thermal energy transfers
'.ELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
X I r studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
iin gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
213 )
> Chapter 12
Sound
• .ETTING STARTED
Draw a table like this. Your table should fill a piece of A4 paper.
How are sounds made? How does sound travel? How fast is sound?
How do we detect sound? How do sounds differ from each other? Are there sounds we cannot hear?
Write or draw something in each cell of the table. Make it as detailed as you can.
Pair up with another student and compare your tables. Make any additions or changes you want to based on
your discussion.
Join with another pair and share your ideas. Again, make any changes.
AiMnltIv
Figures 12.4-12.7 link sounds to the vibrating sources
which cause them.
Figure 1 2.6: The cicada has ribbed membranes at the bas
of its abdomen which vibrate causing a particularly loud
sound.
Figure 12.4: Hitting the tuning fork causes the prongs to Figure 12.7: Vocal folds in the human throat vibrate to
vibrate. create speech.
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12 Sound
figure 12.8: Djembe drums are made in a range of sizes An orchestra produces vibrations by a complex
i । producedifferent notes. The skin vibrates when hit and combination of hitting, plucking, bowing and blowing.
produces sound waves. These vibrations pass through the air to the audience,
causing their eardrums to vibrate, so they hear the sound.
Siring instruments are plucked or bowed to cause them to If the sound is very loud, such as at a rock concert, the
> ibrate. The length of the string can be changed (usually
audience may feel vibrations throughout their bodies and
by holding the string down with a finger) and this changes through the floor.
I he note produced. The body of the instrument and the
ur inside it also vibrate and this gives the instrument its
ililtinctive sound. This is why an oud and a violin can Questions
play the same note but sound very different.
1 What are all sounds caused by?
2 A drum, a flute and a violin all play a note. For each
instrument state what vibrates to create the sound.
3 Describe how a drummer hitting a drum leads to a
listener hearing sound.
You will learn more about waves in Chapter 14. The vibrations of the prohgs are not easy to see, but th
effect on water can be dramatic, as seen in Figure 12.13
The movement of the air particles can be demonstrated
using a slinky spring, as shown in Figure 12.11.
Figure 12.12: The tuning fork's prongs move back and forth creating compressions and rarefactions in the air.
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12 Sound
The Sun is very active and yet we hear no sound from it.
This is because there are no particles to carry the huge
disturbances caused by explosions and solar flares. We
can see the Sun because, unlike sound waves, light waves
can travel through a vacuum.
Another major difference between sound and light waves
is their speed. Light travels at 300 000 000 m/s, about a
million times faster than sound. This means we see the
lightning almost as it happens but hear the sound later.
To calculate how many kilometres away the storm is,
measure the time between the lightning and the thunder
and divide by three. This works because sound travels
1 km in about 3 seconds.
figure 12.14: When the battery is connected, the bell can
I seen and heard. Vibrations from the bell pass through the
"■
in the jar, through the glass and then through the air to
Questions
your ear. When the pump removes the air from the jar, the 4 Explain why sound cannot be heard in a vacuum.
bell can still be seen vibrating, but cannot be heard. 5 Describe and explain what is heard when the
vacuum pump in figure 12.14 is switched on.
Sound can travel through solids. You may be able to 6 A boy sees lightning and hears the thunderclap 9
hear sounds from outside the classroom as you read this. seconds later. Calculate how far away is the storm is.
Sound vibrations can travel through the walls.
Bounds can also pass through liquids. Many sea animals
luch as dolphins and whales use sound to communicate
With each other and to navigate.
12.3 The speed of sound
Sound travels at between 330 m/s and 350 m/s in air. The
speed changes slightly depending on the temperature and
humidity of the air. This is much slower than light, but
still so fast that we are usually not aware of the time it
bC
*V takes for sounds to reach us, unless the distance it travels
is large.
• An echo is a reflected sound wave. If you bang two
wooden blocks together in the classroom you will hear
only one bang. The sound will reflect from the walls, but
the echo will be so close to the original bang that you
will not hear it as a separate sound. Banging the blocks
outside will mean the sound has further to travel so you
may hear an echo. This can be used to measure the speed
of sound.
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Measuring the speed of sound in air 1 Stand a measured distance (ideally at least
50 metres) from a large flat wall. Bang the
You can calculate the speed of sound in air by
blocks together and listen for the echo.
measuring the time taken for an echo to be heard.
2 Now try to bang the blocks in an even rhythm
so that each clap coincides with the echo of the
You will need:
previous bang. This will mean you don't hear
• 2 wooden blocks the echo separately from the next bang. This
• stopwatch may take some practice.
• long tape measure or trundle wheel.
3 Your partner should then measure the time for
20 of your bangs.
Safety: You will be creating very loud sounds. Avoid
doing this near anyone's ears as loud sounds can 4 Record the time taken for 20 bangs and the
damage the ear. distance from the wall.
at least 50 m REFLECTION
Discuss the experiment with a partner. Suggest
ways to improve your experiment to increase the
Figure 12.1 6: Measuring the speed of sound in air. accuracy of this measurement.
A more precise value of the speed of sound can be A second pulse of current is sent to the timer and stops
obtained using an electronic timer and microphones. it. The timer now indicates the time it took for the sour
Figure 12.17 shows this method. The wooden blocks and to travel from microphone 1 to microphone 2. If the
the two microphones are arranged in a straight line. distance between the two microphones is measured, the
speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:
When the students bangs the two blocks of wood
together, it creates a sudden, loud sound. The sound speed
j
_
distance
reaches microphone 1 and a pulse of electric current time
is sent to the timer. The timer starts timing. A fraction
of a second later the sound reaches microphone 2.
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12 Sound
microphone 2 5000
timer 42 4000
3000
2000
microphone 1 <D
1000
0
air waterbrick iron
Material
Questions
7 A spectator at a cricket match sees the batsman hit
figure 12.17: Another method for measuring the speed the ball, then 1.2 seconds later he hears the strike.
"I sound. How far away is the spectator? The speed of sound
in air is 330 m/s.
8 Sound travels at 1 500 m/s in fresh water and at
WORKED EXAMPLE 12.1
1530 m/s in salt water. Explain the difference in
A man blows a whistle and hears the echo from a rock speeds.
face after 3.6 seconds. How far away from the rock is 9 Explain why the method shown in Figure 12.17
he? Assume speed of sound in air = 340 m/s. is more accurate than the echo method when
measuring the speed of sound.
Step 1: Calculate the distance travelled by the sound,
speed distance
= time
so, distance = speed x time 12.4 Seeing and hearing
= 340 m/s x 3.6 s sounds
= 1244m
Step 2: Halve this distance. (The distance you have Seeing sounds
already calculated is the total distance A cathode ray oscilloscope and microphone can be used
travelled by the sound, to the rock face and to represent sounds on a display screen (Figure 12.19).
back. The distance to the rock face is half of The microphone picks up the sound and converts it to an
this.) electrical signal. The oscilloscope converts this to a line
1224 which represents the vibrations that make up the sound
2 = 612m
wave.
Answer The vibration from a musical instrument is complicated
The rock face is 612 metres away from the man. because it is produced by vibrations of the air and the
instrument itself. A signal generator can be used to
produce a pure sound wave. Pure notes are easier to
Sound travels at different speeds in different materials. measure, but not so musical.
Figure 12.18 shows the speed in different materials.
This can be explained by considering the spacing of The oscilloscope trace that represents a pure note
particles. Particles are closer together in solids than in is a simple curve as shown in Figure 12.20a. When
liquids, so the vibrations can be passed on more easily representing a musical note from a particular musical
in solids. This means that the sound wave travels faster in
instrument, the pattern is more complicated. Figures
u solid. 12.20b and c show this.
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
KEY WORDS
amplitude: the greatest height or depth of a
wave from its undisturbed position
Signal generator
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12 Sound
Hearing sounds
Young humans can hear sounds from 20 Hz up to 20 000 Hz.
A* we grow older, the sensory cells in the ear which detect
ibrations deteriorate. This means that the range of sounds
hich can be heard decreases with age. These cells can also
I " damaged by repeated exposure to very loud noise.
Sounds which have a higher frequency than 20 000 Hz
u re too high pitched to be heard by the human ear.
I hese sounds are known as ultrasound.
KEY WORD
ultrasound: any sound with a frequency higher
than 20 000 Hz
ACTIVITY 12.1
An annoying noise
The mosquito sound alarm is a device intended to Prepare a leaflet to inform young people about the
stop young people congregating in areas where they device and the science behind it. Use the words
are not wanted. The device emits a high pitched 'frequency' and 'ultrasound' in your explanation.
pulsing sound which young people can hear but
older people cannot. It is not harmful but is annoying
to those who can hear it.
PEER ASSESSMENT
Swap leaflets with another student. Complete a grid like this to give them feedback:
Figure 1 2.23: Using sonar to measure depth. What effect Figure 12.24: The exact location of the flaw can be
might the fish have? calculated from the speed of sound in t(ie metal and the
from the seabed. The time taken for the reflected pulse to Ultrasound is also used in medicine (Figure 12.25).
be received is measured. This is used, with the speed of Ultrasonic waves are partially reflected from boundaries
sound in water to calculate the depth of the water. between different materials, such as the chambers of
a patient’s heart, or a fetus. Computer analysis of the
WORKED EXAMPLE 12.2 reflected waves produces an image.
Material testing
Ultrasound can be used to detect flaws inside materials. Questions
A small crack in a metal girder could cause a building
to collapse. Figure 12.24 shows ultrasound being passed
1 0 State the range of sound a young person can
through uncracked (A) and cracked (B) metal. The typically hear.
original and reflected pulses are shown on oscilloscope 11 Describe what happens to this range as the person
gets older. What else can have this effect on hearing?
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12 Sound
13 A ship positioned above a shoal of fish (Figure a Calculate the depth of the sea.
12.27) sends out an ultrasound pulse and receives b Calculate the depth of the shoal of fish.
two reflected pulses, one after 0.2 seconds and the
Explain why the first reflected pulse lasts for
other after 0.5 seconds. The speed of sound in water
is 1500 m/s. longer than the second.
PROJECT
How do musical instruments produce a range • Is the note produced by a string affected by
of notes? other factors such as the material it is made
from, its thickness or the tension (how tightly it
Your task is to investigate how different instruments
is stretched)?
create a range of sounds.
Wind instruments
• How is the frequency of a note from a string
related to length? You can measure the
Wind instruments produce sounds by making frequency of the sound directly or by using a
columns of air vibrate. Putting different amounts of microphone and oscilloscope. You can draw a
air into test tubes creates columns of air above the graph of frequency against length.
water. The air can be made to vibrate by tapping the Present your results to the class. This could be
glass or by blowing over the top of the tube. as a poster, a talk, a presentation, or playing a
Investigate the effect ofchanging the length of the recognisable tune on an improvised instrument.
air column. How does it affect the pitch of the note You should include evidence such as diagrams,
produced? tables or graphs.
Plucked instruments
Plucking a stretched string creates a sound. Use a
stringed instrument or a homemade elastic band
guitar to investigate the relationship between the
length of the string and the pitch of the sound.
Optional
Extend your investigation to answer one of the
following:
• What other methods are used to produce
Figure 12.28: A musical instrument that is plucked.
different notes in musical instruments?
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SUMMARY
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12 Sound
CONTINUED
6 A ship uses echo sounding to find the depth of the water. It sends out an
ultrasound pulse and detects the echo after 3 seconds.
a Calculate the depth of the water. Assume that the speed of sound in
water is 1500 m/s. [2]
b The ship’s siren is heard by a boy windsurfing nearby. He is 400 metres
away from the boat. How long will the sound take to reach him.
Assume that the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. [2]
c The sound of the siren also travels through the metal body of the ship.
Which of these could be the speed of sound in the steel? [1]
200 m/s 1200 m/s 5800 m/s
[Total: 5]
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SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to se<
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
1 can
See Needs Amost Confident
Topic... more work there to movecl
Describe how sounds are produced. 12.1
Describe sound waves. 12.1
Use the terms ‘compression’ and ‘rarefaction’. 12.2
State that sound needs a medium. 12.2
State the speed of sound in air. 12.3
Describe a method to measure the speed of sound in air. 12.3
Compare the speed of sound in solids, liquids and gases. 12.3
Describe how the amplitude of a sound affects
12.4
its loudness.
Describe how the frequency of a sound affects its pitch. 12.4
Explain how an echo is made. 12.3
Define the term ‘ultrasound’. 12.4
State the range of sounds which humans can hear. 12.4
Describe medical and engineering applications
of ultrasound.
12.4
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Light
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) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
GETTING STARTED
The statements opposite are all true, but there • Light travels in straight lines.
are some exceptions to each statement. Discuss ,. , . , , , ,
each statement and identify when light behaves
differently. Rewrite each statement to include
these exceptions.
.
* L,9ht Passes stra,9ht throu9h 9^.
Ljght always travels at the same speed.
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13 Light
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KEY WORDS
incident ray: a ray of light arriving at a surface
reflected ray: a ray of light which has been
reflected from a surface
ray diagram: a diagram showing the path of rays
of light
angle of incidence: the angle between the
incident ray and the normal drawn at the point
where the ray hits the surface
Figure 13.4: Psychologists use mirrors to test the angle of reflection: the angle between the
intelligence of animals. Do they recognise that they are reflected ray and the normal drawn at the point
looking at themselves? Chimpanzees' reactions show they where the ray hits the surface
clearly do recognise their images. Other animals, such as
normal: the line drawn at right angles to a surface
cats and dogs, do not - they may even try to attack their at the point where a ray hits the surface
own reflection.
Modern mirrors give a very clear image. When you look ACTIVITY 13.1
in a mirror, rays of light from your face reflect off the
shiny surface and back to your eyes. You seem to see an Investigating the law of reflection
image of yourself behind the mirror. To understand why
this is, we need to use the law of reflection of light.
When a ray of light reflects off a mirror or other reflecting
surface, it follows a path as shown in Figure 13.5. The ray
bounces off, rather like a ball bouncing off a wall. The two
rays are known as the incident ray and the reflected ray.
ray
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13 Light
The image in a plane mirror travelled in straight lines from a point behind the mirror,
shown by the dashed lines. (Our brains assume that light
Why do we see such a clear image when we look in a travels in straight lines, even though we know that light
plane mirror? And why does it appear to be behind the is reflected by mirrors.) In reality, no light is coming from
mirror? behind the mirror. The dashed lines appear to be coming
from a point behind the mirror, at the same distance
behind the mirror as the candle is in front of it. You can
see this from the symmetry of the diagram.
The image looks as though it is the same size as the
candle. Also, it is (of course) a mirror image - it is
left-right reversed, or laterally inverted. You will know
this if you have seen writing reflected in a mirror. If you
could place the object and its image side-by-side, you
would see that they are mirror images of each other, in
the same way that your left and right hands are mirror
images of each other.
The image of the candle in the mirror is not a real image.
A real image is an image that can be formed on a screen.
If you place a piece of paper at the position of the image,
you will not see a picture of the candle on it, because no
rays of light from the candle reach that spot. That is why
we drew dashed lines, to show where the rays appear to
be coming from. We say that it is a virtual image.
KEY WORDS
image: what we see when we view an object by
means of reflected rays
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Ray diagrams
Light rays follow strict rules. By following the same rules
Figure 13.8: An ambulance.
we can construct detailed ray diagrams. These show where
an image is formed and what type of image it is. Worked
Example 13.1 shows the steps in constructing a ray diagram
b Write the word POLICE in the same way.
to show the formation of an image in^a plane mirror.
234
1 3 Light
CONTINUED
Step 2: Draw two rays from the object to the mirror.
Draw in the normal lines where they strike
the mirror.
Figure 13.9b
Answer
From the diagram for Step 4, it is clear that the image is
5 cm from the mirror, directly opposite the object. The
line joining O to I is perpendicular to the mirror.
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13 Light
refracted
KEY WORDS
ray
refraction: the bending of light when it passes angle of
from one medium to another reflection
angle of refraction: the angle between a Figure 13.14: Refraction of a light ray entering glass.
refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the
point where it passes from one medium to another
• power pack
• rectangular glass or Perspex® block
• glass or Perspex® of different shapes
air
• plain paper
glass
• optical pins.
237 )
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
5 Join these two rays to show the path of the 12 Record your observations in sketches. Note any
light through the glass. unexpected effects you observe - these will be
explained later in this chaoter.
6 Draw the normal at the points where the ray
enters and leaves the block.
7 Measure angles i and r for the ray entering the
block and record them in a table. a
Questions
1 Copy and complete these sentences:
8 Repeat this for rays entering the block at When a ray goes from air to glass it bends
different angles. the normal.
9 If you have blocks of different materials, repeat For a ray going from air to glass, the angle of
the experiment to find out which material is smaller than the anqle of
bends light the most.
When a ray goes from glass to air it bends
10 Investigate what happens if a ray of light hits the normal.
the glass block at 90°.
2 Describe what happens when a ray hits the
1 1 Investigate the refraction of light as it passes block at 90°. \
through different shaped blocks, such as those
in Figure 13.16.
Changing direction
Figure 13.17 shows light passing through a rectangular
block. Notice that the light only bends at the point
where it enters or leaves the block, so it is the change of
material that causes the bending.
From Figure 13.17, you can see that the direction in
which the ray bends depends on whether it is entering or
leaving the glass.
• The ray bends towards the normal when entering
the glass.
• The ray bends away from the normal when leaving
the glass.
One consequence of this is that, when a ray passes Figure 13.17: Demonstrating the refraction of a ray of
through a parallel-sided block of glass or Perspex®, it light when it passes through a rectangular block of glass or
returns to its original direction of travel, although it is Perspex®. The ray bends as it enters the block. As it leaves,
shifted to one side. it bends back to its original direction.
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13 Light
When we look at the world through a window, we are This matches what we have seen with light. Light slows
looking through a parallel-sided sheet of glass. Although down when it goes from air to glass, and it bends towards
the rays of light are shifted slightly as they pass through the normal (Figure 13.14).
the glass, we do not see a distorted image because they
all reach us travelling in their original direction.
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Refractive index
Light travels very fast. As far as we know, nothing can
travel any faster than light. The speed of light as it travels
though empty space is exactly 299 792 458 m/s. This is
usually rounded to 300 000 000 m/s or 3 x 108 m/s.
When a ray of light passes from air into glass, it slows
down and bends towards the normal. This happens when
light passes from one transparent medium to another, or
when light passes between different regions, such as from
hot water to cold water.
The refractive index of a material is a measure of how
much the light slows, or how much it is bent. If the speed
of light is halved when it enters a material, the refractive
index is 2, and so on. The refractive index is the ratio of the
speeds of light in two different media or different regions.
KEY WORDS
speed of light: the speed at which light travels
(usually in a vacuum: 3.0 x 108m/s)
The value of — - is always the same for a, particular
sinr
refractive index: the ratio of the speeds of a light material. This value is the refractive index ®f the material.
wave in two different media The refractive index of glass is about 1 .5 and the refractive
index of water is about 1.33.
Refractive index (ri) can be calculated u^ing the equation:
speed in vacuum
Material Speed of light /m/s
speed in material
vacuum 2.998 x 108 1 exactly
air 2.997 x 108 1.0003
water 2.308 x 108 1.33
Perspex® 2.000 x 108 1.5
glass (1.800-2.000) x 108 1.5-1.7
diamond 1.250 x 108 2.4 WORKED EXAMPLE 13.2
A ray of light hits the surface of water at an angle
Table 13.1: The speed of light in some transparent of incidence of 30°. It is refracted at an angle of 22°.
materials. Note that the values are only approximate.
Find the refractive index, n, of water.
Step 1: Write down what you know and what you
Calculating refractive index want to find out.
=
i 30°
ACTIVITY 13.2 =
r 22°
n=?
Interpreting data
Step 2: Write down the equation and substitute
You can use the measurements you took in these values.
Experimental skills 13.1 to investigate the relationship
between the angles of incidence and refraction. n llUi = sin 30
=sinr sin22
240 )
13 Light
n
_ 0.5 to glass. Sketch a diagram to show what will
happen.
0.375
16 A ray of light enters glass with a refractive index of
= 1.33
1.52 at an angle of incidence of 60°.
Answer
a Calculate the angle of refraction.
n= 1.33 b Calculate the speed of light in the glass.
material X
19°
What happens next depends on the angle of incidence For total internal reflection to happen, the angle of
of the ray at the midpoint. Figure 13.23 shows the incidence of the ray must be greater than the critical
possibilities. angle. The critical angle depends on the material being
used. For glass, it is about 42°, depending on the type of
In Figure 13.23a, the angle of incidence is small, so most
glass. For water, the critical angle is greater, about 49°.
of the light emerges from the block. There is a faint
For diamond, the critical angle is small, about 25°.
reflected ray inside the glass block. The refracted ray
Rays of light that enter a diamond are very likely to be
bends away from the normal.
totally internally reflected, so they bounce around inside,
In Figure 13.23b, the angle of incidence has increased, so eventually emerging from one of the diamond’s cut faces.
more light is reflected inside the block. The refracted ray That explains why diamonds are such sparkly jewels.
bends even further away from the normal.
In Figure 13.23c, the refracted ray emerges along and KEY WORDS
parallel to the surface of the block for a particular angle
of incidence. This angle is called the critical angle. Most internal reflection: when a ray of light strikes the
of the light is reflected inside the block. inner surface of a material and some of it reflects
back inside it
In Figure 13.23d, the angle of incidence is even greater
and all of the light is reflected inside the block. No critical angle: the minimum angle of incidence at
refracted ray emerges from the block. which total internal reflection occurs
total internal reflection (TIR): when a ray of light
strikes the inner surface of a material and 100% of
the light reflects back inside it
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13 Light
CONTINUED
Method
1 Place the semi-circular block on the paper and internally
draw around it. Mark the exact centre of the reflected
straight side with a normal line. ray
raybox
Figure 1 3.24: Shining the ray of light onto the Figure 13.26: Total internal reflection.
glass block.
8 Mark the rays, remove the block and measure
3 Observe the path of the ray. You should see angles / and r.
two rays. One is refracted as it emerges from
Questions
the block and the other is reflected back into
the block. 1 Why is the ray not bent when it enters the block?
4 Move the ray box to increase the angle of 2 What was the critical angle for your block?
incidence until the refracted ray emerges along
the side of the block. The angle of incidence at 3 What conclusion can you draw from your
which this happens is called the critical angle (c). measurements of angles i and rfor the totally
internally reflected ray?
5 Mark the rays with crosses. Remove the block and
draw the ray as it passes through the block.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Questions
17 Explain the meaning of the words ‘total’ and
‘internal’ in the expression ‘total internal reflection’.
18 The critical angle for water is 49°. If a ray of light
strikes the upper surface of a pond at an angle
of incidence of 45°, will it be totally internally
reflected? Explain your answer.
Figure 13.28: Reversing the rays.
19 Look at Figure 13.27.
You can see from Figure 13.28 that the angle of
incidence is 90°, and the angle of refraction as the ray
goes into glass is the critical angle. Substituting in the
_— _
equation gives:
n = sinz sin90°:
sin r sin c
Critical angle and Note also that the letter c is used both for critical angle
and the speed of light. Read questions carefully and
refractive index make sure you know which meaning is being used.
As we have seen, the critical angle depends on the WORKED EXAMPLE 13.3
material through which a ray is travelling. The greater the
refractive index of the material, the smaller the critical Find the critical angle, c, for diamond. Assume that
angle (see the example of diamond in Worked Example
=
refractive index n 2.40.
13.3). We can use the equation n = sin r to see how Step 1: Substitute the value of n in the equation:
critical angle c and refractive index n are related. To do
this we need to be aware than the refractive index for glass
relates to light passing from air to glass, not from glass Step 2: Rearrange to make c the subject:
to air. During your reflection and refraction experiments c = sin-1 0.417
you always marked the rays with arrows. This is because
all light rays are reversible. When you shine light from the Step 3: Use a calculator (remember to check your
opposite direction, you will get the same lines, only the calculator is set to degrees not radians) to find
arrows tell you which way the ray was travelling. sin-1 0.417.
Figure 13.28 shows what happens when we reverse Answer
the rays. c = 24.6°
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13 Light
Converging and
light rays from car
diverging lenses
Lenses can be divided into two types, according to their
effect on light (Figure 13.33):
• converging lenses are fatter in the middle than at
the edges
Figure 13.31: How light is reflected in a bicycle
reflector. • diverging lenses are thinner in the middle than at
the edges.
a Why is light not refracted when it enters
the plastic? KEY WORDS
b What is the angle of incidence at the converging lens: a lens that causes rays of
diagonal surface? light parallel to the axis to converge at the
c Copy and complete the diagram in Figure 13.31 principal focus
to show the path of the rays from the car.
diverging lens: a lens that causes rays of
d What can you deduce about the critical angle of light parallel to the axis to diverge from the
the plastic? principal focus
Figure 13.32a: More than 400 years ago, Galileo ground his own glass lenses to make telescopes like this. What he saw
through them suggested the Earth was not the centre of the universe, b: A few years later, Van Leeuwenhoek used a simple
single lens microscope to observe bacteria from his teeth, providing a clue as to how infectious diseases are spread.
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13 Light
KEY WORDS
principal axis: the line passing through the centre
of a lens perpendicular to its surface
Figure 13.33: Converging lenses are fattest in the middle.
Diverging lenses are thinnest in the middle. They are given principal focus/focal point: the point at which
these names because of their effect on parallel rays of light. rays of light parallel to the principal axis converge
Usually, we simply draw the cross-section of the lens. after passing through a converging lens
focal length: the distance from the centre of the
You have probably used a magnifying glass to look at lens to its principal focus
small objects. This is a converging lens. ‘Converging’
means bringing together. You may even have used a
magnifying glass to focus the rays of the Sun onto a
piece of paper, to set fire to it. (More than a thousand
years ago, an Arab scientist described how people used
lenses for starting fires.)
Figure 13.34a shows how a converging lens focuses the
parallel rays of the Sun. On one side of the lens, the
rays are parallel to the principal axis of the lens. After
they pass through the lens, they converge on a single
point: the principal focus (or focal point). After they
have passed through the principal focus, they spread
out again. A converging lens can be used to produce a
beam of parallel rays. A source of light, such as a small Figure 13.35a: A fatter lens is more powerful so bends the
light bulb, is placed at the principal focus. As they pass light more. This gives a shorter focal length, b: A thinner lens
through the lens, the rays are bent so that they become a is not as powerful and does not bend the light as much.
focus length b
parallel rays principal focus parallel rays
v principal focus V
focus length
Figure 1 3.34: The effect of a converging lens on rays of light, a: A converging lens makes parallel rays converge at the
principal focus, b: Rays from the principal focus of a converging lens are turned into a parallel beam of light.
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Lenses work by refracting light. When a ray strikes the Images can be described in terms of their size (enlarged,
surface of the lens, it is refracted towards the normal. the same size, or diminished), which way up they are
When it leaves the glass of the lens, it bends away from (inverted or upright), and where they are formed.
the normal. The clever thing about the shape of a
converging lens is that it bends all rays just enough for KEY WORDS
them to meet at the principal focus.
enlarged: used to describe an innage which is
bigger than the object
Forming a real image diminished: used to describe an image which is
When the Sun’s rays are focused onto a piece of paper, smaller than the object
a tiny image of the Sun is created. It is easier to see how
a converging lens makes an image if you focus an image inverted: used to describe an image which is
of a light bulb or a distant window onto a piece of white upside down compared to the object
paper. The paper acts as a screen to catch the image. upright: used to describe an image which is the
(Be careful if you try this yourself - you could set fire to same way up as the object
the paper or burn yourself. And remember: never look
directly at the Sun.)
The image of the lightbulb in Figure 13.36 is:
Figure 13.36 shows an experiment in which an image of
a light bulb (the object) is formed by a converging lens. • inverted
The image in the raindrop in Figure 13.1 was formed in
the same way.
• diminished
• nearer to the lens than the object
• real.
We say that the image is real, because light really does
fall on the screen to make the image. If light only
appeared to be coming from the image, we would say
that the image was virtual. The size the image depends
on how fat or thin the lens is.
^f
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Figure 1 3.37a
Figure 13.37b
Figure 13.37c
Figure 13.37d
Look for the point where the two rays cross. This is the So, to construct a ray diagram like this, draw two rays
position of the top of the image (I). starting from the top of the object:
With an accurately drawn ray diagram, you can see that • ray 1 : unrefracted through the centre of the lens
the image is inverted, diminished and real. • ray 2: parallel to the axis and then refracted through
the principal focus.
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• image clearly marked, including which way The object viewed by a magnifying glass is closer to the
up it is. lens than the principal focus. We can draw a ray diagram
Discuss what, if anything, was missing and how you using the same two rays as in Figure 1 3.40.
can both improve your diagrams. • Ray 1 is unrefracted as it passes through the centre
of the lens.
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• Ray 2 starts off parallel to the axis and is refracted an image of a distant object. Figure 13.41b shows the
by the lens so that it passes through the principal eye focusing on a much closer object. The light from the
focus. closer object is diverging so the lens needs to be thicker
Rays 1 and 2 do not cross over each other. They are and stronger to form an image on the retina.
diverging (spreading apart) after they have passed
through the lens. However, by extending the rays
backwards, as shown by the dashed lines, we can see that
they both appear to be coming from a point behind the
object. This is the position of the image (I). We draw
dashed lines because light does not actually travel along
these parts of the rays. We cannot catch the image on a
screen, because there is no light there.
Long sight
A long-sighted person has the opposite problem. A long¬
sighted eye can focus on distant objects but not close
objects. This can be because the eyeball is too short, or
the lens cannot become strong enough so the rays from
a close object cannot be converged enough to a form an
image on the retina. A converging lens causes the rays to
converge, allowing the eye lens to form a focused image
of close objects, as shown in Figure 13.44.
Questions
26 Look at Figure 13.40. How can you tell from the
diagram that the image formed by the magnifying
glass is a virtual image?
27 a A converging lens has focal length 3 cm. An
object, 2 cm tall, is placed 5 cm from the centre
of the lens, on the principal axis. Draw an
accurate ray diagram to represent this.
Figure 13.43: Without glasses, distant objects appear
b Use your diagram to determine the distance of
blurred to a short-sighted person. The diverging lens in the
the virtual image formed from the lens, and the
glasses lets the person focus on distant objects.
height of the image.
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13 Light
28 Figure 13.45 shows an eye looking at a distant This splitting up of white light into a spectrum is known
object. The person sees a blurred image. as dispersion. Isaac Newton set out to explain how it
happens. It had been suggested that light is coloured
by passing it through a prism. Newton showed that
this was the wrong idea by arranging for the spectrum
to be passed back through another prism. The colours
recombined to form white light again. He concluded that
white light is a mixture of all the different colours of the
spectrum. Newton described the visible light spectrum
as being made up of seven colours - red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet. You may wonder why
indigo and violet are separate rather than just being
purple. This is because, in the 17th century, seven
was considered to be a mystical number. So, Newton
Figure 13.45: Eye looking at a distant object. wanted seven colours not just six. The colours can be
remembered as a name, Roy G Biv.
a Name the eyesight problem this person has.
b Describe how the shape of the eye causes this
problem.
c Draw a diagram to show how a lens can be used
to help this person to see a focused image of the
distant object.
Questions
29 Copy and complete these sentences.
When light enters glass it slows down( causing it to
change direction. This is called .
Red light changes direction than violet light.
The light is split into different colours. This is called
PROJECT
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13 Light
SUMMARY
Refractive index =— — —
—- angle.
critical
Optical fibres can transmit information rapidly and efficiently using total internal reflection. This is useful in
telecommunications and medicine.
Converging lenses bend parallel rays together so they meet at a point called the principal focus.
Drawing a ray parallel to the axis, and a ray which strikes the centre of a lens allows us to draw a ray diagram
and find the type of image formed.
A magnifying glass produces a virtual image.
Our eyes use a flexible convex lens to form images.
A short-sighted eye has a lens which is too powerful. This can be corrected using a diverging lens.
A long-sighted eye has a lens which is too weak. This can be corrected using a converging lens.
White light can be dispersed by passing it through a glass prism. This creates the visible spectrum.
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EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
Which row gives the correct labels for the diagram? [1]
X Y Z
normal incident ray angle of refraction
angle of incidence incident ray normal
reflected ray normal angle of reflection
normal incident ray reflected ray
2 Which one of the following statements about the image formed in a plane
mirror is true? [1 ]
A The image can be formed on a screen.
B The image is diminished.
C The image is upright.
D The image is on the surface of the mirror.
3 A ray of light passes from air to glass at an angle of 30°. Which statement
correctly describes what happens? [1]
A The ray bends towards the normal.
B The ray passes through the glass without bending.
C The ray is totally internally reflected.
D The ray bends away from the normal.
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13 Light
CONTINUED
This diagram shows one ray of light passing through the lens. The lens can
be used to form an image of an object.
object
Copy the diagram and draw another ray to complete it. Draw an arrow
to represent the image. [3]
Choose two of these words to describe the image in b. [2]
a Explain why the ray is not refracted as it enters the glass. [1] COMMAND WORDS
b Copy and complete the diagram to show what happens to the ray. [1]
explain: set out
c What name is given to the effect you have drawn? [1] purposes or
d If the prism was removed, what other piece of apparatus could produce reasons; make
the same effect on the light ray? [1 ] the relationships
[Total: 6] between things
evident; provide
The diagram shows a ray of not to scale
40°'1 why and/or how and
light striking the inner surface support with relevant
of a glass block. The critical evidence
angle for the glass is 42°.
calculate: work out
from given facts,
figures or information
a Copy the diagram. Without calculating, continue the ray from the point
where it strikes the surface until it leaves the block. [2]
b What can you say about the speed of light in the glass block? [1]
Calculate the refractive index of the glass.
Write down the equation you use. [2]
Calculate the angle of incidence at which the ray enters the glass block. [2]
[Total: 7]
7 a Construct a ray diagram to show how a magnifying glass with a focal
length of 6 cm produces an image of an object placed 4 cm from the lens. [5]
b The image formed is virtual. Explain what this means. [1]
[Total: 6]
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SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
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Properties
of waves
GETTING STARTED
In a group, discuss all the different types of wave you can think of.
What do these waves have in common? What do waves do?
MAKING WAVES
14.1 Describing waves they are easy to observe. Waves are what we see on the
Physicists use waves as a model to explain the behaviour sea or a lake, but physicists have a more specialised idea
of light, sound and electromagnetic radiation. Water of waves. We can begin to understand this model in the
waves can help us understand the behaviour of waves as laboratory using a ripple tank (Figure 14.2).
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14 Properties of waves
A ripple tank is a shallow glass-bottomed tank containing In each case, the ripples are produced by something
a small amount of water. A light shining downwards vibrating up and down vertically, but the ripples move
through the water casts a shadow of the ripples on the out horizontally. The vibrating bar or dipper pushes
floor below, showing the pattern that they make. water molecules up and down. Each molecule drags
its neighbours up and down. These then start their
neighbours moving, and so on. Each molecule simply
moves up and down. Energy is transferred by the wave,
but the water molecules remain in the same place after the
wave has passed. A wave transfers energy but not matter.
How can these patterns of ripples be a model for the
behaviour of light? The straight ripples are like a beam
of light, perhaps coming from the Sun. The ripples move
straight across the surface of the water, just as light from the
Sun travels in straight lines. The circular ripples spreading
out from a vibrating dipper are like light spreading out from
a lamp. (The dipper is the lamp.) In this chapter we will use
waves in the ripple tank as a model to help us understand
the behavior of light and sound waves.
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KEY WORDS
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14 Properties of waves
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves made eardrums vibrate. Energy has been transferred by the
each second, or the number of waves passing a point per sound waves to our ears.
second. The period is the number of seconds it takes for
The bigger the amplitude, the more energy the wave
each wave to pass a point. Frequency,/, and period, T,
transfers. A large amplitude means a bright light or a
are obviously related to each other. Waves with a short
loud sound.
period have a high frequency.
If you have ever been knocked over by a wave in the sea,
frequency (Hz) = - you will know that water waves also carry energy. It is
period (s)
important to remember that, when a wave travels from
/=1T
J
one place to another, it is not matter that is moving.
The wave is moving, and it is carrying energy. It may
move through matter or even through a vacuum, but the
period (s) = frequency (Hz) matter itself is not transferred from place to place. A
wave transfers energy without transferring matter.
Earthquakes show the huge amounts of energy which
waves can transfer. Vibrations passing through the Earth
Waves on the sea might have a period of 10 seconds.
can cause buildings to collapse. A seismometer records
Their frequency is therefore about 0.1 Hz. A sound wave
the vibrations caused by an earthquake.
might have a frequency of 1000 Hz. Its period is
therefore ——
- , which means that a wave arrives every7
1000s
1 ms (one millisecond).
Wave speed
The wave speed is the rate at which the crest of a wave
travels. For example, it could be the speed of the crest of
a ripple travelling over the surface of the water. Speed is
measured in metres per second (m/s).
Waves can have very different speeds. Ripples in a ripple
tank travel a few centimetres per second. Sound waves
travel at 330 m/s through air. Light waves travel at about
300 000 000 m/s through air.
KEY WORDS
wave speed: the speed at which a wave travels
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longitudinal waves
Ripples in a ripple tank are one way of looking at the
behaviour of waves. You can model waves in other ways.
As shown in Figure 14.7, a stretched slinky spring can be secondary or S-wave undisturbe
used to model waves. Fix one end of the spring and move
the other end from side to side (Figure 14.7a). You will
see that a wave travels along the spring. (You may also
notice it reflecting from the fixed end of the spring.) You
can demonstrate the same sort of wave using a stretched
rope or piece of elastic. You can see the link between
frequency and wavelength by changing the rate at which Figure 14.8: Primary and secondary seismic waves.
you move the end of the spring up and down. Increasing
the frequency decreases the wavelength. A ripple on the surface of water is an example of £
transverse wave. The particles of the water move u
A second type of wave can also be modelled with a down as the wave travels horizontally.
stretched slinky spring. Instead of moving the free end
from side to side, move it backwards and forwards In an earthquake there are two types of seismic wa
(Figure 14.7b). A series of compressions travels along primary or P-waves and secondary or S-waves. P-w
the spring. These are regions in which the segments are longitudinal. These waves are called primary w;
of the spring are compressed together. In between they travel faster than slower secondary waves and
are rarefactions, regions in which the segments of the felt first. Secondary waves are transverse.
spring are further apart. This type of wave cannot be A sound wave is an example of a longitudinal wave,
demonstrated on a stretched rope. a sound travels through air, the air molecules move
The direction of propagation of a wave is the direction and forth as the wave travels. Table 14.1 lists examp
in which it travels. You can observe this by watching the transverse and longitudinal waves.
movement of crests and troughs, or compressions and ------ »
direction of propagation
Figure 14.7: Modelling waves using a spring, a: A transverse wave on a stretched spring. It is made by moving the free
from side to side, b: A longitudinal wave on a stretched spring. It is made by pushing the free end back and forth, along
length of the spring.
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1 4 Properties of waves
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v=/2
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14 Properties of waves
Answer
The wavelength of the note in air is 0.072 metres.
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Refraction of ripples
Refraction of light occurs when the speed of light
changes. We can see the same effect for ripples in a ripple
tank (Figure 14. 15). A glass plate is immersed in the
water, to make the water shallower in that part of the
tank. There, the ripples move more slowly because they
drag on the bottom of the tank (which is now actually
the upper surface of the submerged glass plate).
•normal
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14 Properties of waves
KEY WORD
Figure 14.15b: This wavefront diagram shows the same diffraction: when a wave spreads out as it travels
pattern of ripples as a. The rays show that the refracted ray through a gap or past the edge of an object
is closer to the normal, just as when light slows down on
entering glass.
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Studying waves in a ripple tank 3 Look carefully at the reflected waves. Investigate
what happens when you change the angle of the
In this experiment you will observe reflection and
barrier.
refraction of ripples in a ripple tank and describe
the reflection, refraction and diffraction of water 4 Place the glass sheet in the tank so that the
waves. waves hit it straight on. Adjust the water level so
that the water above the glass is very shallow.
You will need: 5 Observe the waves as they enter and leave the
shallower water.
• ripple tank and dipper with an eccentric
motor 6 Investigate the effect of turning the glass sheet
• power supply so that the waves enter the shallow water at an
angle.
• light
7 Use two barriers to create a wide gap for the
• metal or plastic barriers
waves to pass through. Observe the effect.
• glass sheet to adjust the depth of water.
8 Narrow the gap until it is about the same size
as the wavelength of the waves. Observe how
Safety: It is easiest to observe the shadow of this affects the waves.
the waves in a darkened room. Keep the work Questions
area tidy to avoid trip hazards. Clear up any spilt
water immediately. 1 Draw a diagram to show what happens to plane
waves when they strike a flat reflector placed at
Getting started 45° to their direction of travel.
What effect does changing the speed of the motor
have on the wavefronts produced? 2 Draw a diagram to show what happens to
plane waves when:
If you put a small piece of cork in the water, how
does it move? a they enter the shallower water straight on
b they enter shallower water at an angle.
Method
1 Adjust the motor so that you can clearly see the 3 Draw diagrams to show diffraction at a wide
shadows of the waves moving across the tank. gap and at a narrow gap.
2 Place a barrier in the tank at an angle so that it 4 How can the speed of ripples in a ripple tank
reflects the waves. be changed?
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Compare your ripple tank diagrams to another student's. Think about what makes a good diagram. Are your
diagrams clear, simple and correctly labelled? Add notes to your diagrams saying what you have done well
and what could be improved.
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14 Properties of waves
ACTIVITY 14.1
Learning the definitions of key words
You will have noticed that this topic contains a lot Questions: write a set of short questions such
of key words. To explain waves you need to be as, 'What is the unit of frequency?' on a large
familiar with these words, which describe wave sheet of paper. Give each question a mark (1
characteristics and how waves behave. for easy, 2 for difficult). With a friend, take turns
Design and make a revision activity to help you answering questions. Remove any which have
remember the key definitions. You could use one of been answered correctly as you go. The winner
the ideas below or create your own. is the person with most points.
• Flash cards: have a key word on one side and Create self-test questions on a quiz app. This
its definition on the other. This way, anything way you can test yourself regularly and quickly.
you get wrong, you will see the correct answer
straight away which will help for the next time.
Questions
1 4 The red lines in Figure 14.19 show sound waves
created by person A.
person B
shallow water
Figure 14.20
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14 Properties of waves
PROJECT
So, what is a wave? You should also explain some of the differences,
for example, that sound waves need a medium.
Your section will introduce the programme so it
needs to get the audience's interest so they don't
reach for the remote control. (You could point out
that the remote control is operated by infrared or
radio waves!) The producer suggests you might
show a crowd doing a Mexican wave as a way of
showing energy being transferred by a wave. You
could also include pictures or video clips of water
waves, including seismic waves and tsunamis.
Once you have the audience interested, you will
need to introduce the idea that waves transmit
energy but not matter. Illustrate this by referring to
waves in springs, boats bobbing on the waves at
sea, or any other examples you can think of. You
You work for a television company that is making a
should then cover wave behaviour, giving as many
programme about the discovery of gravitational waves.
The producer has asked your team to work on a five examples as possible to show the audience how
many everyday things depend on waves.
minute introduction to the general idea of waves. You
need to answer the question: 'What is a wave?'. You may present your ideas as a video, or as a
The director thinks viewers may think of waves as
storyboard.
being just water waves. She wants viewers to have a When the programme is broadcast all your names
clear idea of what a wave is and how waves behave. will be in the credits, along with your job title.
Viewers should understand why physicists describe Decide early on what each person will do. Jobs
light and sound as waves. could include: researcher, picture researcher, editor,
You will need to show that water, light and sound
producer, sound technician, cameraperson and any
other roles you think are needed.
waves behave in the same ways, particularly that
they can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.
SUMMARY
COMMAND WORD
describe: state the
points of a topic; give
characteristics and
main features
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14 Properties of waves
CONTINUED
5 This diagram shows a wave in the sea.
x/cm
20
10-
6 d/m
-10-
-20-
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will hglp you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
276
spectrum
GETTING STARTED
Think about what you have learnt so far about waves.
Write down five bullet points which sum up what you know about waves - including light and sound.
Pair up and agree five points from your combined lists. You can change or combine them.
Join with another pair and write out five points that the group agrees on. Display these points to the class.
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15 The electromagnetic spectrum
wvwvw
Just as sound can be thought of as vibrations or waves
travelling through the air (or any other material), so
we can think of light as being another form of wave.
Sounds can have different pitches - the higher the b wavelength
frequency, the higher the pitch. We can think of a piano
keyboard as being a ‘spectrum’ of sounds of different
frequencies. Light can have different colours, according
to its frequency. Red light has a lower frequency than
violet light. Visible light occurs as a spectrum of colours, Figure 15.4: Comparing red and violet lightwaves.
depending on its frequency. Both travel at the same speed, but red light has a longer
A Scottish physicist, James Clerk Maxwell, described wavelength because its frequency is lower. Th£ wavelength is
light as small oscillations in electric and magnetic fields the distance from one crest to the next (or from one trough to
which he called electromagnetic waves. His theory the next). Think of red light waves as longer, lazy waves. Violet
allowed him to predict that they could have any value light is made up of shorter, more rapidly vibrating waves.
of frequency. In other words, beyond the infrared and
ultraviolet regions of the spectrum, there must be even The waves that make up visible light have very high
more types of electromagnetic wave (or electromagnetic frequencies: over one hundred million million hertz, or
radiation). By the early years of the 20th century, 1014Hz. Their wavelengths are very small, from 400 nm
physicists had discovered or artificially produced several (nanometres) for violet light to 700 nm for red light.
other types of electromagnetic wave to complete the (1 nm is one-billionth or one-thousand-millionth of a
electromagnetic spectrum. metre, so 400 nm -—
= —1000000000 m.) More than one
The electromagnetic spectrum is a family of transverse
’
million waves of visible light fit into a metre.
waves. Like all waves, they can be reflected, refracted
or diffracted. They all travel at the same speed as light Figure 15.5 shows the complete electromagnetic
in a vacuum. The waves have different frequencies, and spectrum, with the wavelengths and frequencies of
this means they have different effects on the materials each region. In fact, we cannot be very precise about
with which they interact. These waves have many very where each region starts and stops. This is similar to the
important uses, and some can be hazardous. light spectrum: it is hard to say where red finishes and
orange begins. Even the ends of the visible light section
are uncertain, because different people can see slightly
The speed of electromagnetic different ranges of wavelengths, just as they can hear
different ranges of sound frequencies.
waves
All types of electromagnetic wave have one thing in KEY WORDS
common: they travel at the same speed in a vacuum.
They travel at the speed of light, which has a value ultraviolet radiation: electromagnetic radiation
close to 300 000 000 m/s (3 x 108 m/s) in a vacuum and with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light
approximately the same speed in air. Like light, the electromagnetic spectrum: the family of
speed of electromagnetic waves depends on the material radiations similar to light
through which they are travelling.
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15 The electromagnetic spectrum
increasing frequency
Figure 1 5.5: The electromagnetic spectrum. Remember all waves travel at the same speed and because v =/A.As frequency
increases, wavelength decreases.
Questions
1 Draw and label two waves to show the difference 3 Describe and explain what happens when
between red light and violet light. monochromatic green light of wavelength 540 nm
passes through a prism.
2 Write the names of the waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum: 4 Use the equation v =/A to calculate the frequency
of the green light in question 15.3.
a in order of increasing wavelength
b in order of increasing frequency.
Radio waves
Radio waves are used to broadcast radio and television
signals. These waves are sent out from a transmitter
a few kilometres away to be captured by an aerial on
the roof of a house. Radio astronomy can be used to
detect radio waves from objects such as stars, galaxies
and black holes. Radio frequency identification (RFID)
chips are microchips inserted underneath the skin. These
can store vital medical information and could be used
instead of a passport, or as a contactless bank card.
An RFID tag stores data. It transmits the data as radio Figure 15.6: Tiny RFID tags can store and transmit data.
waves, which is read by an electronic reader.
A tag inserted in your body could be used to open doors
or pay for shopping to track for your movements.
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Microwaves
Used in satellite television broadcasting, because
microwaves pass easily through the Earth’s atmosphere.
They travel up to a broadcasting satellite, thousands
of kilometres away in space. Then they are sent back
down to subscribers on Earth. Microwaves are also used
to transmit mobile phone (cellphone) signals between
masts, which may be up to 20 km apart.
Microwaves ovens emit microwaves, which are absorbed
by molecules in food, causing heating.
Infrared radiation
Infrared radiation is used in remote controls for devices
such as televisions. A beam of radiation from the remote Figure 1 5.8: Using an infrared scanner allows a doctor to
control carries a coded signal to the appliance, which see a patient's veins. This means injections can be targetted
changes the settings on the television; for example,
much more precisely.
changing channel, increasing the volume. You may be
able to use a smartphone camera to observe this type of
radiation, which would otherwise be invisible to our eyes.
Point a remote control at your phone and record what
happens as you press buttons. Grills and toasters also
use infrared radiation to cook food. Security alarms send
out beams of infrared radiation and detect changes in
the reflected radiation, which may indicate the presence
of an intruder. Infrared red light is also used together
with optical fibres. In Figure 15.9b an endoscope allows
the doctor to see inside the patient. Visible light is passed
down an optical fibre to illuminate the lungs of this
COVID-19 patient. Reflected light travels back up to
the doctor’s eye. Infrared radiation can also be used in
medicine to detect heat which may indicate infection, or
to speed up healing and reduce pain.
Visible light
Visible light provides us with information about the
world, both directly through our eyes and via optical
instruments such as cameras, telescopes and microscopes.
Visible light is also vital for photosynthesis.
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15 The electromagnetic spectrum
Gamma rays
Gamma rays can damage or kill living cells. A targeted
beam of gamma rays can be used to kill cancerous cells.
Surgical instruments can be sterilised by using gamma
rays to kill any bacteria.
Gamma rays can also be used in the detection of cancer.
You will learn more about gamma rays and how they are
used in Chapter 23.
X-rays
X-rays can penetrate solid materials and so they are Figure 15.12: A nurse demonstrates a radiation helmet.
used in security scanners at airports. They are also used The holes in the helmet allow the gamma rays to be
in hospitals and clinics to see inside patients without targeted exactly on to a tumour.
the need for surgery. The X-rays are detected using
electronic detectors. Bone absorbs X-rays more strongly
than flesh, so bones appear as a shadow in the image. Questions
Similarly, a metal gun will appear as a shadow because it 5 Name two types of electromagnetic radiation that
absorbs X-rays more strongly than the items around it in are used to cook food.
Figure 15.11.
6 Name three types of electromagnetic radiation that
have medical uses.
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15.2 Electromagnetic
hazards
All types of radiation can be hazardous. Even bright
light shining into your eyes can blind you. Infrared
radiation can cause burns. UV radiation from the Sun
can damage skin cells which may lead to sunburn and
skin cancer. Sunbeds can also damage skin cells and
should be used with care. UV radiation can also damage
eye cells which is why is important to protect your eyes
in bright sunlight by wearing sunglasses or a hat. In
general, the higher the frequency of the wavelength, the Figure 1 5.13a: The radiographer operates the machine
greater the harm it can cause. from a separate room.
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1 5 The electromagnetic spectrum
ADC
pulsed beam of light
microphone analogue laser (or infrared)
to digital diode
converter
(encoder)^
. perhaps
regenerator
DAC
(repeater)
photo¬ cleans up the digital to amplifier loudspeaker
diode signal analogue
converter
(decoder)
'noisy' 'clean'
pulse regenerator
in out
Figure 15.20: The use of regenerators means that digital signals can be transmitted over hundreds of kilometres without
being distorted.
ACTIVITY 15.2
REFLECTION Questions
There are two spectra which you need to 10 There are two types of communication satellite:
remember in order: visible light and the geostationary and low earth orbit. Explain which
electromagnetic spectrum. How easily can you type:
remember them? What helps you with this? a is best suited to transmitting TV signals
Mnemonics can be very useful here. The colours b gives the shortest delay for phone conversations
of the visible spectrum can be remembered using c takes least time to orbit the Earth.
Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain. The first
letters of the words correspond to the first 11 State two benefits of converting a phone signal from
letters of the colours. Try to make a mnemonic analogue to digital.
to remember the order of the waves in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
PROJECT
Rainbow balloon debate prepare to speak in favour of their wave and look at
arguments why the other waves should go.
Balloon debates usually involve discussing which
person should be thrown out of an overloaded hot You will need to divide the class into se^en teams (you
air balloon basket, so that it does not crash. Each could have fewer teams and leave some waves out if
passenger explains why they should stay and then a necessary). Your teacher will assign each team a wave.
vote is taken. In this activity, the passengers are the
You will need to prepare arguments why your
different waves of the electromagnetic spectrum.
given wave is so important that it must stay in the
Seven different wavelengths of radiation are balloon. Think about what it is used for - medical or
travelling in a hot air balloon. communication uses for example - and why losing
this would be bad. Think about the harmful aspects
• Radio waves • Ultraviolet radiation
of your wave - you will have to answer questions
• Microwaves • X-rays about these, so be prepared to defend your wave.
• Infrared radiation • Gamma rays
You will also need to prepare questions for the
• Visible light other waves. Your aim is to make them seem either
The balloon can only manage six waves, and so one of harmful or not particularly useful so that they are
the waves must be thrown overboard, or the balloon more likely to be voted off.
will crash. As a class you will debate which wave Your teacher will tell you how long each team can
should be sacrificed. Each wave will have a team who speak for and how long the question portion will last.
15 The electromagnetic spectrum
PEER ASSESSMENT
After every team has spoken and has been
questioned, you will all vote for which wave must go. Group name
To help with this, record your impressions of each Wave
group on a sheet similar to this.
Use your scoring and notes to decide how you Initial speech ©©©
will vote.
Answering questions © @©
Notes
SUMMARY
The electromagnetic spectrum is a group of waves which have similar properties to light.
In order of increasing frequency, the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum are: radiowaves, microwaves,
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed - the speed of light.
The speed of light is 300 000 000 m/s.
Electromagnetic waves have different wavelengths and this gives them different properties and makes them
suitable for different uses.
High frequency electromagnetic radiation can be hazardous. It can damage cells and cause cells to mutate.
Radio waves, microwaves, visible light and infrared are used in communication systems.
Signals can be analogue or digital. Digital signals transmit data more accurately and faster.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
Increasing R
P Q R
X-rays infrared radiation wavelength
infrared radiation X-rays frequency
X-rays infrared radiation frequency
infrared radiation X-rays wavelength
4 This diagram shows white light being dispersed by a prism. The dispersed light
hits a screen.
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1 5 The electromagnetic spectrum
CONTINUED
What might be detected at A? [1 ]
What might be detected at D? [1 ] COMMAND WORD
State one way in which the waves at A, B, C and D are alike. [1 ] state: express in
State one way in which the four waves differ from each other. [1] clear terms
[Total: 6]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
1 can
See Needs Almost Confident
Topic... more work there to move on
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Magnetism
use magnetic field patterns between magnets to explain the forces between them and understand how
to work out the relative strength of a magnetic field.
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
GETTING STARTED
Spend two minutes producing a mind map that • Which elements are magnetic?
answers the following questions before comparing ,
Describe
. ., on Earth, would be like ifr
notes with your neighbour for a further two minutes,
adding or correcting your own work. Be prepared to
' whatJlfe
magnetism did not exist. Ths might include
inventions that depend on magnetism.
share your thoughts with the class.
FLIPPING FIELDS
A German polar researcher called Alfred Wegener
(Figure 16.1) suggested that continents like South
America and Africa used to fit together like a jigsaw
and the pieces have drifted apart. Few people
believed him but later scientists proved him right.
Changes in the Earth's magnetic field helped prove
the Earth's surface is made of plates that move in a
process called plate tectonics.
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Since the north pole of the compass needle is attracted Magnetic materials may be classified as hard (permanent)
to the Earth’s North Pole, it follows that there must be or soft (temporary). Table 16.1 summarises the
a magnetic south pole up there, under the Arctic ice. difference. A soft magnetic material such as soft iron can
It is easy to get confused about this. In fact, for a long be magnetised and demagnetised easily.
time, mediaeval scientists thought that compass needles
were attracted to the Pole Star. Eventually, an English KEY WORDS
instrument-maker called Robert Norman noticed that,
if he balanced a compass needle very carefully at its permanent magnet magnetised magnetic
midpoint, it tilted downwards slightly, pointing into the material that produces its own magnetic field that
Earth. Now we know that the Earth itself is magnetised, does not get weaker with time
rather as if there was a giant bar magnet inside it.
hard (material): a material that, once magnetised,
is difficult to demagnetise
Magnetic materials soft (material): a material that, once magnetised,
Magnetic materials are attracted by a magnet and can is easy to demagnetise
be magnetised. Though they can be magnetised, not all
pieces of magnetic material are magnets. They first need
i
to be magnetised. In contrast, non-magnetic materials
are not attracted by a magnet and cannot be magnetised. Induced magnetism
Examples include plastic and rubber. A bar magnet is an example of a permanent magnet.
A compass needle is a permanent magnet. Like many It can remain magnetised. Its magnetism (floes not
bar magnets, it is made of hard steel. You have probably disappear. Permanent magnets are made of hard '
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16 Magnetism
Questions
1 Name three magnetic elements.
2 What is the rule about whether magnetic poles repel
or attract?
3 Copy and complete Table 16.2.
Type of
magnetic Description Examples Uses
material
Figure 16.8: Field lines are used to represent the magnetic
Hard field around a bar magnet.
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that says that field lines come out of north poles and
go in to south poles.
Plotting field lines
Iron filings can illustrate the pattern of the magnetic field
Strength: lines that are close together indicate a
around a magnet. Place a magnet under a stiff sheet of
strong field.
plain paper or (preferably) clear plastic. Sprinkle filings
over the paper or plastic. Tap the paper or plastic to
KEY WORDS allow the filings to move slightly so that they line up in
the field. You should obtain a pattern similar to that
magnetic field: a region of space around a shown in Figure 16.7.
magnet or electric current in which a magnetic
pole experiences (feels) a force An alternative method of doing this uses a small
compass called a plotting compass. When a plotting
magnetic field lines: represent the direction compass is placed in a magnetic field, its needle turns
the magnetic force would have on the north pole to indicate the direction of the field. Activity 16.1
of a magnet describes how to use a plotting compass to show the
plotting compass: very small compass with a pattern of a magnetic field. When drawing magnetic
needle that lines up with magnetic field lines, field patterns, the field lines should never cross and they
allowing changes in field direction to be observed should include arrows, pointing from magnetic north to
and plotted over a very short distance magnetic south.
ACTIVITY 16.1
Plotting field lines
In pairs, design an experiment to plot a field pattern You could provide an optional extension task such
around a bar magnet. Create a worksheet which as: plot the field lines between two bar magnets
gives instructions on how to do the experiment. that are attracting or repelling. (In this case, make
There should be at least ten field lines (including at sure you suggest a way to prevent the magnets
least two from each side of the magnet). In addition from moving.)
to the bar magnet, the only pieces of equipment
You could also produce a very short podcast
needed for the experiment are a plotting compass,
(maximum two minutes) to demonstrate how to do
a pencil and a sheet of plain paper.
the experiment.
In your worksheet remember to include:
After you have created your worksheet, you will
• how a compass works and how it can reveal have the opportunity to look at the worksheets
magnetic field lines written by other pairs. You should note any physics
you have learned, and any ideas for making your
• a clear step-by-step method for plotting the own worksheet or presentation clearer or more
field lines (including helpful sketches). engaging in the future.
PEER ASSESSMENT
Provide feedback on the worksheets produced by • Could you follow the steps in the method?
other pairs. As you give feedback on the worksheets, • Are any steps missing or unclear?
think about these questions:
Discuss any improvements that could be made. Each
• Is the physics of a how a compass works pair should note down the feedback and, if there is
explained clearly?
time, make any improvements.
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Electromagnets
Using magnetic materials is only one way of making
a magnet. An alternative method is to use an
electromagnet. A typical electromagnet is made from a
coil of copper wire. A coil like this is sometimes called a
solenoid. When a current flows through the wire, there is
a magnetic field around the coil (Figure 16.11). Copper
wire is often used, because of its low resistance, though Figure 16.11: A solenoid. When a current flows through
the wire, a magnetic field is produced. The field is similar in
other metals will do. The coil does not have to be made
shape to that of a bar magnet. Note that the field lines go all
from a magnetic material. The point is that it is the the way through the centre of the coil.
electric current that produces the magnetic field.
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16 Magnetism
6 0.21
8 0.29
10 0.34
Figure 16.1 2: Using an electromagnet in a scrapyard. With
12 0.38
the current switched on, a steel object or pile of scrap can
be lifted and moved. Then the current is switched off to 14 0.43
release it.
16 0.47
Questions 18 0.54
7 a Name three ways to increase the strength of an
20 0.59
electromagnet.
b What are the advantages of an electromagnet Table 16.3: Experimental data
over a bar magnet.
c What does an electromagnet need that a
permanent magnet does not?
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I
Question
8 a Sketch a diagram of the magnetic field pattern
around a solenoid.
b Figure 16.14
How would the pattern change when the
current through the solenoid is reversed?
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16 Magnetism
PROJECT
Read this newspaper extract.
You are a science journalist whose job it is to explain the side) and needs to be able to swing clockwise
the science behind this story. You can decide or anticlockwise when viewed from above. However,
whether you write an article, write a script for a you should recall that a compass needle lines up with
television news item or produce a podcast. the magnetic field lines, which are not parallel to the
Remember that your audience are not scientists. ground in Australia.
Sometimes explaining a problem needs ideas from
two or more topics, as is the case here. You will need You will need to explain why the magnetic field lines
to explain why magnetic compasses stop working are not parallel to the ground in Australia. You need
when used in the opposite hemisphere (for example, to sketch what the compass needle looks like when
a compass designed for the northern hemisphere viewed from the side. It looks like a tiny see-saw
will not work in the southern hemisphere). You need balanced on a tiny pillar at its mid-point (look back
to use diagrams or video clips to help your audience at Chapter 4 if necessary). Use the principle of
follow your explanation. moments and the idea of equilibrium to explain how
When using a compass, you should hold it flat (that a compass needle is made to be parallel to the base
is, parallel to the ground). The compass needle plate (and the ground). Then explain why this is a
(sometimes called the card) should be parallel to particular problem when a compass designed for one
the baseplate of the compass (when viewed from hemisphere is taken and used in the other.
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SUMMARY 1
Magnets have a north pole and a south pole.
Magnetic field lines are drawn with an arrow from north to south, which is the direction of the magnetic force.
Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
Magnetic elements include iron, cobalt and nickel. Metal alloys (for example, steel) containing these elements
are also magnetic.
Magnetic materials can be magnetised while non-magnetic materials (like rubber and glass) cannot be magnetised.
A permanent magnet can attract unmagnetised magnetic materials by inducing magnetism in them.
A hard magnetic material like steel is difficult to magnetise and demagnetise.
A soft magnetic material like soft iron is easy to magnetise and demagnetise.
A magnetic field is a region of space around a magnet or electric current in which a magnet will feel a force.
A magnetic field pattern around a (bar) magnet can be produced using a plotting compass.
A magnetic field line is the line (direction) of force on the north pole of the magnet, which is why a magnet (for
example, a compass needle) lines up with it.
An electromagnet (or solenoid) is a magnet created when a current is passed through wire, which is usually
shaped into a coil.
The strength of an electromagnet increases with the number of turns in the coil, the strength of the current and
if it has a soft iron core.
The advantages of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet are that its strength can be changed, it can be
switched on and off and it can be reversed.
The magnetic forces of attraction and repulsion between magnets are caused when their magnetic fields interact
(affect each other) and produce a new pattern of magnetic lines of force.
•••
" l"
’ 1
——
The closer together magnetic field lines are to each other, the stronger the magnetic field.
' J
— —-— —
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 Some metals and alloys are magnetic. Which of these is magnetic? [1]
A aluminium
B copper
C gold
D steel
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16 Magnetism
COMMAND WORD
explain: set out
purposes or
reasons; make
the relationships
between things
evident; provide
why and/or how and
support with relevant
evidence
a Which pole is at X? [1]
b If the magnets are released, in which direction will they move? [1]
[Total: 2]
6 Karamveer investigated how the strength of an electromagnet varied with
current. He used an arrangement like the one in the diagram. He passed a
current through an electromagnet so that it attracted a small steel plate. For
each current he passed through the coil, he suspended more masses from the
bottom of the steel plate until the steel was pulled away from the electromagnet.
Current / A Force / N
0 0.00
2 0.60
4 1.20
6 1.90
8 2.40
10 3.00
COMMAND WORDS
a Plot a graph of force against current. [3] state: express in
b State how the strength of the electromagnet varies with the current clear terms
passing through the coil. [11
c State two other ways that the strength of an electromagnet can be suggest: apply
increased. [2] knowledge and
understanding
d An electromagnet can be switched on and off. Suggest one situation to situations where
where this would be an advantage over the constant field of a there are a range
permanent magnet. [1] of valid responses
e In terms of forces, state why the steel plate falls from the electromagnet in order to make
once the suspended masses exceed a certain value. [1 ] proposals/put forward
[Total: 8] considerations
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16 Magnetism
CONTINUED
7 a What is the difference between a magnetically soft and a magnetically COMMAND WORD
hard material? [11
b Give an example of a magnetically hard material and suggest where it give: produce an
might be used. [11 answer from a given
c Give an example of a magnetically soft material and suggest where it source or recall/
might be used. HI memory
[Total: 3]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
GETTING STARTED
In a small group, discuss what you know about One member of the group should now stay with
electricity. Organise your ideas into a mind map. the map to explain it to other groups. The rest of
Include as many of the following words as possible, the group should visit the maps of different groups.
giving definitions and examples wherever you can: Having done this, return to your own group and add
electron, charge, current, static, shock, voltage, any additional information to your map.
conductor, insulator.
A SHOCKING PHENOMENON
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17 Static electricity
You can see that this rule is similar to the rule we saw
for magnetic poles in Chapter 16. But do not confuse EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 17.1
magnetism with static electricity! Magnetism arises from
magnetic poles - static electricity arises from electric Investigating static electricity
charges. When you rub a plastic rod, you are not making In this experiment you will find out about static
it magnetic. electricity by charging materials and observing
how they behave.
Getting started
Investigate how much you need to rub the rods in
order to charge them. Test this by using the rod to
pick up little pieces of paper.
Figure 17.4
How does bouncing on the trampoline cause Figure 17.5: Set-up for investigation.
the child’s hair to become charged?
b The individual hairs are repelling each other. Method
What does this tell you?
1 You need to be sure that you can place the
Explain why, after walking on a nylon carpet, you rods so that they can turn freely, either by
may get a small shock when you touch a metal hanging them in the paper stirrup, or by
door handle. placing them on an upturned watch glass.
Try this out with your rods.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Questions
Figure 17.6: An insect trapped in resin as ’it hardened.
1 Some students investigate polythene and Resin is a good insulator and easily becomes electrostatically
acetate rods. They find that the two rods charged.
attract each other. One student says this
proves that the rods have opposite charge. J i
Explain why the student is wrong. Friction and charging
2 Describe what the students would need It is the force of friction that causes charging. When a
todo in order to prove that the rods have plastic rod is rubbed on a cloth, friction transfers tiny
opposite charges. particles called electrons fpom one material to the other.
When the rod is made of polythene, usually electrons are
transferred from the cloth to the rod.
17.2 Explaining static Electrons are a part of every atom. They are negatively
charged, and they are found on the outside of the atom.
electricity The nucleus in the centre of the atom has a positive
charge. The positive and negative charges in an atom are
The Ancient Greeks knew something about static equal so overall an atom has no electric charge - we say
electricity. Amber is a form of resin from trees, which that it is neutral. Since the outer electrons are relatively
hardens and becomes fossilised. It looks like clear, weakly held in the atom, they can be pulled away by the
orange plastic. The Greeks knew that, when rubbed, force of friction. When an atom has lost an electron, it
amber could attract small pieces of cloth or hair. becomes positively charged.
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17 Static electricity
Charging is always the result of gaining or losing So why can charge move through conductors but not
electrons. Positive charge is not transferred. through insulators? In insulators, the electrons are tightly
An object which gains electrons becomes negative. bound to their atoms and not easily removed. In conductors
some of the electrons are free to move between atoms (these
An object which loses electrons becomes positive. electrons are sometimes referred to as free electrons).
Since a polythene rod becomes negatively charged when When you rub a polythene rod, it gains electrons from
it is rubbed with a cloth, we can imagine electrons being the cloth and so becomes negatively charged. The
transferred from the cloth to the rod (see Figure 17.8). electrons cannot move through the polythene, so the end
It is difficult to explain why one material pulls electrons which was rubbed remains charged.
from another. The atoms that make up polythene contain When a copper rod is rubbed, electrons are also transferred
positive charges, and these must attract electrons more by friction, but these electrons are free to move, so they flow
strongly than those of the cloth. through the rod, through your hand and into the Earth.
Remember that it takes two different materials to This means the copper rod does not become charged.
generate static electricity. One material becomes positive, A metal object can be charged if it is held by an
the other negative. insulating handle. In this case the charge will spread
evenly through the conductor.
Conductors and insulators
You may have noticed that all the examples of objects KEY WORDS
becoming charged involve non-metals. Metals are
electrical conductors, which means electrons can move electrical conductor: a substance that allows the
through them and the metal doesn’t stay charged. Gold flow of electrons (electric current)
and copper are particularly good electrical conductors. electrical insulator: a substance that inhibits the
Non-metals, such as glass, plastic and amber are flow of electrons (electric current)
electrical insulators.
REFLECTION
Which part of Activity 17.1 did you find most
useful? Summarising, condensing or sharing?
Consider how this might help you when revising
for a test.
Questions
4 Copy and complete these sentences.
When a polythene rod is rubbed, move from
the to the .
This means the rod becomes and the cloth
becomes .
5 a Draw a diagram similar to Figure 17.8 to show
how an acetate rod becomes positively charged
by losing electrons.
b Write sentences similar to those you completed
in question 1 7.4 to explain how the acetate
becomes charged.
6 When you hold a polythene rod and rub it with
a cloth, it becomes charged. If the rod is made
Figure 17.9: The comb has been charged by rubbing it.
of metal, it will not become charged. Explain
It attracts the water when it is held close to the water.
this difference by describing what happens to the
electrons in each case.
A charged object can affect other objects, both charged
and uncharged, without actually touching them. For
ACTIVITY 17.1: WHAT HAVE I LEARNT? example, a charged plastic rod can exert a force on
Take two minutes to summarise what you have another charged rod placed close by.
learnt so far in this chapter on one sheet of paper. We say that there is an electric field around a charged
Now, take two more minutes to condense your object. Any charged object placed in the field will
notes. You may use ten words and four diagrams. experience a force on it.
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17 Static electricity
Charged particles
We have already seen that electrons are the charged
particles that are transferred from one object to another
when they are rubbed together. Electric charge is a
property of the particles that make up atoms.
Charge is measured in coulombs (C), named after
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, a French physicist. He
discovered that the force between two charged objects
depends on how big their charges are and on how far
apart they are.
An electron is a negatively charged particle. It is much
smaller than an atom, and only weakly attached to the
outside of the atom. It is held there by the attraction of
the positively charged nucleus of the atom. The nucleus
Figure 17.1 0: The electric field around a charged object is is positively charged because it contains positively
represented by lines of force, a: An isolated positive charge, charged particles called protons.
b: A negatively charged sphere, c: Two parallel plates with An electron has a very tiny amount of electric charge.
opposite charges. The electron charge is so small that it takes more than
6 million million million electrons to make 1 C of charge:
electron charge = -0.000000000000000000 16 C
Question or -1.6 x 1O-19C
7 Draw the magnetic field around: A proton has exactly the same size of charge as an
a an isolated negative charge electron, but positive, so the proton charge is:
b two vertical metal plates - one positive and the proton charge = +0.000 000 000 000 000 000 16 C
other negative. or +1.6 x W-19C
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
—
No-one knows why these values urc exactly the same
size (or even if they are exactly the same size), but it is KEY WORDS
fortunate that they are because it means that an atom that coulomb (C): the SI unit for electric charge
contains, say, six protons and six electrons is electrically
neutral. If all the objects around us were made of charged proton: a positively charged particle found in the
atoms, we would live in a shocking world! atomic nucleus
electron charge: the electric charge of a single
Question electron = -1.6 x 10“19C
8 Calculate the number of electrons needed to give a
charge of one coulomb. proton charge: the electric charge of a single
proton = +1.6 x W19C
PROJECT
Shocking shopping may be due to the carpet on the shop floor which is
made of a hard-wearing material called polypropylene.
The store manager wants to investigate whether she
should invest in a new carpet that is les^ 'likely to create
static. Until she does this, she wants to be able to
advise customers on how to avoid shocks.
Your tasks as her scientific consultant are:
1 Explain what is happening. As an Interim measure,
she would like leaflets to give to shoppers to help
them understand what is happening and what
they can do to minimise shocks. Could customers
Figure 17.11: A carpet in a shop can caus.e a shock. discharge regularly before top much charge builds
up? Or would it help if they picked up their feet
Walking across a carpet can cause friction, which rather than shuffling?
leads to people becoming electrostatically charged. 2 Design the leaflet. It must have no more than
Touching another person, or a conducting object 50 words and it should be illustrated.
such as a metal stair bannister, can cause a shock as 3 Consider how new carpets could be tested to
the charge flows through to earth, discharging the find out which create the most static. Testing by
person. These shocks are not usually dangerous but shocking people is not easy or ethical. Instead you
can be uncomfortable. should look at charging the carpets by friction and
A manager of a large store has received a lot of investigating the force of attraction or repulsion
complaints from customers who are experiencing they produce. You will need to give step-by-step
painful shocks as they shop. The manager thinks it instructions for a fair test investigation.
PEER ASSESSMENT
Exchange leaflets and investigation plans with another student. Give them written feedback by answering the
following points:
• Does the leaflet make it clear how charging happens?
• Does the leaflet give clear advice on avoiding shocks?
• Will the investigation provide valid data?
• Does the plan control all variables in order to give a fair test?
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17 Static electricity
SUMMARY
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
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CONTINUED
The student repeats the experiment using two strips of aluminium. COMMAND WORDS
b State and explain what the student would see with the aluminium strips. [2] state: express in
c A plastic rod is charged by rubbing it with a cloth. clear terms
Which statement described what has happened to the cloth? explain: set out
purposes or
A The cloth becomes negatively charged because electrons transfer
reasons; make
from the cloth to the rod
the relationships
B The cloth becomes positively charged because electrons transfer between things
from the cloth to the rod evident; provide
C The cloth becomes negatively charged because protons transfer why1and/or how and
from the rod to the cloth support with relevant
D The cloth becomes positively charged because protons transfer evidence
from the rod to the cloth.
6 A student combs his hair with a plastic comb. The comb becomes negatively
charged.
a Explain how this happens. [2]
b Name the particles which are transferred. [1]
c The student notices his hair is now standing on end. Explain why this
happens to his hair. [2]
[Total: 5]
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17 Static electricity
a positively
charged
sphere
a negatively
charged
sphere
[Total: 7]
insulator
CONTINUED
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
GETTING STARTED
Does anything get used up going around a circuit? Do you know what happens when we charge a
mobile (cell) phone?
What do batteries and cells have that gets used up?
Why can birds stand on power lines without being
electrocuted?
Discussion questions
1 Describe how an electric eel is like a battery.
2 A TASER is like an electric eel but why does the
Figure 18.1: An electric eel. eel not need the wires used in a TASER?
322 )
18 Electrical quantities
circuits
We use electric circuits to transfer energy from a battery
or power supply to components in the circuit, which then
transfer the energy to their surroundings. For an electric
current to flow, two things are needed: a complete circuit
for it to flow around, and something to ‘push’ it around
the circuit. The push might be provided by a cell, battery
or power supply. A battery is simply two or more cells
connected end-to-end. In most familiar circuits, metals b
such as copper or steel provide the circuit for the current
to flow around.
Figure 18.3a shows how a simple circuit can be set up filament
in the laboratory. Once the switch is closed, there is a
continuous metal path for the current to flow along.
Current flows from the positive terminal of the battery
(or cell). In the circuit symbol for a cell, the longer line
represents the positive terminal (see Figure 18.3b).
Current flows through the switch and the filament lamp, Figure 1 8.3a: A simple electric circuit, set up in a laboratory,
back to the negative terminal of the battery. A current b: The same circuit represented as a circuit diagram.
that flows in the same direction all the time is called
direct current (d.c.). You will meet alternating current
It is obvious how the switch in Figure 18.3a works.
(a.c.) in Chapter 21 when you learn about transformers.
You push the springy metal downwards until it touches
Alternating current is when current reverses direction. the other metal contact. Then the current can flow
In many countries, mains electricity has a frequency of through it. Most switches work by bringing two pieces
50 Hz so it changes direction 100 times per second. of metal into contact with one another, though you
cannot usually see this happening. It is worth having
KEY WORDS a look inside some switches to see how they work. (Of
course, they must not be connected in a circuit when you
current: the rate at which electric charge passes a examine them!)
point in a circuit Similarly, take a look at some filament lamps, like the
cell: a device that provides an electromotive force one in Figure 18.3a. Every lamp has two metal contacts,
(e.m.f.) in a circuit by means of a chemical reaction for the current to flow in and out. Inside, one fine wire
carries the current up to the filament (which is another
battery: two or more electrical cells connected wire), and a second wire carries the current back down
together in series again. Notice also how the circuit symbols for these and
direct current (d.c.): electric current that flows in many other components have two connections for joining
the same direction all the time them into a circuit.
alternating current (a.c.): electric current that
(periodically) changes direction Good conductors
bad conductors
Figure 18.3b shows the same circuit as represented by a The wires we use to connect up circuits are made of
circuit diagram. Each component has its own standard metal because metals are good conductors of electric
symbol. If you imagine the switch being pushed so current. The metal is usually surrounded by plastic, so
that it closes, it is clear from the diagram that there is a that, if two wires touch, the electric current cannot pass
continuous path for the current to flow around the circuit. directly from one to another (causing a short circuit).
Plastics (polymers) are good electrical insulators.
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
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18 Electrical quantities
Questions
4 a In which direction does conventional current
flow around a circuit?
b In which direction do electrons flow around
a circuit?
5 a What is the unit of electric current?
b What is the unit of electric charge?
326 y
18 Electrical quantities
8
1A=1 s — 1C=14s
Calculate the missing values a-d in Table 18.2.
Show all your working.
d The voltmeter measures the p.d. across it. This circuit can
5.4 C 70 mA
therefore be used to find the resistance of the resistor. The
Table 18.2 ammeter is connected in series in the circuit. The voltmeter
is connected in parallel in the circuit.
18.2 Voltage in There is a special name for the p.d. across a cell. It is called
the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the cell, and it is also
electric circuits measured in volts. The term can be misleading since e.m.f.
is a voltage, not a force. Any component that pushes a
Figure 18.8 shows a circuit in which a cell pushes a current current around a circuit is said to be a source of e.m.f., for
through a resistor. The cell provides the voltage needed example, cells, batteries, power supplies and dynamos. The
to push the current through the resistor. Here, ‘voltage’ e.m.f. is defined as the electrical work done by a source in
is a rather loose term, and we should say that there is moving a unit charge around a complete circuit.
a potential difference (p.d.) across the resistor. Potential
difference is defined as the work done by a unit charge KEY WORDS
passing through a component (a resistor, in this case). It is
measured in volts (V) using a voltmeter. The p.d. is also the voltage: the energy transferred or work done per
difference in electrical potential between two points: the unit charge; it can be imagined as the push of a
point where the current enters a component and where battery or power supply in a circuit
it leaves a component. This is rather like the difference in
height that makes a ball roll downhill. potential difference (p.d.): the work done by
(a unit) charge passing through an electrical
Voltmeters are always connected in parallel with a component; another name for the voltage
component, that is, across a component. This circuit is between two points
called a parallel circuit, where components are connected
in branches across the circuit. Voltmeters can either have volts (V): the SI unit of voltage (p.d. or e.m.f.);
1 V = 1 J/C
an analogue display (with a needle) or a digital display
(with a numerical value). The reading on a voltmeter is in voltmeter: a meter for measuring the p.'d.
volts (V) but they have different ranges. Smaller voltages (voltage) between two points
may be measured in millivolts (mV) or microvolts (pV).
electromotive force (e.m.f.)r the electrical work
Take care not to confuse italic, V, which is used as the
symbol for an unknown potential difference or voltage,
done by a source (cell, battery, etc.) in moving (a
unit) charge around a circuit; the voltage across
with upright, V, which is used as the symbol for the unit,
the terminals of a source
volts. You can tell the difference in books, but you cannot
easily tell the difference when they are written.
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
3.0V 4.5V 1.5V Both word equations above can be summarised as the
word equation:
J
-I -I - -I -I -I - —I - H — voltage (V) = workdone
charge C
a be Or, the symbol equation:
Question
1 1 Three 12 V batteries are connected in series.
a Draw a diagram to show how these batteries
could be connected to a lamp.
The voltage or potential difference is the work done (or
b Calculate the combined e.m.f. of the batteries. energy transferred) per unit charge.
As electric current flows through a circuit, the chemical
energy of the cell is transferred to the components as
internal energy (in a resistor) or kinetic energy (in a motor !
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
charge (C)
Figure 18.9 shows some examples of this. In general, if The bigger the e.m.f. of a cell, the more strongly
cells with e.m.f.s E{ and E2 are connected in series, their electrons are pushed around the circuit, just like pressure
combined e.m.f. E is given by: determines how strongly water is pushed through a pipe.
E = E\ + E2 The potential difference across a device such as a lamp
is a measure of how much electrical work is done by
You can understand why e.m.f.s add up like this if you each coulomb as it passes through a component. This is
think about what happens when electric charge passes
described by the equation:
through. For four 1.5 V cells in series, each cell does
electrical work on each unit charge as it passes through, ,
__
p.d. (V) =
work done by the charge (J)
so their combined e.m.f. must be 6 V. charge (C)
3.0V 4.5V 1.5V Both word equations above can be summarised as the
word equation:
J
-I -I - -I -I -I - —I - H — voltage (V) = workdone
charge C
a be Or, the symbol equation:
Question
1 1 Three 12 V batteries are connected in series.
a Draw a diagram to show how these batteries
could be connected to a lamp.
The voltage or potential difference is the work done (or
b Calculate the combined e.m.f. of the batteries. energy transferred) per unit charge.
As electric current flows through a circuit, the chemical
energy of the cell is transferred to the components as
internal energy (in a resistor) or kinetic energy (in a motor!
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
KEY WORDS
18.3 Electrical resistance
resistance: a measure of how difficult it is for
If you use a short length of wire to connect the positive
an electric current to flow through a device or
and negative terminals of a cell (a battery) together,
a component in a circuit; it is the p.d. across a
you can do a lot of damage. The wire and the cell may
both get hot, as a large current will flow through them. component divided by the current through it
There is very little electrical resistance in the circuit, ohm (0): the SI unit of electrical resistance;
so the current is large. The current flowing in a circuit 1 n = 1 v/a
can be controlled by adding components with electrical
resistance to the circuit. The greater the resistance, the
smaller the current that will flow. A voltmeter is always connected across the relevant
component because it is measuring the potential
difference between the two ends of the component.
Defining resistance
How much current can a cell push through a resistor?
• Ammeters are connected in series so that the current
can flow through them.
The electrical resistance of a component is measured in
ohms (Q). It is defined as the potential difference across • Voltmeters are connected in parallel to measure the
the component divided by the current passing through it: p.d. across the component.
potential difference(V) Worked Example 18.2 and Figure 18.11 show how to
resistance (Q) = current(A)
calculate the resistance of a resistor from measurements
of current and p.d. Notice that we can show the current
as an arrow entering (or leaving) the resistor. The p.d.
is shown by a double-headed arrow to indicate that it
is measured across the resistor. The resistance is simply
The circuit shown in Figure 18.11 illustrates how we
can measure the resistance of a resistor (or of any other shown as a label on or next to the resistor - it does not
component). We need to know the current flowing have a direction.
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18 Electrical quantities
Changing current
You can think of an electric circuit as an obstacle race.
The current (or flow of charge) comes out of the positive
terminal of the cell and must travel around the circuit
to the negative terminal. Along the way, it must pass
through the different components. The greater their
resistance, the harder it will be for the charge to flow, and
so the current will be smaller.
The greater the resistance in the circuit, the smaller
the current that flows. However, we can make a bigger
current flow by increasing the p.d. that pushes it. A
bigger p.d. produces a bigger current. The greater the
p.d. in a circuit (or across a component), the greater the
current that flows.
Questions
18 a What is the resistance of a lamp if a current of
5.0 A flows through it when it is connected to a
240 V supply?
What is an ohm? b When the p.d. across the lamp is increased, will
Let us think about the equation that defines what we the current flowing increase or decrease?
mean by resistance:
19 A student cuts two pieces of wire, one long and one
We can see that it takes a p.d. of 10 V to make a current short, from a reel.
of 1 A flow through a 10 Q resistor. It takes 20 V to
a Which piece of wire will have the greater
make 1 A flow through a 20 Q resistor, and so on. Hence
resistance?
resistance (in Q) tells us how many volts are needed to
make 1 A flow through that resistor. To put it another b Draw a circuit diagram to show how you would
way: one ohm is one volt per amp. check your answer by measuring the resistances
of the two pieces of wire.
1Q = 1
A—
In the case of Worked Example 18.2, it would take 500 V
to make 1 A flow through the 500 Q resistor.
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
.
Measuring resistance p.d. P/V
$
Current //A Resistance R/Q
The circuit shown in Figure 18.12 can be used to find the 2.0 0.08 25.0
resistance of a resistor. The circuit has a variable power
supply, which can be adjusted to give several different 4.0 0.17 23.5
values of p.d. For each value, the current is measured, and 6.0 0.24 25.0
results like those shown in Table 18.4 are found. The last 8.0 0.31 25.8
column in Table 18.4 shows values for R, calculated using
R = VH. These can be averaged to find the value of R. 10.0 0.40 25.0
12.0 0.49 24.5
variable
power supply Table 18.4: Typical results for an experimental measurement
of resistance.
a device can respond to the environment (for • 2 lengths of resistance wire of different
diameter
example, a light can come on when it gets dark).
• masking tape
• heatproof mat to go underneath the
resistance wire
• ammeter
• voltmeter.
18 Electrical quantities
CONTINUED
Method 1
1 Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 18.13a. Set the power supply to 12 V.
voltmeter
Figure 1 8.1 3a; Circuit diagram for the experiment, b: How to attach the wire to the ruler.
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2 Draw a table like Table 18.5, but remember to add more rows as you need them.
Length of resistance
wire / cm Current / A Voltage / V Resistance / Ω
Thin
10
20
30
Thick
10
20
30
Table 18.5
3 If your teacher has not already done so, attach the resistance wire along a metre ruler with insulating (or
masking) tape at both ends and at the centre (see Figure 18.13b).
4 Put crocodile clips at the ends of the insulated (coloured) wires that will attach to the resistance wire.
5 Attach the first crocodile clip to the resistance wire where it crosses the 0.0 cm mark on the ruler and leave
this in place throughout the experiment.
6 Attach the second crocodile clip where the resistance wire crosses the ruler at 10.0 cm and record the current
and voltage values in the table.
7 Move the second crocodile clip at 10.0 cm intervals, each time recording the current and voltage values in the
table.
𝑉
8 Calculate the resistance values using 𝑅 = and record the results in the table.
𝐼
9 Plot a graph of resistance against length of the resistance wire (with the resistance along the horizontal axis)
and label it ‘thin’.
10 Repeat the experiment with thicker resistance wire (or loosely twist two wires of the same diameter together
but, if you do, ensure the teeth of the crocodile clips are in contact with both wires). Plot the graph on the
same axes for easy comparison and label it ‘thick’.
Method 2
If you do not have access to resistance wires of five different diameters, twist wires of the same diameter together.
Keep the length of wire the same (say, 50 cm).
1 Use a micrometer to determine the diameter of the wire or look up the wire diameter corresponding to
the SWG (standard wire gauge) value on the reel that the wire comes from.
2 Use this information to work out the cross-sectional area of the wire or wires.
3 Using wires of the same length but increasing cross-section, record the voltage and current values, and
calculate the resistance.
4 Plot a graph of resistance against the cross-sectional area.
5 Describe the relationship between resistance and cross-section.
6 How would you show that there is an inverse relationship?
334>
18 Electrical quantities
CONTINUED
336 y
18 Electrical quantities
eg. 50V
reverse
conventional current
Figure 18.16: Typical current-voltage characteristics, a: For two ohmic resistors, b: For a filament lamp, c: For a diode.
Notice that these graphs show both positive and negative Suppose that we have a 4.0 metre length of wire.
voltages. A negative current means one flowing in the Its resistance is 100 fl. What will be the resistance of a
opposite direction. This is achieved by connecting the 2.0 metre length of wire with twice the cross-sectional
cell or power supply the other way round. Figures 18.16a area? Notice that making the wire shorter will reduce
and b are symmetrical, showing that, whichever way its resistance, and increasing its area will also reduce its
round the components are connected, the current will be resistance.
the same for a given voltage. Halving the length gives half the resistance = 50 fl.
Figure 18.16c is the I-V characteristic of a diode, which
is not symmetrical. A diode acts as a switch and only
Doubling the area halves the resistance again = 25 fl.
allows current to flow in one direction. The arrow on the
diode symbol indicates the direction that conventional Question
current can flow. A diode is a semiconductor so
it behaves like both an insulator and a conductor. 26 A 2.0 metre length of wire has a resistance of 4.0 Q.
A diode behaves like an insulator until it is given enough a What is the resistance of a piece of the same
voltage (energy per unit charge) to make it behave as wire of length 20.0 metres?
a conductor. For a silicon diode this threshold voltage b What is the resistance of a 4.0 metre wire with
is 0.7 V. half the cross-sectional area, made of the same
material?
Questions
24 Look at the graph shown in Figure 18.16a. How can
you tell from the graph that the resistors are both 18.5 Electrical energy,
ohmic?
25 Look at the graph shown in Figure 18.1 6b. How can work and power
you tell from the graph that the lamp’s resistance We use electricity because it is a good way of transferring
increases as the p.d. across it increases? energy from place to place. In most places, if you switch
on an electric heater, you are getting the benefit of the
Length and area energy released as fuel that is burned in a power station,
which may be over 100 km away.
We have seen that the resistance of a wire depends on its
length and its diameter. In fact, it is the cross-sectional When you plug in an appliance to the mains supply, you
area of the wire that matters. are connecting up to quite a high voltage, something
like 1 10 V or 230 V, depending on where you live. This
The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length. high voltage is the e.m.f. of the supply. Recall that e.m.f.
The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to is the name given to the p.d. across an electrical source
its cross-sectional area. component such as a cell or power supply that pushes
current around a circuit.
)> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
By the principle of conservation of energy, the energy The symbol, E, represents energy transferred. You
given to the charges by the cell must equal the sum of the should recognise this definition of power from Chapter 8.
energies given by the charges to the various components.
This equation also reminds us of the definition of the
This means that the e.m.f. across the cell is equal to
unit of power, the watt: one watt is one joule per second,
the sum of the potential differences across all the
components round the circuit. The total voltage across 1W = 1 J/s
the cell equals the sum of the voltages across the lamps.
This is something you will meet again in Chapter 19.
Voltage and energy
Batteries and power supplies give energy to the charges in
a circuit. Similarly, we can think about other components We have seen that the e.m.f. (voltage) of a supply tells us
in a circuit. For example, a small lamp may have a p.d. of how much energy it transfers to charges flowing around
1.5 V across it. This means that each coulomb of charge the circuit. The greater the current flowing around the
circuit, the faster that energy is transferred. Hence the
does 1.5 J of electrical work to pass through the lamp
and will transfer 1.5 J of energy to the lamp. Remember, rate at which energy is transferred in the circuit (the
work done is the same as energy transferred. power, P) depends on both the e.m.f., E, of the supply
and the current, I, that it pushes round the circuit. The
following equation shows how to calculate the electrical
Electrical power power:
Most electrical appliances have a label that shows their power (W) = current (A) x p.d. (V)
power rating. An example is shown in Figure 18.17.
P = IV
proline
MOD.:ST44
2450MHz
230V
~ 50Hz MICROWAVE INPUT POWER : 550
MICROWAVE ENERGY OUTPUT
1
: 950 W
W
power (W) =
—- ———
energy transferred (J)
time taken (s)
P= M
Worked Example 18.3 shows how to calculate the power
KEY WORDS of a device and how much energy is transferred in a
given time.
electrical power: power = current x p.d (P - VI)
338 y
18 Electrical quantities
120 80 d
=
1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s 3.6 x 106 J (a big number).
1 kWh is sometimes called a unit of electricity. It is not;
it is a unit of energy. It is kWh that are measured using
Table 18.7 an electricity meter, like the one shown in Figure 18.18.
339 y
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Zara checks her electricity bill for a three month period. Step 3: Now write down the equation for the total
The meter reading at the start was 2531 kWh and at cost of electricity.
the end it was 2647 kWh. Electricity costs 16p per unit. total cost of electricity =
What is her bill for electricity? number of units x cost per unit
Step 1: Start by writing down what you know, and what
Step 4: Substitute the values of the quantities on the
you want to know. right-hand side and work out the answer.
metre reading at start = 2531 kWh
total cost of electricity =
meter reading at end = 2647 kWh 116kWhx 16p = £18.56
=
cost per unit 16p
Answer
units used = ?
Zara’s bill is £18.56.
=
total cost of electricity ?
Step 2: Work out how many units were used.
Units used = 2647 kWh - 2531 kWh
= 116kWh
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1 8 Electrical quantities
PROJECT
Shining the light on what lamp to use
Design a public awareness and education campaign
to persuade people to switch to using LED lamps.
CONTINUED
20 years. In Table 18.9, we have assumed that the if you really do not have time to research up-to-date
light bulbs all emit 850 lumens. When you research numbers. By the time you read this book, CFLs and
light bulbs, note that tungsten filament light bulbs LEDs may have become even more efficient, they may
are sometimes called incandescent light bulbs or last longer and the cost of electricity will certainly have
halogen light bulbs. Only use the data in Table 18.9 changed.
Type of bulb
Quantity Tungsten filament CFL LED
power rating 60 W 14W 10W
average cost per bulb (£) 1 2 4
average lifespan (hours) 1200 8000 25 000
number of bulbs needed for 25 000 hours
total purchase price of bulbs over 20 years (£)
Cost of electricity over 20 years when electricity costs
£0.15 per unit (£)
Total estimated cost over 20 years (£)
Table 18.9: A table to work out the relative cost of the three different light bulbs.
Optional
Include explanations of how the lamps work. You already know how a tungsten filament light bulb works.
SUMMARY
An electric current will flow only if there is a supply of energy (for example, a battery) to push it around a
complete circuit (that is, if there are no gaps in it).
Conductors (for example, metals) allow electric current to flow through them while insulators (for example,
plastic) resist the flow of current.
Current is a flow of electric charge (for example, electrons) in a circuit.
Electric current is measured in amperes or amps (A).
Current is measured with an ammeter connected into a circuit in series.
Conventional current flows from the positive terminal of a cell or battery to the negative terminal. Electrons
flow in the opposite direction.
@
Current is the rate at which electric charge (for example, electrons) passes a point in a circuit: I = .
Voltage or potential difference (p.d.) is like the difference in height that makes a ball roll downhill.
The p.d. across a cell is called the electromotive force (e.m.f.).
Voltage (and p.d. and e.m.f.) is measured with a voltmeter connected in parallel across the relevant component
and they are all measured in volts (V).
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18 Electrical quantities
CONTINUED
Voltage is the work done or energy transferred per unit charge given by the equation V= W
The resistance of a wire increases when it gets longer and resistance decreases as the diameter of the wire gets wider.
The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
A current-voltage (I-V) characteristic is a graph with current plotted on the vertical axis and the voltage on the
horizontal axis.
When the gradient of an I-V characteristic is smaller, the resistance is bigger.
The resistance of an ohmic resistor is constant because the current through it is directly proportional to the
voltage across it. The I-V characteristic of an ohmic resistor is a straight line through the origin.
A filament lamp is an example of a component that is non-ohmic. As the current through the filament increases,
it gets hot and so its resistance increases.
Electric circuits transfer energy from the battery or power source to the circuit components and then the
surroundings.
Electrical power is current multiplied by voltage (P = IV) and electrical energy is £ = IVt.
The equation for working out the number of units of electrical energy being used is:
=
Energy transferred (kWh) power (kW) x time (hours)
The cost of electricity can be worked out using: total cost of electricity = number of units x cost per unit
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 Which of these non-metals can conduct electricity? [1]
A plastic B chalk C carbon D rubber
343 )
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
5 Charge separation between the ground and a cloud leads to a spark called
lightning. When a lightning flash occurs, a current passes through the air.
Use the data in this diagram to answer the questions.
COMMAND WORDS
a State the relationship between distance, speed and time. [1 ] state: express in
b Calculate the time it takes the lightning strike to cross the gap between clear terms
the cloud and the ground. [2]
c State the relationship between charge, current and time. [1 ]
calculate: work out
from given facts,
d Calculate the charge transferred by the lightning strike. [2]
figures or information
e State the relationship between potential difference, energy transferred
and charge. [1]
f Calculate the energy in one lightning strike using the charge and
voltage values. [2]
g An alternative approach for working out the energy in the lightning
strike does not involve working out the charge transferred. Show that
this method gives the same answer. [2]
[Total: 11]
344 )
18 Electrical quantities
CONTINUED
COMMAND WORD
give: produce an
answer from a given
source or recall I
memory
Voltage in / V explain: set out
purposes or
i Use the graph to find the current through the filament lamp when reasons I make
the voltage is 6.0 V [1 ] the relationships
ii State the relationship between voltage, current and resistance. [1] between things
iii Calculate the resistance of the lamp when the voltage is 6.0 V. evident I provide
Give the unit. [3] why and I or how and
iv Explain the shape of the I-V characteristic. [2] support with relevant
[Total: 9] evidence
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
345 )
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
1 can
See Needs Almost Confident
Topic... more work there to move on
Recall the name given to the voltage across a cell
or battery. 18.2
Recall the name of the unit that resistance is measured in. 18.3
Recall the equation that relates resistance, current and
voltage. 18.3
Calculate electrical energy in kWh and work out its cost. 18.5
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> Chapter 19
Electrics
circuits
highlight the hazards of using electricity and describe and explain electrical safety measures, including
fuses, circuit-breakers, and earth wires.
1
GETTING STARTED
Spend two minutes thinking about these questions Using what you remember from Chapter 18 about
before comparing notes with the person sitting how the resistance of a wire depends on its length
next to you. Add to, or correct, your own work. Be and diameter, try answering the following questions:
prepared to share your thoughts with the class.
• Why does less current flow when there are two
How can you tell a series circuit apart from a parallel lamps in series'^
circuit?
• Why does more total current flow when there
are two lamps in parallel?
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19 Electric circuits
—O O —
junction of cell battery power supply
conductors
switch
fuse heater
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variable resistor
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19 Electric circuits
LDRs are used in circuits to detect the level of light, for 2 a What does LDR stand for?
example in security lights that switch on automatically at b Draw its circuit symbol.
night. Some digital clocks have one fitted. When the room
c What happens to the resistance of an LDR
is brightly lit, the display is automatically brightened so
when light is shone on it?
that it can be seen against its bright surroundings. In a
darkened room, the display need only be dim. 3 a Draw the circuit symbol for a thermistor,
b Give one use for a thermistor.
Thermistors c Explain why a thermistor is suitable for
the use you chose in b.
A thermistor (Figure 19.6) is another type of resistor
whose resistance depends on its environment. In this
case, its resistance depends on its temperature. The
Relays
resistance changes by a large amount over a narrow A relay is a type of switch that works using an
range of temperatures. electromagnet. Figure 19.7 shows that, when a relay is
used, there are two circuits:
• the magnetising coil (electromagnet) of the relay is
in one circuit
• the switch is in the other circuit.
When a current flows through the relay or magnetising coil
in the first circuit, it becomes magnetised (Figure 1 9.7).
It pulls on the switch in the second circuit, causing it to
close, and allowing a current to flow in the second circuit
to turn on a motor. This will be shown in more detail in
Chapter 20.
The second circuit often involves a large voltage, which
would be dangerous for an operator to switch, or which
could not be switched by a normal electronic circuit
(because these work at low voltage). Remember, when a
relay is used, there are two complete circuits.
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Question
4 a Redraw the circuit shown in Figure 19.8 so that Figure 19.9a: Circuit symbol for a diode. A diode allows
a heater only comes on in the daytime. Include current to flow in one direction only - in the direction of
a light-dependent resistor in place of the the arrow, b: A diode is like a waterfall. Charge can flow
thermistor and a heater in place of the lamp. downhill, but is prevented from flowing back uphill, c: Circuit
b Explain why the heater would be cold when the symbol for a light-emitting diode. The arrows represent the
LDR is in darkness. light that is emitted when a current flows through it.
c Explain why the heater would be hot when light
shines on the LDR.
KEY WORDS
diode: an electrical component that allows
electric current to flow in one direction only
light-emitting diode (LED) a type of diode that
emits light when a current flows through it
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1 9 Electric circuits
Questions We have not really proved these values for the combined
or effective resistance, but you should see that they are
5 A diode will allow an electric current to flow in one reasonable values.
direction only. Using a lamp, battery and diode, To recognise when two resistors are connected in series,
draw a circuit diagram in which: trace the path of the current around the circuit. If all the
a the lamp lights current flows through one resistor and then through the
b the lamp does not light. other (as in Figure 19.10a), the resistors are connected
in series. They are connected end-to-end. For resistors in
6 A friend wants to produce the I-V characteristic of parallel, the current flows differently.
a diode. Draw the circuit diagram that he will need It flows around the circuit until it reaches a point where
to build. the circuit divides (as at point X in Figure 19.10b). Then
some of the current flows through one resistor, and
19.2 Combinations some flows through the other. Then the two currents
recombine (as at point Y in Figure 19.10b) and return to
of resistors the cell. Resistors in parallel are connected side-by-side.
If you have two resistors, there are two ways they can be Resistors in series
connected together in a circuit: in series and in parallel.
If several resistors are connected in series, then the current
This is illustrated for two 10 Q resistors in Figure 19.10.
must flow through them all, one after another. The
It is useful to be able to work out the total resistance of combined resistance, R, in the circuit is simply the sum
two resistors like this. What is their combined resistance of all the separate resistances. For three resistors in series
or effective resistance? (Figure 19.1 la), the equation for their combined resistance is:
For the two 10 Q resistors in series in Figure 19.10a, the R = Rt + R2 + R3
current has to flow through two resistors instead of one.
Figure 19.11b shows the same current, I, flowing through
The resistance in the circuit is doubled, so the combined
three resistors. Remember, current cannot be used
resistance is 20 Q. up because charge is conserved. We can calculate the
For the two 10 Q resistors in parallel in Figure 19.10b, combined resistance for this circuit:
there are two possible paths for the current to flow along,
instead of just one. The resistance in the circuit is halved,
=
combined resistance 10 Q + 20 Q + 20 Q = 50 Q
So the three resistors could be replaced by a single 50 Q
so the effective resistance is 5 Q.
resistor and the current in the circuit would be the same.
a 10Q 10Q So, for resistors in series:
• the combined resistance is equal to the sum of the
resistances
20 Q
• the current is the same at all points around the circuit
I I—>- • the bigger the resistance, the bigger the p.d. across it.
effective resistance
10Q
a R, R2 R3
b 10V
5Q
effective resistance
Figure 19.11a: Three resistors connected in series, b: Values
Figure 1 9.1 0: Two ways of connecting two resistors in a of current and p.d. in a series circuit. The same current, /,
circuit, a: In series, b: In parallel.
flows through each of the three resistors.
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When the current through an electrical conductor So, for two resistors in parallel:
is constant, the p.d. across it will increase when its
resistance increases. For example, as long as the • the effective resistance is less than the resistance of
either resistor
combined resistance of the three resistors in Figure
1 9. 1 lb is kept the same, the current at every point in the • the current from the source is greater than the
series circuit will remain the same. However, there is a current through either resistor.
bigger p.d. across the bigger resistors. In fact, the p.d.
is proportional to resistance. The p.d. across the 20 Q
resistors is double the voltage across the 10 (1 resistor. Questions
If the three resistors were replaced by one 50 Q resistor 7 What are the advantages of connecting lamps in
then there would be a p.d. of 10 V across it (equal to the parallel in a lighting circuit?
cell voltage). It might seem odd to think of conductors
8 Three resistors are connected in series with a battery,
having resistance but even the best conductors have
resistance (although superconductivity - conduction with
as shown in Figure 19.13.
zero resistance - is an area of active research).
Resistors in parallel
The lights in a conventional house are connected in
parallel with one another. The reason for this is that each
one requires the full voltage of the mains supply to work
properly. If they were connected in series, the p.d. would
be shared between them and they would be dim. In
parallel, each one can be provided with its own switch, so
that it can be operated separately. If one lamp fails, the Resistor A has the greatest resistance of the three.
others remain lit. The current through A is 1.4 A. What can you say
The effective resistance of several resistors connected in about the currents through B and C?
parallel is less than that of any of the individual resistors. 9 What is the combined resistance of three 30 Q
This is because it is easier for the current to flow. You can resistors connected in series?
see this for two resistors in parallel in Figure 19.12a. The
current flowing from the source divides up as it passes
through the resistors. Figure 19. 12b shows the current Voltage in series circuits
from the power supply splitting up and passing through
When resistors are connected in series with each other in
two resistors in parallel.
a circuit with a power supply, there is a p.d. across each
resistor. From the numerica) example shown in Figure
19.1 lb, you can see that adding up the p.d.s across the
three separate resistors gives the p.d. of the power supply.
In other words, the p.d. of the supply is shared between
the resistors. We can write this as an equation:
V= Vl+V2+V3
Festive lights, such as those used to celebrate different
festivals, are often wired together in series. This is
because each bulb works on a small voltage. If a single
bulb was connected to the mains supply, the p.d. across
it would be too great. By connecting them in series, the
mains voltage is shared out between them. There is a
Figure 19.12a: Two resistors connected in parallel, b: Values disadvantage; if one bulb fails (its filament breaks), they
of current and p.d. in a parallel circuit. The current flowing all go out. This is because there is no longer a complete
from the supply is shared between the resistors. circuit for the current to flow around.
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1 9 Electric circuits
KEY WORDS
355 )
More about potential divider circui
In the circuit shown in Figure 19.16a, the p.d. across tl
lamp is equal to the e.m.f. across the cell (that is, 9 V).
b 6V
V = 6V
ov
Figure 19.15a: A simple potential-divider circuit. The output
voltage is a fraction of the input voltage. The input voltage is
divided according to the relative values of the two resistors,
b: A variable resistor is used to create a potential divider
circuit, which gives an output voltage that can be varied.
Question
Figure 19.16: Potential divider circuits.
11 a Two resistors are going to be connected to
form a potential divider circuit. Should they
be connected in series or in parallel with The circuit in Figure 19.16b has two lamps in series witl
each other? a 9 V cell. Imagine that the resistance of both lamps is
b State briefly the function of a potential 1 fl. We can calculate the current through this series
divider circuit. circuit using the equation R V which is the equation
=
1'
we used to define resistance.
Normally, when the resistance of an electrical conductor
is increased, the current through it decreases. However,
_
V 9V 4.5 A
=
the current through a pair of resistors will be constant if R 2fl
their total resistance is constant. If the resistance of one This allows us to work out the voltage across each lamp
resistor is increased, the resistance of the other resistor using V IR: =
has to be decreased to maintain the same total resistance
and the same constant current. The p.d. will be bigger
across the bigger resistor. This is what is happening in ^F2 == 4.5Ax
4.5 Ax
1
1Q = 4.5V
fl = 4.5 V
Figure 19.15b. The current through the variable resistor
is constant but the resistance (and the voltage) above and Notice that these voltages add up to the e.m.f. of the cel
below X changes. ^ceii= + F2 = 4.5 V + 4.5 V = 9V
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1 9 Electric circuits
=
Now imagine that lamp 1 has a resistance of R} 60 and
CONTINUED
=
lamp 2 has a resistance of R2 30 (as in Figure 19.16c).
= =
The combined resistance is R R1+R2 60 + 30 = 90. Step 2: Write down the potential divider equation
This time the current through the series circuit is: applied to this problem.
= ^=1.0A *i=Zl
^
R 90
This time the voltage across each lamp is:
/?2 r2
Step 3: Substitute values from the question.
F] = 1.0A x 60 = 6.0V
K2 = 1.0A x 30 = 3.0V
600Q _8V_2
R2 4V
Again, the p.d. across each lamp adds up to the e.m.f. of
Step 4: Rearrange and solve for R2.
the cell. However, this time the p.d. across lamp 1 is twice
as high as the p.d. across lamp 2, which is exactly the 600 300Q
same ratio as their resistances: /? = =
2
Answer
*2 V2 The series resistor, R2, needs a value of 3000.
KEY EQUATION
R2 = ?Q 4V
supply voltage = 12 Y
R, = 600 Q Y, = 8V
Figure 19.18
Figure 19.17: Sketch diagram.
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
+ 12 V- = 0.4 A
o o
Notice that, as you might expect, the smaller
(10 Q) resistor has a bigger current flowing
R, = 1OQ
through it than the larger (30 (2) resistor.
" > EZZ
The current, I, flowing from the supply is
the sum of the currents flowing through the
individual resistors.
Figure 19.19: Sketch circuit. 1= 1.2A + 0.4A = 1.6A
Step 2: Calculate the effective resistance. Note: we could have reached the same result
using the effective resistance (7.5 (2) of the
circuit that we found in Step 2:
7? R2
1=
R
_L + _1_
30(2
I=
^=^=
R 7.5(2
L6A
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19 Electric circuits
CONTINUED
Answers b The 10 0 resistor has a current of 1.2 A flowing
a The two resistors together have an effective through it. The 30 0 resistor has a current of
resistance of 7.50. 0.4 A flowing through it.
c There is a 1.6 A charge flowing from the power supply.
Questions
1 3 Use the idea of resistors in series to explain why a
long wire has more resistance than a short wire (of
the same thickness and material).
14 Use the idea of resistors in parallel to explain why a
thick wire has less resistance than a thin wire (of the
same length and material).
15 A 15.0 0 resistor is connected in series with a 30.0 0
resistor and a 15.0 V power supply.
a Calculate the current flowing around the circuit,
b Which resistor will have the larger share of the C
p.d. across it?
1 6 One 6 0 resistor and one 4 0 resistor are connected
in parallel with a 6 V power supply. Calculate:
a the effective resistance of the two resistors
b the current through each resistor
c the current flowing from the power supply. "D
R5= 8 Q
Putting it all together
We now have enough knowledge to calculate the
currents and voltages in more complex circuits. Electrical E
engineers often sketch equivalent circuits in order to
Figure 19.20: Circuit diagram examples.
solve them and we will do the same. For each resistor
in Figure 19.20a, we are going to work out the current
passing through it and the potential difference across The pair of series resistors R2 and R^ between C and D
it. Most of the steps can be done in a different order. can be replaced with a single resistor of their combined
It is the problem-solving strategy (or approach) that resistance as shown in Figure 19.20b:
is important here. You may need to read through this
example several times. Once you think you can follow the R34 = R3 + R^ = 4 0 + 40 = 8 0
steps, cover up the working and see if you can solve it There is now a pair of parallel resistors (R2 and R34)
yourself. It may take you several attempts. between C and D. They can be replaced with a single
In Figure 19.20a, there is the same e.m.f. of 9 V across resistor (Rcd) as shown in Figure 19.20c:
both branches of this circuit (that is, 9 V between A and _L = ± + _L
B and as 9 V between C and E): ^CD ^2 ^34
_L = _L + JL
e.m.f. = UAB = UCE = 9 V
R^d 80 80
The current through Rt: 1 _ 16
r
AB
_ ^AB _ 9V _ 1.5A Rcd 640
7?! 60 = 40
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Figure 19.22
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1 9 Electric circuits
ACTIVITY 19.1
Series and parallel combinations of resistors
Task 1: Thinking about resistor combinations
Your teacher will give you some time to write down answers to the following questions:
• What is used to measure current and how is it included in circuit? Draw a sketch if it helps.
• What is used to measure voltage and how is it included in circuit? Draw a sketch if it helps.
• How can the resistance of an electrical component (such as a lamp) be measured?
• How can we calculate the total resistance for resistors in series?
• How can we calculate the effective resistance for two resistors in parallel?
• How is it possible to make more than one cell into a battery and does it matter which way round the
cells are?
The two circuits, which are described below, use two lamps, a 3.0 V battery, and a switch. Assume that each
lamp has a resistance of 5 fl. Use this information to work out the missing values. Show your working and then
write your answers onto a copy of Tables 19.2 and 19.3. Leave the shaded boxes blank.
Part 1: Series circuit
Use a pencil and a ruler to draw a neat series circuit with two lamps in series with a 3.0 V battery and
a switch.
battery 3.0
lamp 1
lamp 2
circuit
Table 19.2
lamp 1
lamp 2
circuit
Table 19.3
Your teacher will decide how you will check your answers and help resolve any misunderstandings.
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CONTINUED
4 Measure the e.m.f. across the battery and the p.d. across lamp 1 and record your values.
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19 Electric circuits
CONTINUED
5 Using your values from step 4, predict the p.d. across lamp 2 and record your prediction.
6 Measure the p.d. across lamp 2 and record your value.
Work out the resistance for each lamp by dividing the p.d. across it by the current passing through it by
using R =
y. Record your values.
8 Work out the total resistance of the two resistors in series. Use the total resistance of the series circuit
and the battery e.m.f. to work out what the current should be and compare this to the value you
actually measured (in part 1, step 3).
Part 2: Parallel circuit
Use a pencil and a ruler to draw a neat parallel circuit using the same components you have already
used with the series circuit.
2 Build the circuit you have just drawn.
3 Use the e.m.f. of the battery to predict the voltage across the battery and each lamp. Record your
predictions in a table like Table 19.5.
Measure and record the e.m.f. across the battery and the p.d. across each lamp.
5 Use the resistance values you have already calculated (from part 1, step 7) to predict the current
through each lamp (I = ^).
6 Measure and record the current through each lamp.
Use the measured currents through the two lamps to predict the current through the battery.
8 Measure the current through the battery and compare this to the value you predicted in step 7.
9 Use the voltage and current data you have collected for the parallel circuit to calculate the resistance of
each lamp and record your values.
10 Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit and record your value.
11 Use the battery e.m.f. and the effective resistance of the parallel circuit to predict the current through
the battery. Compare it to your measurement (in part 2, step 8).
Part 3: Design your own
Now that you have some experience, look back at the circuit you designed yourself (Task 1, part 3). Use the
values you have found for the battery e.m.f. and the resistance values of lamps to work out the current and
voltage values throughout your circuit. Now build the circuit and check if you were correct.
} CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
Did the current change as it flowed around the series circuit?
What is the relationship between the p.d. across the lamps and the e.m.f of the battery in the series circuit?
What is the relationship between the p.d. across the lamps and the e.m.f. of the battery in a parallel circuit?
What is the relationship between the current through the lamps and the current through the battery in a
parallel circuit?
Are the resistance values for the lamps in the two circuits different? If they are, can you suggest why?
Show algebraically that for two resistors in parallel, the effective resistance is the product of their values
divided by the sum of their values: R =
Ri + R2
REFLECTION
This activity involved drawing circuits from a
description and then building the circuit.
Rate how easy you found both these steps on a
scale from 1 (very easy) to 5 (very hard).
If you found either or both steps difficult, what
would make them easier?
Make a table like Table 1 9.6 and fill it in to
summarise the rules for current and voltage in
series and parallel circuits.
ACTIVITY 19.2
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19 Electric circuits
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Trip switch
A trip switch can replace a fuse. The switch trips and
breaks the circuit when the current flowing through the
trip switch exceeds a certain value. Some modern house
wiring systems use trip switches instead of fuses in the
fuse box (Figure 19.27). You have probably come across
trip switches on laboratory power supplies. If too much
current starts to flow, the supply itself might overheat
and be damaged. The trip switch jumps out, and you
may have to wait a short while before you can reset it.
KEY WORDS
Figure 1 9.26: Cartridge fuses and fuse wire. The thicker the
wire, the higher the current that causes it to melt.
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
KEY WORDS
double insulated: when the electric circuit for an
electrical appliance is placed inside a case made
from an electrical insulator so that it is impossible
for a live wire to touch the outer casing
wire touches
metal case Questions
24 Explain how an earth wire makes an electrical
wiring in
appliance device safe.
25 Why must a switch be connected to the live wire and
earth wire not the earth wire or neutral wire?
danger:
current flows connected to case 26 Why should a fuse be connected to the live wire and
through metal not the earth wire or neutral wire?
I
27 Explain how a fuse works.
Figure 1 9.28a: How the current flows from the live pin of the
plug along the live wire (brown) to the appliance and back to 28 What is double insulation?
the plug and socket along the neutral wire (blue), b: When
there is a fault and a bare wire in the appliance touches the ACTIVITY 19.2
metal casing, the current flows through the earth wire (green
and yellow stripes) instead of the neutral wire, and the fuse Challenging misconceptions using refutation
melts because a large current flows along this low resistance texts
path. If what you think about an idea is incorrect then
you have a misconception. A refutation text is
Electrical appliances that are double insulated do not when you state the misconception and then write
need an earth connection (only two wires are wired into down the correct idea.
the three-pin plug). Even if there are metal parts on the Most people talk about the cell or battery in
outer casing, the electrical circuit for the appliance is mobile phones running out of charge believing
inside a case underneath, which is made from electrically that, when we charge our phones, we are
insulating material (for example, plastic) so that an transferring charge (electrons) into it. However,
electric current cannot pass through it. There is no way this cannot be true or we might get an electric
that a live conductor could touch the outer case. This shock when we pick up a fully charged phone! The
means that there is no way that somebody touching cell or battery is more like a pump, pushing the
the outer case could be electrocuted. When the symbol charges round the circuit. Here is an example of a
shown in Figure 19.29 is stuck to the casing of an refutation text about charging a phone:
electrical appliance, then it is double insulated. 'Some people think that electrons are passing
into the battery when we charge it up, but we are
transferring energy to its battery.'
Complete each statement to refute the incorrect
idea:
1 Some people think that current gets used up
Figure 1 9.29: The symbol for double insulation. If you see by a lamp, but ...
this stuck to the casing of electrical appliance then it will not 2 Some people think that all the lamps in a series
need an earth wire. circuit will be the same brightness, but ...
3 Some people believe that the current
through both lamps in a parallel circuit will be
the same, but ...
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19 Electric circuits
PROJECT
The shocking truth about electrical safety Emphasise the importance of using the correct
Read the following passage. fuse rating and of placing fuses and switches in the
correct place in a circuit.
Summary of government research into recent
Option 2: A narrated animation
house fires and hospital admissions
A narrated animation is a moving picture with a
The frequency of house fires and people experiencing
voiceover. Develop a narrated animation to explain
electric shocks in the home ( some fatal ) has
why fuses and switches should be on the live wire
increased. Our research suggests that people are (the supply side) of an appliance. Show the path
confused about electrical safety. For example, more
taken by the current when the fuse (and/or switch) is
than two-thirds of people surveyed believe that an
in the wrong place and a fault occurs (for example,
appliance is safe no matter where in the circuit the
the live wire touches the metal case). Be careful how
fuse is placed. Most of those questioned think it is
you show the current passing through somebody
safe for the fuse or switch to be on the neutral wire
to avoid upsetting viewers (by using humour, for
( on the return side of the circuit). More than 80% of
example). Then show the path when the fuse (and/
people think it is safe to fill all the available sockets
or switch) is in the correct place. If you do not have
on a multi-plug adapter with an appliance as long
access to animation software you could photograph
as each appliance has a fuse. A public education
a series of drawings to get the same effect.
campaign should be launched as a matter of urgency.
Option 3: Explaining by storytelling
Option 1: A government leaflet Use creative writing (a short story) to explain the
science. For example, pretend that you are an evil
Design a government information leaflet about
electrical safety. Give it visual impact. Where possible, electron on the hunt for unsafe electrical circuits and
use labelled illustrations instead of text. Do not
describe how you can spot them from the inside. Or
you could be an electron with a sense of adventure,
exceed 100 words. Highlight the dangers of using:
looking to break free of life moving along a wire.
• household electrical appliances in damp Use one of these ideas if you cannot think of another
conditions or with damaged insulation one. Whatever creative device you choose, you need
to avoid getting carried away with the story, though
• multi-plug adapters (especially those that do it does need a clear plot. The story is simply there to
not include a fuse)and of joining multi-plug engage the reader; your mission is to get across the
adapters together. very important safety message.
SUMMARY
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) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
To calculate the effective resistance, R, for two resistors in parallel, we use the equation 4?R = Rt + vk
R2
The current from the source divides to pass through parallel resistors.
The current from the supply is the sum of the currents flowing through parallel resistors: 1= + 12 + 13.
Lights in a house are arranged in parallel so that each has the supply voltage across it and can be controlled by
its own switch.
The metal case of an electrical appliance is earthed by connecting it to the earth wire to prevent current passing
through anyone touching a faulty appliance.
Excessive current through a wire can melt insulation, causing it to emit poisonous fumes or catch ^re.
Using multi-plug adapters (multi-way bar extensions and block adapters) increases the risk of overloading plugs
and sockets.
A fuse contains a thin section of wire, designed to melt and break the circuit if the current gets above a certain
value.
A circuit breaker is a safety device that automatically switches off a circuit when the current becomes too high.
A trip switch is a safety device that includes a switch that opens (trips) when a current exceeds a certain value.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 The circuit diagram shows three meters labelled X, Y and Z. You can
work out whether each of them is a voltmeter or ammeter from the way
in which they are connected. The switch is open.
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19 Electric circuits
CONTINUED
When the switch is closed, the readings on the meters change.
Choose the correct combination from the options available. [1]
X Y Z
A increases decreases increases
B decreases decreases increases
C increases increases decreases
D decreases increases decreases
When lamp X stops working (the filament breaks), the readings on the
meters change. Choose the correct combination from the options available. [1 ]
3 Two resistors R] and R2 are connected in series. Resistor R[ has double the
resistance of resistor R2.
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
COMMAND WORD
calculate: work out
from given facts,
figures or information
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19 Electric circuits
CONTINUED
The table gives the current through three of the ammeters. Copy and
complete the table to show the current through the other two ammeters. [2]
[Total: 5]
6 The circuit diagram shows part of a sensing circuit. The LED is to be used as
a temperature warning indicator when the temperature exceeds a certain value.
The LED requires a current of at least 14 mA in order to switch on (that is,
emit light).
CONTINUED
7 Many circuits contain fuses. Figure 19.26 shows a cartridge fuse. A lamp is
connected to the mains supply and takes a current of 6.2 A.
a State two reasons why is a fuse is included in the circuit. [1 ]
b Which of these fuses should be used with the lamp? [1] COMMAND WORD
A 3A B 5A C 7A D 13A explain: set out
c Explain how a fuse works. [2] purposes or
reasons; make
d Name another device that does the same job as a fuse. [1 ]
the relationships
e Explain why is it important to avoid touching a lamp or other electrical between things
appliance with wet hands. [2] evident; provide
f State what can be attached to the metal case of an electrical appliance why and/or how and
to prevent an electric shock if the appliance is faulty. [1] support with relevant
[Total: 8] evidence
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
v 1
1 can
See Needs Almost Confident
Topic... more work there to move on
Recall what LDRs and thermistors are. 19.1
Describe what a relay is and describe how it works in a
19.1
switching circuit.
Describe what diodes and LEDs do and how they work. 19.1
Recall whether current varies around a series circuit. 19.2
Calculate the combined resistance of two or more
19.2
resistors in series.
State the relative size of current through the source (for
example, a cell or battery) and each branch of a parallel 19.2
circuit.
State how the combined resistance of two resistors in
parallel compares to the resistance of either resistor by 19.2
itself.
State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in
19.2
a lighting circuit.
Recall and use the relationship between the sum of the
p.d.s across the components in a series circuit and the 19.2
p.d. across the source (for example, a cell).
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1 9 Electric circuits
CONTINUED
1 1
See
Topic...
Needs
more work
Almost
there
Confident
to move on
describe the factors affecting the strength and direction of electromagnetic fields and forces
GETTING STARTED
In Chapter 16 you studied magnetism. Chapters
17-19 covered electricity. As you can tell from the
title, this chapter brings electricity and magnetism
together. There are many links between the two,
and also, important differences.
On a large sheet of paper, copy and complete
the Venn diagram shown in Figure 21.1. In the
overlapping section, write all the things which are
similar. In the other sections, write down things
which only apply to electricity or to magnetism. Two
examples are given for you.
Electromagnetism was first described by a Danish
scientist named Oersted in the early 19th century.
Use the ideas you have recorded to discuss what
might have lead Oersted to think there was a link
between electricity and magnetism.
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/ CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Iron filings can scratch the cornea of your eye. • Sketch the magnetic field around a bar magnet.
Wear eye protection while using iron filings. If you
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20 Electromagnetic forces
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) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
Questions Do your observations agree with this method?
1 Do your observations of the field around a
straight wire agree with the right-hand grip
rule?
2 In Chapter 16, we saw a method for
determining the polarity of the field around
a solenoid. This depends on the direction of
current flow at each end of the coil.
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20 Electromagnetic forces
REFLECTION
What aspect of this activity did you find most
useful? Giving an explanation or listening to
another student's explanation? If you were to
continue with this activity, would you find the
feedback you received useful?
Questions
4 a Figure 20.10 shows an electromagnetic relay
ACTIVITY 20.1 used to switch on a motor.
Modelling a relay
It can be difficult to understand the way a relay
works without seeing it in action.
Design a teaching aid to help you describe
it to other students. This could be a video or
storyboard showing the effect of switching on
the small current circuit. Alternatively, you could
create a working model by drawing the relay on
card and having separate moving parts such as the
secondary circuit connections and the armature.
Whichever option you choose, you should write
a voiceover script to describe and explain what is
happening. Figure 20.10: Relay used to switch on a motor.
• Current flows in the motor circuit. Figure 20.12 shows a way io demonstrate this.
• The electromagnet attracts the armature.
• The electromagnet is magnetised.
b Why is the armature made of iron?
c Why must soft iron be used?
5 Figure 20.11 shows an electromagnet in use in a
signal for a model railway set.
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20 Electromagnetic forces
Question
1 List two ways to reverse the force on a current¬
carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
383 )
i
the centre of a cyclindrical magnet. The coil is, therefore, a The movement created in thd motor effect experiments
conductor which is free to move in a magnetic field. When is not very useful. The conductor moves out of the field
a current flows in the coil, the coil and cone will move. and the effect is over. A motor is designed to use the
The current input varies with the sound being produced motor effect to create a turning movement.
- a varying signal is received from a microphone, MP3
player or similar. The changing current causes the coil and
cone to move to and fro and produce a sound wave.
KEY WORD
commutator: a device used to allow current
to flow to and from the coil of a d.c. motor or
generator
Figure 20.15a: Diagram of a loudspeaker, b: This
loudspeaker has been dismantled so you can see the For a d.c. motor like this (Figure 20.17) to be of any
permanent magnet and the coil. use, its axle must be connected to something that is to be
turned - a wheel, a pulley or a pump, for example. This
model motor is not very powerful. The turning effect can
20.3 Electric motors be increased by:
• increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil
• increasing the current
• increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
Questions
6 Describe the energy transfers that happen in:
a an electric motor
Figure 20.16a: The type of motor used in school
b a loudspeaker.
laboratories, b: The motor taken apart. Notice the copper
coils and the curved magnets inside the casing and the coil.
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c Electroma9netic forces
Figure 20.19
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Figure 20.23
Keeping the motor turning
As the momentum of the coil carries it round, the wires 11 List two ways to increase the force on a current¬
AB and CD swap positions. The commutator spins with carrying conductor in a magnetic fi^ld .
the coil. The brushes do not move. This means that, in 12 Describe the motion that would be seen if the coil in
the motor in Figure 20.21, current always flows in on the a motor was attached directly to a d.c. power supply
right, and anticlockwise round the coil. This means that without a commutator.
the motor keeps turning in the same direction.
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20 Electromagnetic forces
Figure 20.24: An electron beam in a vacuum tube, being Figure 20.25: This giant magnet, which has a mass of 1920
deflected by a magnetic field. As with a current in a wire, tonnes, was installed 100 metres below ground in a 27 km
reversing the field reverses the forceon the beam of tunnel at CERN to provide a magnetic field for a giant
electrons. particle detector.
PROJECT
Motors everywhere In this project you will research either the uses of
motors or the motor effect in different situations.
Option 1
Collect pictures of things which use motors. These
can be photos, drawings or pictures from the Internet
or catalogues. Try to find pictures covering all the
following uses of motors:
• kitchen appliances • medicine
• hair and beauty • industry
appliances
rr
• music
• transportation.
Identify the energy transfers that happen in each
appliance, including any waste energy.
Use your pictures to create a poster about motors.
Include diagrams and text to explain how motors
work, and how some motors are constructed to
This kitchen contains at least three electric motors. make them stronger than others. Include the words:
Identify where they are. magnetic field, current, electromagnet, force and coil.
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CONTINUED
SUMMARY
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20 Electromagnetic forces
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 Current flows up a wire as shown in the diagram. What will the magnetic
field look like? [1 ]
2 Which line gives the correct material for the armature of a relay, and the
property which makes it suitable? [1 ]
Material Property
A copper good conductor
B soft iron bendy
C copper easily magnetised
D soft iron easily demagnetised
3 Which of the following pairs of changes will both increase the strength
of an electric motor? [1 ]
A Reversing the magnetic field and increasing the number of turns on
the coil
B Increasing the number of turns on the coil and reversing the direction
of the current
C Reversing the direction of the current and reversing the magnetic field
D Using a more powerful magnet and increasing the number of turns
on the coil
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y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
COMMAND WORDS
explain: set out
purposes or
reasons; make
the relationships
between things
evident; provide
why and/or how and
support with relevant
evidence
suggest: apply
knowledge and
understanding
to situations
where there are
a range of valid
responses in order
to make proposals/
put forward
considerations
describe: state the
points of a topic/give
characteristics and
main features
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20 Electromagnetic force*
CONTINUED
When the power supply is switched on, a current flows through the wire and
the reading on the top pan balance decreases. Explain why. [4]
8 The diagram shows the main part of a simple direct current electric motor.
a Name and state the rule which is needed to work out the direction the
motor will move. [2]
b An important part of the motor is missing from the diagram. Name it
and state its function. [2]
c Suggest two ways to increase the strength of the motor. [2]
[Total: 6]
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
9 a Determine the direction of the force on a beam of electrons passing from determine: establish
an answer using the
right to left in a magnetic field into the page. [1 ]
information available
X X X X
X X X X
electron
X X X X
beam
X X X X
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
392 y
> Chapter 21
Electromagnetic
induction
GETTING STARTED
In Chapter 18 you learnt about the electrical each quantity, one card for time, and one card for
quantities we can measure or calculate. These seconds.
include: current, potential difference, resistance,
charge, energy, power and electro-motive force. Place the cards face down in a pack. The first player
turns two cards over. If they can connect the cards
For each quantity, write a definition, the letter in a sentence or equation, they score a point.
used to represent the quantity in an equation (for
example, I for length), and its unit. Return the cards to the pack, mix them up, and then
the next player takes their turn.
Write down all the equations you know which
involve these quantities. For example, if a player picks 'ohm' and 'current',
they could say: 'when the resistance in ohms
In a small group, play a game to check your learning: increases, the current drops'. If a student makes an
Create a set of cards. There should be one card for incorrect link, other players can score a point by
the name of each quantity, one card for the unit of spotting the mistake and giving a correct answer.
Figure 21.1: The metal circles (on the white bar below
the strings of this electric guitar) pick up sound vibrations.
Notice that the strings do not touch the pickup.
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21 Electromagnetic induction
21.1 Generating
electricity
A motor is a device that transfers energy by an electrical
current into a mechanical (kinetic) energy store. An
electrical generator does the opposite - it transfers
energy from a mechanical energy store by an electrical
current. An electric motor can be used in reverse to
generate electricity. If you connect an electric motor to a
lamp and spin its axle, the lamp will light, showing that
you have generated a voltage which causes a current to
flow through the lamp (Figure 21.3).
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The principles of
electromagnetic induction
The process of generating electricity from motion
is called electromagnetic induction. The science of
electromagnetism was largely developed by Michael
Faraday. He invented the idea of the magnetic field and
drew field lines to represent it. He also invented the first
electric motor. Then he extended his studies to show
how the motor effect could work in reverse to generate
electricity. In this section, we will look at the principles
of electromagnetic induction that Faraday discovered.
As we have seen, a coil of wire and a magnet moving
relative to each other are needed to induce a voltage
across the ends of a wire. If the coil is part of a complete
circuit, the induced e.m.f. will make an induced current
flow around the circuit.
In fact, you do not need to use a coil - a single wire is
enough to induce an e.m.f., as shown in Figure 21 ,5a.
The wire is connected to a sensitive meter to show when
a current is flowing.
• Move the wire down between the poles of the
magnet and a current flows.
• Move the wire back upwards and a current flows in
the opposite direction.
• Alternatively, the wire can be kept stationary and
the magnet moved up and down. Again, a current Figure 21.5a: Move a wire up and down between the poles
will flow. of a stationary magnet and an induced current will flow,
You can see similar effects using a magnet and a coil b: Similarly, move a magnet into and out of a coil of wire and
(Figure 21.5b). Pushing the magnet into and out of the an induced current will again flow.
coil induces a current, which flows back and forth in the
coil. Here are two further observations:
• Reverse the magnet to use the opposite pole and the Increasing the induced e.m.f.
current flows in the opposite direction.
• Hold the magnet stationary next to the wire or coil There are three ways to increase the e.m.f. induced in a
and no current flows. They must move relative to coil or wire:
each other, or nothing will happen. • use a stronger magnet
In these experiments it helps to use a centre-zero meter. • move the wire or coil more quickly relative to the
Then, when the needle moves to the left, it shows that the magnet
current is flowing one way; when it moves to the right,
the current is flowing the other way. • use a coil with more turns of wire. Each turn of wire
will have an e.m.f. induced in it, and these all add
together to give a bigger e.m.f.
KEY WORDS
electromagnetic induction: the production of an
e.m.f across an electrical conductor when there is
relative movement between the conductor and a
magnetic field
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21 Electromagnetic induction
mechanism which prevents them being damaged • Hold the bar magnet stationary at different
during movement. Check your meter before you distances from the coil.
begin.
5 Straighten out the wire. Keep the ends
Getting started connected to the meter.
Look carefully at the meter you are using. Explain: 6 Mount two magnadur magnets on a yoke.
• why zero is at the centre of the scale Ensure that opposite poles are facing each
• how you can tell it is a very sensitive meter. other so that there is a strong magnetic field
between the magnets.
You will need: 7 Hold a section of the wire, approximately 10 cm
• thin insulated wire in length, between your two hands. Move the
wire downwards through the field (Figure 21.7).
• strong bar magnet Observe the reading on the meter.
• 2 magnadur magnets and a yoke
• sensitive, centre-zero ammeter or voltmeter.
Method
1 Coil 2.0 metres of thin insulated wire with bare
ends to make a solenoid approximately 5 cm
in diameter. The coil can be flat as shown in
Figure 21.6 rather than long.
2 Connect the ends of the coil to the terminals of
a sensitive voltmeter or ammeter. Figure 21.7: Experimental set-up (part 2)
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CONTINUED
Question
1 Copy and complete these sentences to record The size of the e.m.f. induced in a coil can be
your observations: increased by increasing , or .
An e.m.f. is induced in a conductor in a magnetic The direction of the e.m.f. can be by
field if either the or the move reversing the field or the direction of movement.
across the other.
KEY WORDS
Fleming's right-hand rule: a rule that gives the
relationship between the directions of force,
field and current when a current flows across a
magnetic field
Figure 21.8: As the wire cuts through the field lines, an
e.m.f. is induced in it. If the wire is part of a complete circuit,
a current will flow.
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21 Electromagnetic induction
KEY WORDS
Figure 21 .9a: When a current is induced in a wire, a.c. generator: a device such as a dynamo used
motion, field and current are at right angles to each other,
to generate alternating current
b: Fleming's right-hand rule is used to work out the direction
of the induced current. slip rings: a device used to allow current to flow
to and from the coil of an a.c. generator
An a.c. generator
Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetic induction led to
the development of the electricity supply industry. In
particular, it allowed engineers to design generators that
could supply electricity. At first, this was only done on
a small scale, but gradually generators got bigger and
bigger, until, like the ones shown in Figure 21.10, they
were capable of supplying the electricity demands of
thousands of homes.
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
The current flows out through the slip rings. Each ring quickly again, but in the opftosite direction, so the
is connected to one end of the coil, so the alternating induced e.m.f. will again be large, but this time it will be
current flows out through the brushes, which press negative - this corresponds to a trough on the graph.
against the rings.
There are four ways of increasing the voltage generated Direction of the induced e.m.f.
by an a.c. generator like the one shown in Figure 21.11: How is the direction of an induced current determined?
• turn the coil more rapidly The answer is that the current (like all currents) has a
• use a coil with more turns of wire magnetic field around it. This field always pushes back
against the field that is inducing the current. So, for the
• use a coil with a bigger area coil shown in Figure 21.13, when the magnet’s north pole
• use stronger magnets. is pushed towards the coil, the current flows to produce
Each of these changes increases the rate at which a north pole at the end of the coil nearest the magnet.
magnetic field fines are cut, and so the induced e.m.f. is These two north poles repel each other. This means that
greater. For the a.c. generator shown in Figure 21.11, you have to push the magnet towards the coil and that
each revolution of the coil generates one cycle of you have to do work. The energy you use in pushing
alternating current. Spin the coil 50 times each second the magnet is transferred to the current. That is where
and the a.c. generated has a frequency of 50 Hz. the energy carried by the current comes from. It comes
from the work done in making a conductor cut through
magnetic field lines.
An induced current always flows in such^a way that its
magnetic field opposes the change that
known as Lenz’s law.
causes
it. This is
KEY WORDS
Lenz's law: the direction of an induced current
always opposes the change in the circuit or the
magnetic field that produces it
induced N pole
400 )
21 Electromagnetic induction
ACTIVITY 21.1
Generating fitness
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Figure 21.1 6: In a national grid, voltages are increased to reduce energy losses, then reduced to a relatively safe level.
in the neighbourhood. It may be in a securely locked From the substation, electricity is distributed to houses,
building, or the electrical equipment may be surrounded shops, etc. In some countries, the power is carried in
by fencing, which carries notices warning of the hazard cables buried underground. Other countries use tall poles
(Figure 21.17). and overhead wires.
402
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21 Electromagnetic induction
to be as efficient as possible (up to 99.9% efficient). Notice that there is no electrical connection between
This is because the electricity we use may have passed the two coils. They are linked together only by the
through as many as ten transformers before it reaches us soft iron core. The wires are insulated so no current
from the power station. A loss of 1% of energy in each flows from one coil to the other. Notice also that the
transformer would represent a total waste of 10% of the voltages are both alternating voltages. Transformers
energy leaving the power station. only work with a.c. All they do is change the size of
an a.c. voltage.
Power stations typically generate electricity at 25 kV. This
has to be converted to the grid voltage (typically 400 kV) The power station transformer described earlier steps
using transformers. This is known as stepping up the up the voltage from 25 kV to 400 kV - it is increased by
voltage. a factor of 16. To step up the voltage by a factor of 16,
there must be 16 times as many turns on the secondary
Figure 21.18a shows the construction of a suitable coil as on the primary coil. By comparing the numbers
transformer. Every transformer has three parts: of turns on the two coils we can tell how the voltage will
be changed.
• A primary coil: the incoming voltage Vp is connected
across this coil. • A step-up transformer increases the voltage. There
are more turns on the secondary coil than on the
• A secondary coil: this provides the voltage Ks to the primary coil.
external circuit.
• A step-down transformer reduces the voltage. There
• An iron core: this links the two coils. are fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the
primary coil.
KEY WORDS
transformer: a device used to change voltage of
an a.c. electricity supply
primary coil: the input coil of a transformer
secondary coil: the output coil of a transformer
step-up transformer: a transformer which increases
the voltage of an a.c. supply
step-down transformer: a transformer which
decreases the voltage of an a.c. supply
Figure 21.18a: The structure of a transformer. This is a voltage across primary coil _ number of turns on primary
step-up transformer because there are more turns on the voltage across secondary coil . number of turns on secondary
secondary coil than on the primary. If the connections to Vp _ N*p
it were reversed, it would be a step-down transformer,
b: The circuit symbol for a transformer shows the two coils
rs M
with the core between them.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
I ~r~
N = 600
U- >
NS = 16000
f
Vs Ns
Step 4: Substitute in the values from the question.
25000 V 800 _ Figure 21 .20: A transformer.
Fs 16000
Name the parts labelled A, B and C.
Step 5: Rearrange the equation to find Vs.
vs
_ 25000 V x 16000 c Explain whether this is a step-up or step-down
transformer.
800
8 A transformer has ten turns on the primary coil
= 500000 V and five turns on the secondary. A voltage of 12 V is
Check that this is greater than the primary voltage as applied across the primary coil.
expected. a Is this a step-up or step-down transformer?
Answer b Use the transformer equation to calculate the
output voltage of the transformer.
a step-up transformer
b Fs = 500000 V 9 Copy and complete Table 21.1. Calculate the
missing information using the transformer equation.
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21 Electromagnetic induction
50 240 6 When the secondary coil has only a few turns, the e.m.f.
induced across it is small. When it has a lot of turns, the
10000 20 115000 e.m.f. will be large. Hence, to increase the voltage out,
we need a secondary coil with many more turns than the
Table 21.1 primary coil.
When direct current is connected to a transformer, there
10 A portable radio has a built-in transformer so that it is no output voltage. This is because the magnetic field
can work from the mains instead of batteries. Is this produced by the primary coil does not change. With an
a step-up or step-down transformer? unchanging field passing through the secondary coil, no
11 A transformer increases the 1100 V from a power voltage is induced in it.
station to 132 000 V for transmission. Calculate Notice from Figure 21.21 that the magnetic field links
the number of turns on the primary coil when the the primary and secondary coils. The energy brought
secondary coil has 6000 turns. by the current in the primary coil is transferred to the
secondary coil by the magnetic field. This means that the
REFLECTION core must be very good at transferring magnetic energy.
A soft magnetic material must be used - usually an alloy
In these calculations it is useful to think about of iron with a small amount of silicon. (Recall that soft
whether the answer is sensible. Which of the magnetic materials are ones that can be magnetised and
following suggestions are helpful for you? What demagnetised easily.)
does this tell you about how you work?
alternating magnetic field line
• Draw the transformer and write the numbers
on it.
Draw a diagram of the situation.
Do a quick approximate calculation first.
Decide whether the transformer is step-up or
step-down, and what this tells you about your
answer.
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21 Electromagnetic induction
KEY EQUATION
power in to primary coil - power out of secondary coil Questions
ZpX rp = zsx Ks 14 A power station generates 230 000 W.
a Calculate the current in the wires when the
It is important to remember that this equation assumes power is transmitted:
that no power is lost in the transformer. Worked Example i at 230 V
21.3 shows how to use this equation.
ii at 23000 V.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21.3 b Explain why it is better to transmit the
electricity at a higher voltage.
A school power pack has an output voltage of 9 V. It is
plugged in to the 230 V mains supply. The power pack 15 The power supply to a factory is 100 kW. The wires
contains a transformer. The output current of the have a resistance of 0.2 Q.
power pack is 3 A. Calculate the current supplied to a Calculate the power loss in the cables when the
the primary coil of the transformer in the power pack. voltage across the wires is 250 V.
Assume there are no energy losses in the transformer. b Calculate the power loss when the voltage is
Step 1: Draw a transformer symbol and mark on the stepped up to 12 500 V.
information from the question:
16 A transformer reduces the mains voltage from 240 V
to 12 V for use in a school laboratory power pack.
The current supplied by the power pack is 2 A.
What current flows into the power pack?
What assumption must you make in this calculation?
REFLECTION
407 )
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
PROJECT
Power to the people For example, you may decide to structure your
poster around a diagram of the national grid, with
information boxes for each stage.
You must include:
• information about the type of power stations
and renewable resources which are in use
• a diagram of a generator and information
about how it works and how it is used in power
generation
• a diagram similar to Figure 21.16 showing how
electricity is distributed
• information about the role of transformers in
the system and the difference between step-up
and step-down transformers
• reasons why the voltage of the supply has to be
Figure 21.23: A town in Sweden. changed.
You could add:
In this Swedish town coal is mined then burned to
generate electricity. The electricity is distributed to • a pie chart showing the different energy
resources used in your country
homes via the national grid.
Electrical power generation and distribution varies • a detailed explanation of how an a.c. generator
depending on where you live. works, including why the current generated is
a.c. (not d.c.)
Your task is to research how electricity reaches
you. Working in a small group you will research • details of the voltages at different parts of the
how electricity is generated and distributed in your grid, with calculations showing the transformers
country. You will work together to produce a large
needed at each stage
poster illustrating and explaining what you find. • photographs from your local area showing
Your poster will have a lot of information, so plan pylons, substations, overhead cables and safety
carefully how the different parts will come together. notices.
.
SUMMARY
When there is relative movement between a conductor and a magnetic field, an e.m.f. is induced across the conductor.
The induced e.m.f. may cause an induced current to flow.
I The e.m.f. induced in a coil of wire can be increased by:
• increasing the magnetic field strength
• increasing the number of turns on the coil
• increasing the speed of movement.
The direction of the induced e.m.f. opposes the movement which causes it.
408 )
21 Electromagnetic induction
CONTINUED
The direction of the induced e.m.f can be found using Fleming’s right-hand rule.
Direct current flows in one direction. Alternating current reverses direction repeatedly.
The output of an a.c. generator depends on the position of the coil in relation to the magnetic field.
A transformer, consisting of a primary coil, a secondary coil and a soft iron core can be used to change
alternating voltages.
A step-up transformer increases voltage, a step-down transformer decreases voltage.
The number of turns on transformer coils and the voltages across them can be calculated using the equation.
V N
Fs M
Transformers increase voltage for transmission by the national grid then reduce the voltage to a safer level for
consumers.
a.c. in the primary core of a transformer creates a changing magnetic field which, in turn, induces a.c. in the
secondary coil.
When a transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient, the primary and secondary currents and voltages are
related by the equation Zp x Fp = Is x Ks.
The power losses in cables can be calculated using the equation P = PR.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
409 y
1
CONTINUED
4 The diagram shows a coil and a magnet. When the magnet is moved away from
the coil, current flows.
IW
Which one of the following describes what happens? [1]
A Current flows clockwise in the coil, creating a north pole which attracts the
south pole of the bar magnet.
B Current flows anticlockwise, creating a north pole which repels the south
pole of the bar magnet.
C Current flows anticlockwise, creating a south pole which repels the south
pole of the bar magnet.
D Current flows anticlockwise, creating a north pole which attracts the south
pole of the bar magnet.
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21 Electromagnetic induction
CONTINUED
COMMAND WORDS
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED *
a Name the part labelled A. Hl
b Name the rule which is used to find the direction of the current in a
conductor moving in a magnetic field. [1]
c Use this law to find the direction of the force on the section of wire
labelled BC. [1]
d The brightness of the lamp varies as the coil is turned. Explain why the
position of the coil affects the brightness of the bulb. [3]
[Total: 6]
COMMAND WORDS
a Explain why the nails become hot when the power is switched on. [1]
b Use the data from the diagram to calculate the current needed give: produce an
from the power supply. Assume the transformer is 100% efficient. answer from a given
Give your answer to two decimal places. [4] source or recall I
[Total: 5] memory
21 Electromagnetic induction
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
Recall and use the equation Ipx Vp- Isx Vs. 21.3
describe the alpha scattering experiment which provides evidence for the nuclear atom
name and state the mass and charge of the particles in the nucleus
represent nuclei in the form /X
explain what isotopes are
GETTING STARTED
With a partner, spend two minutes making notes on Atoms are the smallest particles there are.
what you know about atoms. Include a sketch of an
There are 92 different types of atom.
atom.
Most of the mass of an atom is in the nucleus.
Now discuss these statements and decide which are
true and which are false: Atoms have no charge.
DANGEROUS DISCOVERIES
awarded the Nobel prize for this discovery. Nuclear
fission releases a huge amount of energy and the
Hungarian scientist, Leo Szilard, also working in exile,
realised that this could be used to make a bomb. The
fear was that Nazi scientists would create this bomb,
allowing them to win the war.
Szilard enlisted the help of Einstein in writing to the
US president to persuade him of the necessity of
developing the bomb before the Nazis did. After
the bombing of Pearl Harbor the USA joined the
Figure 22.1a: New understanding of the structure of war. Within a year the Manhattan Project successfully
the atom lead to the development of the nuclear bomb produced the chain reaction needed for the bomb.
b: Lise Meitner was the first person to describe nuclear In 1945, bombs were dropped causing thousands of
fission but did not share in the Nobel prize awarded for
deaths in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
this discovery. J. Robert Oppenheimer, one of the Manhattan
Project team who developed the bomb, described
it using words from the Bhagavad Gita, 'Now I
The early 20th century was an exciting time to be a am become Death, the destroyer of worlds'. After
physicist. The idea of atoms had been around since the end of the Second World War, Oppenheimer
Democritus in ancient Greece, but now huge strides campaigned for international cooperation to limit the
were being made in understanding how atoms were
proliferation of nuclear arms.
made up. Ernest Rutherford had described a new
model of the atom, containing a tiny, dense nucleus There are now about 27 000 nuclear bombs in the
and the particles in the nucleus were identified. world.
These discoveries were being made alongside the Discussion questions
rise of fascism in Europe which lead to the Second
1 To what extent are scientists responsible for the
World War. German physicist Otto Hahn split a
uranium nucleus and found barium in the debris of ways in which their discoveries are used?
his experiment. Lise Meitner, a Jewish colleague 2 Should the nuclear physicists have destroyed
of Hahn, working in exile in Sweden, explained the their research when they realised how
process and called it nuclear fission. Hahn was later destructive it could be?
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Forming ions
An atom has equal amounts of positive and negative
charge so is neutral overall. Electrons can be gained or
lost by atoms relatively easily, for example by rubbing
an insulator as we saw in Chapter 17. This leads to the
formation of ions in a process called ionisation. An atom
which gains an electron has more negative than positive
charge and so becomes a negative ion. An atom which
loses an electron is left with more positive than negative
charge and so becomes a positive ion.
KEY WORD
ionisation when a particle (atom or molecule)
becomes electrically charged by losing or gaining
Figure 22.2: Individual silicon atoms (bright spots, artificially
electrons
coloured by a computer) on the surface of a silicon crystal,
observed using a scanning tunnelling microscope. The
diamond shape (which has been drawn on the image)
indicates the basic repeating pattern that makes up the crystal Discovering the nucleus
structure of silicon. In this photograph, the silicon atoms Electrons were discovered in 1896 by the English physicist,
are magnified 100 million times. (A good light microscope J. J. Thomson. He realised that electrons Here much smaller
can only magnify by about 1000 times.) Roughly speaking, and lighter than atoms. (We now know that the mass of an
4000000000 atoms would fit into a length of 1 metre. electron is about J
1836
of the mass of a hydrogen atom.)
In 1909, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues discovered He guessed, correctly, that electrons Were part of atoms.
that every atom has a tiny central nucleus. This gave Other scientists argued that, since electrons had negative
rise to the ‘solar system’ model of the atom shown charge, there must be other particles in an atom with an
in Figure 22.3. In this model, the negatively charged equal amount of positive charge, so that an atom has
electrons orbit the positively charged nucleus. The no overall charge - (it is neutral). Since electrons have
electrons are attracted to the nucleus (because of its very little mass, the positive charge must also account for
opposite charge), but their speed prevents them from most of the mass of the atom. Figure 22.4 shows a model
falling into it. that illustrates this. The atom is formed from a sphere of
positively charged matter with tiny, negatively charged
electrons embedded in it. This is called the plum pudding
model. In this model, the electrons are the negatively
charged plums in a positively charged pudding. You can
see that this is a different model from the solar system
model we described earlier (Figure 22.3).
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22 The nuclear atom
scattered most particles Figure 22.6: Most alpha particles pass straight through
particles are un deflected the gold foil because they do not pass close to the atomic
nucleus. The closer they are to the nucleus, the more they
are deflected or scattered. Only those which head straight to
the nucleus are reflected straight back.
source of
It was quite the most incredible event that ever happened
particles to me in my life. It was as if you fired a fifteen-inch
a few particles circular fluorescent artillery shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back
are scattered back screen
and hit you.
towards the source
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22 The nuclear atom
Relative
Particle Position Charge/C Mass/kg Relative mass
charge
orbiting 1
electron -UxKF1’ -1 9.11 x1Q-31 (practical|y zero>
nucleus 1836
Table 22.1 Charges and masses of the three sub-atomic particles.
H He
2
1
3
Li 4Be 5
B 6
c 7
N 8^ 9
F 10Ne
11
Na Mg Al 14Si
13 15
P s
16
Cl 18Ar
17
19
K 20Ca 21Sc 22Ti 23V 24Cr 25Mn 26Fe 27Co 28Ni 29Cu 30Zn 31Ga 32Ge 33As 34Se 35Br 36Kr
37
Rb 38Sr 39^ Zr 41Nb 42Mo 43Tc 44Ru 45Rh 46Rd Ag 48Cd 49In 50Sn 51Sb 52Te 53I 54Xe
40
Cs 56Ba
55
La to
Lu 72Hf Ta
73
w
74
Re 76Os 77Ir 78Pt 79Au 80Hg 81Tl 82Pb 83Bi 84Po 85At 86Rn
75
Fr 88Ra Ac to
87 Lr
Ac 90Th 91Pa
89
u
92
Cm 97Bk 98Cf 99Es 100
Np 94Pu 95Am 96
93 1
Md 102
Fm 101 No 103Lr
Figure 22.7: The Periodic Table of the elements is a way of organising what we know about the different elements, based on
their atomic structures.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Each element has its own symbol, consisting of one or A nucleus can be described by two numbers: the
two letters, such as H for hydrogen, and He for helium. proton number, and the nucleon number which
Sometimes, the symbol for an atom may be written with is the total number of and in the
two numbers in front of it, one above the other, such as: nucleus.
2 He 6 Copy and complete Table 22.2.
This represents an atom of helium. The bottom number Subatomic Relative Relative
tells us that there are two protons in the nucleus of an Position
particle charge mass
atom of helium, and the top number tells us that there
is a total of four nucleons in the nucleus of an atom of proton 1
helium. From this, it is simple to work out that there
electron -1
must be two neutrons in the nucleus.
in the
We can write the general symbol for an element (X) with
its proton number (Z), which is the number of protons in
nucleus
the nucleus, and nucleon number (^), which is the number Table 22.2
of nucleons (protons and neutron) in the nucleus, as
follows: 7 A particular neutral atom of boron is represented
by
zX a What is its proton number?
Z is proton number (also known as the atomic number)
b What is its nucleon number?
and A is nucleon number (also known as the mass
number). This is known as nuclide notation. c Write down the numbers of protons, neutrons
and electrons it contains.
A neutral atom of element X will also have Z electrons
8 A cobalt atom contains 33 neutrons.
orbiting the nucleus.
a Use the periodic table to find its proton
KEY WORDS number.
number of protons in an atomic nucleus 9 How many times greater is the mass of a proton
nucleon number (A): (or mass number) the than the mass of an electron?
number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in an
atomic nucleus
Elements and isotopes
It is the proton number, that tells us which element an
atom belongs to. For example, a small atom with just two
REFLECTION
=
protons in its nucleus (Z 2) is a helium atom. A much
What strategies have you found useful in bigger atom with 92 protons in its nucleus is a uranium
remembering the properties of each of the atom, because uranium is element 92.
subatomic particles and the definitions of nucleon From Z and A you can work out a third number, the
and proton numbers? Share your strategies with neutron number (TV), which is the number of neutrons in
a partner. the nucleus.
proton number + neutron number = nucleon number
Questions Z + N=A
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22 The nuclear atom
The atoms of all elements exist in more than one form. Symbol for Proton Neutron Nucleon
For example, Figure 22.8 shows three types of hydrogen isotope number Z number N number A
atom. Each has just one proton in its nucleus, but they
have different numbers of neutrons (0, 1 and 2). This
235
u
92 U 92 143 235
means that they are described as different isotopes
of hydrogen.
238
u
92 u 92 146 238
Isotopes at work
All elements have isotopes, some as many as 36. For
most chemical elements, at least one isotope is stable.
Other isotopes are often unstable. This means that the
nucleus is likely to give out radioactivity in order to
Figure 22.8: Hydrogen exists in three different forms known become stable. You will learn about radioactive decay in
as isotopes. All three have the same proton number. Chapter 23.
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Proton Neutron Nucleon Figure 22.9: A uranium-235 nucleus being split to make
Nucleus
number Z number A number A barium and krypton nuclei, three more neutrons and a lot
Nu-1 6 6 of energy.
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22 The nuclear atom
PROJECT
A brief history of particle physics
Throughout history mankind has tried to explain the receiving Nobel prizes for their work. And the
world around us and what it is made of. This has led story is not complete. In 2012, scientists at CERN
to an understanding of atoms, then their constituent detected the Higgs boson. It is a particle which had
protons, neutrons and electrons. In this chapter we been predicted theoretically and which helps in our
have covered part of this story, but there have been understanding of gravity.
many scientists making discoveries and often
Figure 22.10a: Ernest Rutherford (shown here in his laboratory at Manchester University), b: The Large Hadron Collider
(LHC) at CERN in Switzerland. The LHC is so big that scientists cycle from one part of an experiment to another.
PEER ASSESSMENT
Give feedback to another group. Write comments on these points:
• Does the presentation make it clear what each scientist contributed to the story?
• Are the experiments described clearly?
• Do you feel it gives the reader/viewer a sense of scientists building on the work of those who went
before them?
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SUMMARY
The atom consists of a tiny positive nucleus surrounded by mainly empty space with negative electrons orbiting.
Positive or negative ions are formed when an atom loses or gains electrons.
The nucleus contains two types of nucleons: positively charged protons and neutral neutrons.
Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment provided evidence to support the nuclear model of the atom.
Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass. This is nearly 2000 times the mass of an electron.
Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charge.
A nucleus can be described using the notation X, where X is the chemical symbol, Z the number of protons
and A the number of nucleons.
Isotopes are nuclei of the same element which have the same proton number but different nucleon numbers.
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large nucleus, which releases a lot of energy.
Nuclear fusion is joining together of small nuclei, which releases even more energy than fission.
Nuclear fission and fusion can be described using nuclear equations.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
424 y
a How many electrons does the atom have? [1 ]
b How many protons does it have? [1 ]
c What is its nucleon number? [1]
d How many neutrons does it have? [1 ]
e Copy and complete this nuclear notation to represent the
beryllium nucleus:
gBe [1]
f A radioactive isotope of beryllium is known as beryllium-11 . How many
protons, neutrons and electrons does an atom of this isotope contain? [3]
g Write down the nuclear notation for beryllium-11. [2]
[Total: 10]
6 The ‘plum pudding’ model was used by scientists in the early 20th century to
describe the structure of the atom.
a Scientists knew that atoms contained negative electrons and that atoms
were neutral overall. What did they assume about the ‘pudding’? [1 ]
b Geiger and Marsden carried out an experiment which showed the plum
pudding model was wrong. They fired alpha particles at gold foil which
was only a few atoms thick. The diagram below shows three alpha particles
approaching the gold nuclei. Copy and complete the diagram to show what
happened to the three particles. [3]
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
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GETTING STARTED
In this chapter we will look at the radiation emitted as many as you can in a table. Try to define each
from the nuclei of unstable isotopes, which can word from memory before referring to your notes
cause ionisation. This will include high frequency or to the glossary at the back of the book. Research
electromagnetic radiation. shows that trying to recall information like this is a
great way of getting it to stick in your mind.
The sentences above include a lot of key words
you have met elsewhere in this book. Write down
REFLECTION
Did you remember the key parts of the definitions? Consider making revision cards and regularly
How can you help yourself to learn important checking what you know. Find out about mobile
definitions? phone apps which help you do this.
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23 Radioactivity
CONTINUED
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23 Radioactivity
If you listen to the clicks or beeps of a Geiger counter, • A beta particle (p-particle) is an electron. It is not
you may notice that it is impossible to predict when the one of the electrons that orbit the nucleus - it comes
next sound will come. This is because radioactive decay from inside the nucleus. It is negatively charged, and
is a random process. Radioactive substances contain its mass is much less than that of an alpha particle.
unstable nuclei which will decay spontaneously. We • A gamma ray (y-ray) is a form of electromagnetic
cannot predict which nucleus will decay next or when this radiation with a very short wavelength and high
will happen. The direction in which the radiation will be frequency. It is similar to an X-ray, but has more
emitted is also random. Radioactive decay is not affected energy.
by external factors such as temperature.
Three types of radiation Figure 23.5a: Alpha emission, b: Beta emission, c: Gamma
There are three types of radiation emitted by radioactive emission.
substances (Table 23.1). These are named after the first
three letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha (a), beta (P)
and gamma (y). Alpha and beta are particles; gamma is a
form of electromagnetic radiation (see Chapter 15).
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KEY WORDS
• a-particles are absorbed most easily. They can travel
about 5 cm in air before they are absorbed. They are
absorbed by a thin sheet of paper, a-particles cannot
radioactive decay the emission of alpha, beta or penetrate skin.
gamma radiation from an unstable nucleus
random process: a process that happens at a • 0-particles can travel fairly easily through air or
paper. But they are absorbed by a few millimetres of
random rate and in random directions; the timing
metal such as aluminium.
and direction of the next emission cannot be
predicted • y-radiation is the most penetrating. It takes several
beta particle (0-particle): a high speed electron centimetres of a dense metal like lead, or several
that is emitted by an atomic nucleus during metres of concrete, to absorb most of the gamma
radioactive decay radiation.
gamma ray (y-ray): electromagnetic radiation Figure 23.6 shows the penetrating power of each type
emitted by an atomic nucleus during radioactive of radiation.
decay
Questions
Ionisation
When radiation passes through air, it may knock
4 Copy and complete the following sentences. electrons out of atoms. This means ions are formed.
Radioactive decay happens when a nucleus is This process is called ionisation.
. This may be because it is too massive or • a-particles are the most ionising.
because it contains too many .
An a-particle consists of and • y-radiation is the least ionising.
. A 0-particle is an . y-radiation is a As the radiation emitted by the nuclei of radioactive
form of high frequency radiation. substances causes the ionisation of the materials that
absorb it, it is often known as ionising nuclear radiation.
5 A 0-particle is identical to an electron. How is it X-rays also cause ionisation in the materials they
different to most electrons? pass through, and so they are also classed as ionising
6 Which type of radiation travels at the speed of light? radiation. X-rays are very similar to y-rays. However,
X-rays usually have less energy (longer wavelength) than
y-rays, and they are produced by X-ray machines, stars
Penetrating power and so on, rather than by radioactive substances.
When physicists were trying to understand the nature When something has been exposed to radiation, it has been
of radioactivity, they noticed that radiation can pass irradiated. Although it absorbs the radiation, it does not
through solid materials. Different types of radiation can itself become radioactive. Things only become radioactive
penetrate different thicknesses of materials. if they absorb a radioactive substance. So you do not
become radioactive if you absorb cosmic rays (which you
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23 Radioactivity
Today, we know much more about radiation and the Knowing about the radiation produced by radioactive
safe handling of radioactive substances. Knowing how materials helps us know how to handle them as safely
to reduce the hazards of radiation means that we can as possible. Anyone working with, or being exposed to,
learn to live safely with it and put it to many worthwhile ionising radiation must take safety precautions, such as
purposes. shielding, or limiting their exposure time. Figure 23.7
shows some of these precautions.
Figure 23.7a: Radiation suits are worn in contaminated areas, b: Radiographers operate equipment from a separate room,
c: School laboratory sources are stored in lead-lined wooden boxes and locked away in a labelled metal cabinet when not in
use. The tweezers allow the teacher to handle the sources at a safe distance, d: Radioactive material must be clearly marked
when it is being transported.
Safety precautions
Table 23.3 shows common safety precautions when dealing with radioactive material.
434 y
23 Radioactivity
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particles are deflected can be predicted using Fleming’s a State one way in which they are similar.
left-hand rule. As in an electric field, y-rays are not b State one way in which they are different.
deflected because they are uncharged.
11 Two beams of ionising radiation are passed between
charged metal plates. They are deflected, as shown
in Figure 23.9.
b fl
Figure 23.9
1
a Name the type of radiation for each beam,
b State the polarity of each of the plates.
c Name the type of radiation whiclywould not be
deflected by the plates.
12 Figure 23.10 shows a radiation detection badge.
Questions
film badge
7 Explain why emission of a- or fl-particles changes
dosemeter jacket
the nucleus to one of a different element.
8 The equation represents the decay of a polonium Figure 23.10: A radiation detection badge.
nucleus to form a lead nucleus. An a-particle
is emitted. a Explain what you would see if the film inside
the badge was developed if the wearer had been
2$Po -> 2^Pb + qQ + energy exposed to:
a Copy and complete the equation. i fl-radiation
b Show that the proton numbers are equal on ii y-radiation.
each side of the equation. b Suggest a reason why the badge is not suitable
c Show that the nucleon numbers are equal on for detecting exposure to alpha radiation.
each side of the equation.
9 Write a balanced nuclear equation to show what
happens to the polonium isotope 2yPo when it 23.3 Activity and half-life
emits a fl-particle. The activity of a radioactive source is the rate at which
10 y-rays and X-rays are both forms of ionising its nuclei decay. This can be monitored using a Geiger
radiation. counter which measures the count rate, the number
of emissions detected each second (or minute).
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23 Radioactivity
half-life half-life
Time Time
Figure 23.1 1 a: A decay graph for a radioactive substance. A curve of this shape is known as an exponential decay graph,
b: A steeper graph shows that a substance has a shorter half-life.
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So the number of undecayed atoms goes 100, 50, 25, 12, . .. that, just because one atom has not decayed in the first
and so on. It is because radioactive atoms decay in a half-life does not mean that it is more likely to decay in
random fashion that we get this pattern of decay. Notice the next half-life. It has no way of remembering its past.
a b c d
o o o oo o o|o OIO
o o o 0'0 o oo O' o ••••••• •
o
o eoee e
oe oe o
e ee oe eeee•
e oe ee e eoee
o o o o'o o 0'0 oo
oo o oo o oo o o ••••••••
o ee e e
o oe oe e o
e ee ee e eeee
e ee eo e eeeo Key:
oo o oo o o o o o
olo o OIO o o o o o ••• ••••
o
o •• oe e e
o eo e e
e oe ee e eeee o
e ee ee e eoee undecayed
oo o OlO o o o o o
o o o oo o O O o o
o ••••••
••o
oe eo e e
oe o e
o e e eo e eeee atoms
e eo ee e eeoe e
o o o oo O O o o o
o o o OlO 0 0'0 o o •• ••
••••
oe ee e e
eoee o e
e ee ee e eeee decayed
e ee ee o eeee atoms
Figure 23.1 2: The pattern of radioactive decay comes about because the decay of individual atoms is random. Half of the
atoms decay during each half-life, but we have no way of predicting which individual atoms will decay.
Figure 23.13a
Figure 23.13b
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23 Radioactivity
CONTINUED
Time (days)
Figure 23.13c
Answer
The half-life is two days.
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ACTIVITY 23.1
Modelling half-life Place all the dice in a container, shake the container
Radioactive decay is a random process. In this activity and throw the dice.
you will model radioactive decay using another Any spinner showing 6, or cube with the marked side
random process - throwing dice or small cubes. facing upwards, have 'decayed'. Count how many
You will need a large number of dice - at least have decayed.
100 - or small cubes with one side marked (as in Create a table like Table 23.5 and record your results.
Figure 23.14).
Number
Throw number Number
(time)
decaying
remaining (N)
(activity)
Table 23.5
I
Time / min 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Count rate / count/min 330 230 165 120 92 70 56
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23 Radioactivity
CONTINUED
Step 1: Calculate the corrected count rates.
Time / min 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Count rate / count/min 330 230 165 120 92 70 56
Corrected count rate / count/min 300 200 135 90 62 40 26
Answer
half-life = 18 minutes
Questions
13 A sample of radioactive iodine contains 6400
undecayed atoms.
a How many will remain undecayed after three
half-lives?
b The half-life of this isotope of iodine is eight
days. How many atoms remain undecayed after
40 days?
1 4 The half-life of thorium-227 is 19 days. How long
will it take for the activity of the source to decrease
by 75%?
Time (days)
1 5 Figure 23. 1 5 shows the count rate for a radioactive
source at different times. What is the half-life of this Figure 23.15
source?
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Radioisotopes at work
Now we will look at some of the many uses of
radioisotopes. We will look at these uses in four separate
groups, related to: smoke
• their different penetrating powers Figure 23.16a: The inside of a smoke detector. The source
• the damage their radiation causes to living cells of radiation is a small amount of americiumr^41.
• the fact that we can detect tiny quantities of b: Block diagram of a smoke detector. The alarm sounds
radioactive substances when smoke absorbs the a radiation.
• radioactive decay and half-life.
• Radiation from the source falls on a detector. Since
a-radiation is charged, a small current flows in the
Uses related to penetrating detector. The output from the processing circuit is
off, so the alarm is silent. V
power • When smoke enters the gap between the source
and the detector, it absorbs the a-radiation. Now
Smoke detectors no current flows in the detector, and the processing
These are often found in domestic kitchens, and in public circuit switches on, sounding the alarm.
buildings such as offices and hotels. If you open a smoke
detector to replace the battery, you may see a yellow and In this application, a source of a-radiation is chosen
black radiation hazard warning sign (Figure 23.16a). The because a-radiation is easily absorbed by the smoke
radioactive material used is americium-241, a source of particles.
a-radiation. Figure 23.16b shows how the smoke
detector works. Thickness measurements
In industry, fl-radiation is often used in to measure
The Americium source used in smoke detectors has a thickness. Manufacturers of paper need to be sure that
long half-life - about 430 years. This means that the
their product is of a uniform thickness. To do this,
count rate from the source will not drop significantly
over the time the detector is in use. fl-radiation is directed through the paper as it comes off
the production line. A detector measures the amount of
radiation getting through.
If the paper is too thick, the radiation level will be low
and an automatic control system adjusts the thickness.
The same technique is used in the manufacture of plastic
sheeting and aluminium foil, fl-radiation is used in this
application because a-radiation would be absorbed
entirely by the paper, plastic or aluminium.
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23 Radioactivity
Fault detection
Sometimes y-rays are used to detect faults in
manufactured goods. Figure 23.18 shows an example,
where engineers are looking for any faults in some
pipework. If there is a fault, radiation will escape
through the fault. A photographic film is strapped to the
outside of the pipe and the radioactive source is placed
on the inside. When the film is developed, it looks like an Figure 23.19: Radiation can cause cancer, but it can also
X-ray picture, and shows any faults in the welding. be used in its cure. This patient is being exposed to y-rays
from a radioactive source.
Food irradiation
This is a way of preserving food. Food often decays
because of the action of microbes. These can be killed
using intense y-rays. Because these organisms are
single-celled, any cell damage kills the entire organism.
Different countries permit different foods to be
irradiated. The result is sterile food, which has been used
on space missions (where long-life is important) and
for some hospital patients whose resistance to infection
by microbes may be low. Figure 23.20 shows a display
from the Nehru Science Centre in Mumbai which
demonstrates the advantages of irradiating food.
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Medicine
The diagnosis of some diseases may be carried out using
a source of y-radiation. The patient is injected with a
radioactive chemical and a scanner is used to trace the
path of the chemical. Figure 23.22 shows a scan of a
patient with a kidney blockage. The tracer technetium-99
is injected into the patient’s blood. The scan shows that
the tracer is not passing through the kidney shown on the
right as well as it is through the other kidney. This indicates
that there is a blockage. The technetium isotope used has
a relatively short half-life - about six hours. This is long
enough for it to be used to trace the blockage, but it does
Figure 23.20: The microbes which would cause decay have not remain radioactive very long inside the patient's body.
been killed by radiation in the top sample.
Sterilisation
Sterilisation of medical products works in the same
way as food irradiation. Syringes, scalpels and other
instruments are sealed in plastic bags and then
exposed to gamma radiation. Any microbes present
are killed, so that, when the packaging is opened, the
item is guaranteed to be sterile, y-radiation is used as
it can penetrate the plastic and can pass through the
equipment, making sure all parts are sterilised.
KEY WORDS
radioactive tracing: using a radioisotope to
Figure 23.23: Detecting the movement of underground investigate a problem
water. Engineers are investigating how water moves
underground. This can also affect the stability of buildings
radiocarbon dating: a technique that uses the
on the site. Water containing a source of y-radiation is
known rate of decay of radioactive carbon-1 4 to
pumped underground and its passage through cracks is
find the approximate age of an object made from
monitored at ground level. dead organic material
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
PROJECT
SUMMARY
We are surrounded by ionising background radiation from natural and man-made sources.
Unstable isotopes decay randomly.
Radioactive decay leads to three types of emissions - a-particles, p-particles and y-rays.
a and p emissions change the nucleus to that of a different element.
a and p emissions can be described using balanced nuclear equations.
The half-life of a radioactive source is the time taken for half its radioactive nuclei to decay.
a, p and y-radiation can all ionise cells, leading to mutations and tumours. Safety precautions must be taken
when using radioactive materials.
When used safely, radioactive materials have many uses, particularly in medicine and engineering.
446 )
23 Radioactivity
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
Type 1 Type 2
A 0-radiation a-radiation
B y-radiation 0-radiation
C a-radiation 0-radiation
D 0-radiation y-radiation
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CONTINUED *
6 Gold has different isotopes. Gold-198 is radioactive and decays by
P-emission.
a Name a particle which is identical to a p-particle. [1]
b Name a material which could be used to stop p-particles, but which
would not stop y-rays. [1 ]
c The graph shows how the count rate from a sample of gold-198 changes
with time.
448 y
23 Radioactivity
COMMAND WORDS
explain: set out
purposes or
reasons / make
the relationships
between things
evident I provide
why and / or how and
support with relevant
evidence
deduce conclude
from available
information
449 y
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
450 )
> Chapter 24
Earth and the
Solar System
GETTING STARTED
24 Earth and the Solar System
Years
southern northern
position of Earth month hemisphere hemisphere
season
December summer winter
Figure 24.4: The Earth orbits the Sun every 365.25 days. The tilt of the Earth causes seasons.
24 Earth and the Solar System
first quarter
KEY WORDS
axis: the imaginary line between the Earth's North
and South poles
orbit: the path of an object as it moves around a
larger object
hemisphere: half of a sphere; the Earth can be
considered to be made of two hemispheres
divided by the Equator waning crescent
(the) Equator: an imaginary line drawn round third quarter
the Earth halfway between the North Pole and the
South Pole Figure 24.6: The phases of the Moon. As the Moon orbits the
Earth, the half of the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up by
the Sun. As the Moon moves, the shape of the light part, which
Countries at the Equator do not experience seasons
can be seen from the Earth, changes. The outer circle of Moon
because the Sun’s rays always hit them at the same angle.
diagrams shows how the Moon looks to an observer on Earth.
The seasonal differences are more apparent the further
from the Equator you are. In the far north or south,
seasons are so extreme that, in winter, the Sun is hardly
seen and, in summer, it can be sunny at midnight. Figure KEY WORDS
24.5 shows how, in Alaska, the Sun dips lower in the sky phases of the Moon: the different ways the Moon
towards midnight but then starts to rise again. looks when viewed from Earth over a period of
one month
ACTIVITY 24.1
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y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
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24 Earth and the Solar System
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
6 It takes sunlight 43 minutes tb reach Jupiter.
Calculate the distance from Jupiter to the Sun.
Step 3: Write the equation down and calculate the 7 Calculate how many kilometres a light-year is
time taken: equivalent to.
time taken -
Q
distance travelled
speed
_ 150000000000 m More about the planets
Table 24.1 gives data about the planets in the Solar
300 000 000 m/s System. It shows how the planets differ from each other,
= 500 seconds for example looking up from the surface of Jupiter you
might see 16 moons.
Step 4: Convert to minutes
500 -9- 60 = 8.3 minutes
Answer
Forces
The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System. It is by
8.3 minutes
far the most massive object in the Solar System and
makes up about 99.8% of the mass of the Solar System.
As gravitational attraction depends on mass, the
Questions gravitational field strength of the Sun is far larger than
the field of any other object in the Solar System.
4 The Moon is approximately 390 000 km from Earth.
Calculate the time it takes for light to travel from the The planets, minor planets, asteroids and meteoroids and
Moon to the Earth. comets all orbit the Sun. They are held in orbit by the
gravitational attraction of the Sun.
5 How long will it take for light from the Sun to
reach: Like other non-contact forces such as magnetism and
a Mercury, which is approximately 60 000 000 km static electricity, gravitational attraction decreases with
from the Sun. distance. This means that the outer planets experience
less gravitational force from the Sun than the inner
b Neptune, which is approximately planets do.
4 500 000 000 km from the Sun.
Gravitational
Average
Orbital Surface field strength at
orbital Density / kg/ Number of
Planet duration / temperature the surface of
distance / m’ Moons
million km
years /°C the planet /
N/kg
Mercury 58 0.2 5500 -18 to 460 4 0
Venus 108 0.6 5200 470 9 0
Earth 150 1 5500 -8 to 58 10 1
Mars 228 1.9 4000 -8 to -5 4 2
Jupiter 778 12 1300 15 to 20 26 16
Saturn 1427 30 700 -140 11 20
Uranus 2870 84 1300 -200 11 15
Neptune 4497 165 1700 -220 12 8
Table 24.1
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24 Earth and the Solar System
Although the planets are small compared to the Sun, The Sun’s gravity pulls the object in, speeds it up and
they are very massive objects. Jupiter has a mass of then the speed carries it on to the furthest part of the
1.9 x 1027kg. The more massive the planet, the greater orbit.
the gravitational force experienced by objects at its
The object’s orbital speed is therefore greatest when it is
surface. On Earth we experience a force of lON/kg.
nearest to the Sun and slowest when it is furthest from
On Earth a 60 kg student has a weight of 600 N.
the Sun.
On Mercury, where gravity is 4 N/kg, the same student
would weigh 240 N. The gravitational pull of planets is Comets, which have the most elliptical orbits of any
enough to cause moons to orbit them. body in the Solar System accelerate greatly as they
approach the Sun and are slung back at high speed to the
far reaches of their orbits.
Orbits and energy A planet orbiting in space does not experience any
The orbits of the planets are not completely circular. friction or air resistance, so its energy remains the same
Their shape is that of a slightly squashed circle, called an throughout its orbit. It has two types of energy:
ellipse. The orbits are described as elliptical. The amount • kinetic energy
the orbit is squashed is called its eccentricity. Comets
have very eccentric orbits. Comets travel far from the Sun • gravitational potential energy.
and then return close to it. When it is nearest the Sun, a planet has its minimum
gravitational potential energy and is moving at its fastest
so has its maximum kinetic energy. When it is at its
furthest from the Sun, it has maximum gravitational
potential and minimum kinetic energy.
460
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24 Earth and the Solar System
Questions
8 aName the force which causes planets to orbit the
Sun.
b What shape are planetary orbits?
c How is the orbit of a comet different to the orbit
of a planet?
d Describe the energy changes in a comet as it
orbits the Sun.
9 Calculate the weight of a 30 kg sheep on:
a Earth
b Mars
c Jupiter.
1 0 Use information from Table 24.1 to calculate the
orbital speeds in m/s of:
a Venus
b Saturn.
11 Using Table 24.1, draw and comment on scatter
graphs to investigate the relationship between:
Figure 24.15: There is a pattern in this data but not a direct a orbital distance and average temperature
correlation. b gravitational field strength and the number of
moons.
PROJECT
Solar System quiz This task asks you to bring all these together to help
Some great ways of learning are: you become an expert on our Solar System.
• finding information from a variety of sources Make up a quiz about the Solar System. The quiz
• summarising the information can be on paper, the computer, or on a mobile
• writing questions and answers on the device such as phone or tablet (there are lots of
information you have gathered good quiz making apps available). It should be
• answering questions written by your peers. aimed at students who have studied this chapter,
and who have a good general knowledge. Spend
some time revising and researching to find
interesting facts to include. You may want to rate
questions as 'easy', 'medium' or 'hard' and give
more points for harder questions. You can include
mathematical questions and questions which
require data interpretation. You should include at
least 20 questions. Think about how you will group
your questions. You could include:
• A picture round: use pictures from the Internet
or draw your own.
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y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
Facts about the planets: this could involve When you have written your questions, test th» m।
some questions for which the answers can be on another group. Are your questions clear er>' mt |l>
worked out from a data chart you supply. If there are two possible answers you need to id 'i
the question to make it more clear.
•
History of astronomical discoveries: use the
Internet and this book to help you.
PEER ASSESSMENT
When you exchange quizzes with another group, give them feedback on their questions. Rate question!,
'green', 'amber' or 'red':
• green: great question
• amber: good idea but needs to be clearer
• red: do not use this question as it is misleading or contains wrong information.
For questions rated amber or red, you should also give written feedback.
After feedback and improvement work following the feedback, try your quiz out on some other student).
REFLECTION
Think about what you found most useful in this project. Was it researching and summarising? Maybe you
enjoyed writing the questions, or the challenge of answering questions set by others. What does nis tell you
about how you like to learn? How will you apply this in your future revision?
SUMMARY
The Earth spins on its axis every 24 hours causing day and night.
The Earth is tilted on its axis. This causes the seasons as the Earth orbits the Sun every 365 days.
The Moon orbits the Earth every 27.5 days, causing the phases of the Moon.
The Sun is orbited by four rocky inner planets, four gaseous outer planets and minor planets, moons and conic 1
All objects orbiting the Sun are kept in orbit by its gravitational attraction.
Light from the Sun takes approximately eight minutes to reach the Earth. The distances for sunlight to reach
other planets can be calculated using the equation speed = distance/time.
The speed of an object in orbit can be calculated using the equation v = where r is the radius of the orbit
and T is the orbital duration.
The orbits of the planets are slightly elliptical. The Sun is not at the centre of the ellipse. Comets have highly
elliptical orbits.
The Sun contains almost all of the mass of the Solar System and so has a very strong gravitational field.
As distance from the Sun increases, its gravitational field strength decreases and the orbital speed of any orbit nir 1
object decreases.
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24 Earth and the Solar System
ONTINUED
When an orbiting object is at its closest to the Sun, it has its maximum kinetic energy and minimum
gravitational potential energy.
Planetary data about orbital distance, orbital duration, density, surface temperature and gravitational field
strength can be analysed to show patterns in the properties and behaviour of the planets.
i XAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
COMMAND WORDS
State one way in which this model is different from what we now know state: express in clear
about the Solar System. [1] terms
b State one way in which this model is similar to what we now know about
the Solar System. [1]
calculate: work out
from given facts,
State one way in which the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are figures or information
similar. [1]
d State one way in which Jupiter and Saturn are different to the planets in
part c. [1]
Mars is 228 million km from the Sun. Calculate the time it takes for light
to travel from the Sun to Mars. The speed of light is 3 x 108m/s. [3]
[Total: 7]
5 Laurie is standing at point X on the Earth’s surface.
light from
the Sun
N
Moon
Earth X
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
my gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
465 y
IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:
describe the Sun and galaxies, including the Milky Way
learn about the relative separation of planets, stars and galaxies
describe how stable stars (such as the Sun) are powered by the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen
learn that the redshift of light from distant galaxies supports the Big Bang theory
learn that this redshift can be described by Hubble's law, which can be used to work out the age of
the Universe.
25 Stars and the Universe
GETTING STARTED
Spend two minutes thinking about these questions Where does the Sun get its energy?
before comparing notes with your neighbour for a What colour are stars?
further two minutes, adding to or correcting your
own work. Be prepared to share your thoughts with What is a galaxy and what is the name of
the class. our galaxy?
• List the differences between planets and stars. List what you know about the Universe.
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
ACTIVITY 25.1
What colour is the Sun? supplementary questions to help you reach th- •
correct answer.
Spend two minutes writing down your thoughts and
answers to the questions. Then spend one minute 1 Why do most people think the Sun is yellow?
discussing them with a partner.
2 Is this the correct colour of the Sun?
Your teacher may give you additional time to How do we know?
research these questions using the Internet, or ask
468
25 Stars and the Universe
REFLECTION Questions
Did you already know the correct answer to 5 The Sun is about eight light-minutes away. It takes
Activity 25.1? sunlight about eight minutes to reach Earth on its
journey from the Sun.
It is important in science to avoid looking for
a Given that the speed of light is 3 x 108m/s, how
evidence that supports an idea that you already far away is the Sun in kilometres?
think is correct. Scientists must also avoid not
looking for evidence at all and assuming that they b How many years would it take a car to get to
know the answer. If you thought the Sun is the Sun travelling at 120 km/h?
yellow, did you question this idea? If you guessed 6 After our Sun, Proxima Centauri is our next nearest
that the Sun is not yellow, did you know what star. It is about 4.2 light-years away.
questions to ask to work out its correct colour? a How many seconds does it take light from
Were you able to think objectively and find Proxima Centauri to reach Earth?
evidence to support the correct answer? This is b How far away is Proxima Centauri in km?
how science progresses and it is the approach c Helios I & II hold the record as the fastest ever
outlined in the Science in context section What space probes at 252 738 km/h (about 70 km/s).
makes the Sun shine? that led to correctly How many years would it take these space
understanding how stars shine. probes to reach Proxima Centauri?
d How long would it take them to reach the
nearest galaxy 25 000 light-years away from us?
25.2 Stars and galaxies The force of gravity pulls stars together in groups called
When you look into the night sky, the light that you galaxies. Our Sun is one of many billions of stars in our
."c from the stars has been travelling for many years.
galaxy, the Milky Way. There might be 200 billion (2 x 10’')
A Nt i onomers use this idea as a way of measuring vast stars in the Milky Way, about 20 stars for every person
distances. A light-year is a measure of distance (not on Earth. The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy with a central
I line). It is the distance that light travels through space in bulge (see Figure 25.2). It has a diameter of 100 000 light-
line year. Light travels at a constant speed of 3 x 108m/s
years and the disc is about 2000 light-years thick. Our Solar
llirough a vacuum. This means that the time it takes to System is located about 30 000 light-years from the galactic
centre, two-thirds of the way along a spiral arm. The Milky
I ravel somewhere is directly proportional to distance.
Way is spinning and it takes our Solar System about 225
< )nc light-year is the distance that light travels in one year, million years to travel once around the galaxy.
illatance = speed x time
= 3 x 108m/s x 365.25 days x 24 hours
So, one light-year
3600 seconds = 9.5 x 10l5m.
KEY WORD
light-year: the distance travelled in space by light
In one year (it is equivalent to about 9.5 x 1 015 m)
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
9 How can the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy be closer to Figure 25.4: Parallax in nearby stars.
us than we are to the centre of our own galaxy?
1 0 Assuming that the average mass of a star is equal to When a telescope is pointed at a nearby star in
the mass of the Sun (2 x 1030kg), what is the mass the summer it appears to be at location X againiJ
of the Milky Way? the background stars. When the telescope is
pointed in the same direction six months later
11 Imagine that the Milky Way is shrunk down to (shown by the dashed line from B), the astrononv
fit into the space between the Earth and the Sun. would need to swing the telescope through twlc«
On this scale, calculate how far away the following the parallax angle in order to get the telescope
bodies would be from Earth: back onto the star, which appears to have moved
a Proxima Centauri (in km) to position Y against the background stars.
b Pluto (in km) 1 In groups, use the biggest space available to
c the Sun (in metres) you to mark out three positions to represent
the locations of the Earth in summer (A), the
d the Moon (in cm).
Earth in winter (B), and distant star (C), locate I
1 2 Write a sentence or two comparing your answers roughly south of A and B. Ensure that the
to question 25.11 with the length of a pencil, distant star is on the perpendicular bisector < >l
the length of a cricket pitch (about 20 metres), a the line joining A and B. Measure the distant
400 metre athletics track, and the radius of the between the Sun and the star.
Earth (6400 km).
470 )
25 Stars and the Universe
Stable stars
Hot bodies radiate heat and this radiation exerts a
force called radiation pressure. The hotter the object
is, the higher the radiation pressure. The very high
temperature of a star leads to a radiation pressure that
acts outwards, making the star expand. This acts in
the opposite direction to the force of gravity pulling
the star inwards, making the star contract. When these
Figure 25.5: The Orion Nebula, the closest region of star forces are balanced, the star is stable and stays the same
formation and visible to the naked eye. size as shown in Figure 25.6. An increase in the core
temperature of a star increases the radiation pressure
I"he collapse of a clump of molecular cloud due to and the star increases in size. A star shrinks when its core
gravitational attraction starts a series of energy transfers. temperature falls.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
KEY WORDS
red giant: a starthat began with fewer than eight
solar masses and is burning helium in its core; 11'
shell of hydrogen has expanded and cooled
main sequence: a stable starthat is burning
hydrogen in its core; once it has used up 1 2% t >l
its hydrogen it goes onto another stage of its lib
cycle
white dwarf: the final stage of a star that startci I
with fewer than eight solar masses after all its f ui d
has been used up
Figure 25.6: A star is stable when the inward pull of gravity
is balanced by the outward push of radiation pressure, which planetary nebula: a bubble of gas surrounding a
is actually a force. white dwarf star that used to be the outer shell < >l
a red giant from which it collapsed
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25 Stars and the Universe
non-burning hydrogen
hydrogen fusion
helium fusion Figure 25.9: A supernova in 1054 left behind the Crab
Nebula and a neutron star somewhere within.
carbon fusion
oxygen fusion
neon fusion
KEY WORDS
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> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
dying star
stars starting out
with less than
8 solar masses
Figure 25.10: The life cycle of a star depends on its initial (starting) mass. All stars begin as protostars in molecuar cloud*'
before joining the main sequence. Stars with a starting mass of fewer than eight solar masses follow the top row while Imm let
stars move along the bottom row and explode as supernovae. After the supernova stage, the lighter stars become neutron
stars while the rest become black holes.
474 y
25 Stars and the Universe
the cool gas in the Sun’s atmosphere absorbs them. rises and falls. However, the pitch also increases as the
A spectrum with these absorption lines is known as an vehicle approaches and decreases as it recedes (moves
absorption spectrum (see Figure 25.1 1). For reasons that away). The sound wave is compressed in front of the
are beyond this course, each element has a unique set of vehicle as it approaches. This is because once the crest
lines (sometimes known as a spectral fingerprint) similar (or compression) of a sound wave leaves the car, the car
to a barcode. These lines allow astronomers to work out catches up with it before the next crest of the wave leaves
what elements are inside a star. the car, as shown in Figure 25.12. The sound wave is
stretched out behind the vehicle as it moves away.
KEY WORDS
absorption spectrum: dark lines in a spectrum
that are produced when light passing through
cooler gas is absorbed
redshift: an increase in the observed wavelength
of electromagnetic radiation (including visible
light) from a star or galaxy because it is moving
away from us Figure 25.1 2: This diagram shows crests of a sound wave
modified by the Doppler effect, with the wave compressed
ahead of the ambulance (so person A hears a higher pitch)
The Doppler effect and redshifted behind (so person B hears a lower pitch).
By the time it emits the next crest, the ambulance has
You may already have noticed the Doppler effect. As a moved forward, closing the gap on the previous crest.
very fast vehicle passes you, the volume of the sound
475
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
The Doppler effect is a property of all waves, including Here, v is the recession speed of galaxies (how Iasi I h. »
light. Light from galaxies that are moving away from us are moving away from us) and d is their distance I nan m
is redshifted. This turned out to be the first important The graph confirms that the further away the gain m v l»i I
clue that the Universe is expanding and suggested that the the faster it is moving away from us.
galaxies must have been closer together in the past. This The Hubble constant, is the gradient of this graph and
led to the theory that the Universe had a beginning: the Big it is the ratio of the speed at which galaxies are mm mu
Bang theory. This is the idea that the Universe (space, time, away from Earth to their distance from Earth:
matter, energy) was created at a single point 13.8 billion
years ago and has been expanding and cooling ever since.
I
KEY WORDS KEY EQUATION
Big Bang theory: the Universe (space, time, Hubble constant =
matter, energy) was created at asingle point 13.8 speed of galaxy moving away front I u th
billion years ago and has been expanding and
distance of the galaxy from Earth
cooling ever since
KEY WORDS
Hubble's law: distant galaxies are moving away
from Earth with a speed, v, that is proportional to
Distance / millions of light-years their distance, d, from Earth; v = Hod where Ho is
the Hubble constant
Figure 25.13: A typical Hubble plot that shows that the
velocity of galaxies and clusters is directly proportional to Hubble constant: the slope of a graph of galaxy
their distance from us. speed against distance
Hubble time: the inverse of the Hubble constant,
His line of best fit is Hubble’s law: which gives an estimate for the age of the
v — H^d Universe
476 y
25 Stars and the Universe
expanding balloon.
Figure 25.1 5: Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias in front of ACTIVITY 25.3
the radio telescope that detected the cosmic microwave
Using Hubble's law to find the centre of the
background radiation.
Universe
Work individually, in pairs, or in groups (four
would be ideal) on this task. If you havq a strip
of elastic with buttons sewn into it, you can do
this as an experiment under the guidance of your
teacher. You need to stretch the elastic by the
same amount for each 'time interval' so that it
looks something like Figure 25.18. If buttons and
elastic are not available, take measurements from
the diagram.
Each button represents a cluster qf galaxies.
Cluster A represents the local group (where the
Figure 25.16: Full sky map of cosmic microwave Milky Way Galaxy is located). The scale is 3 mm •
478
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25 Stars and the Universe
CONTINUED
C B
t = 1 billion years
C B
t = 2 billion years
Time Time
(billion Total Distance Distance Distance
C-B B-A A-D (billion
(C-D) to B to A to D
years) years)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
Table 25.1a: Agreed distances between clusters Table 25.1b: Example table (for cluster C)
3 For your allocated cluster, plot a graph of for each cluster (in million light-years per billion
distance (in millions of light-years) against time years) and comment on what you find. Sketch a
(in billions of years) to the other three clusters. It graph of speed against original distance. How
will save time and make it easier to compare if do you interpret your results?
you plot all three graphs on the same axes but
ensure you label each graph with the correct Compare what you find with your classmates.
letter for each cluster. Check that the recession speed is the same for
pairs of galaxies. For example, the speed of B as
4 Use your plotted distance-time graph(s) from the seen from D should be the same as the speed of
previous step to work out the (recession) speed D as seen from B.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
PROJECT
Are we alone in the Universe? hydrocarbons (like methane) are alternatives and
have raised hopes of finding life on Titan, the
The possibility of life elsewhere in the Universe
largest moon orbiting Saturn.
fascinates and frightens people in equal measure
and is the subject of many science fiction stories, Sunlight is not the only source of energy. In 1977,
both in books and movies. Science fiction (as hydrothermal vents (called black smokers) were
opposed to fantasy) often works better if the discovered at mid-ocean ridges several kilometres
underlying science is correct or, at least, possible. below the ocean surface. Even though they are
far deeper than light can reach, ecosystems have
When looking for life beyond Earth, it is important
formed around them. These ecosystems get
to consider what conditions are required for life
their energy from the chemical reaction between
on Earth. We need liquid water (as a solvent for
oxygen and hydrogen sulphide. This has increased
the chemical reactions needed for life), a source
of energy (we depend on sunlight), and chemical hopes of finding life beneath the ice of Europa,
one of Jupiter's moons. Microbes have also been
building blocks. Scientists have discovered that
discovered deep underground in the Earth's crust.
most stars have solar systems of orbiting planets,
increasing the chances that the conditions for life Life on Earth is based on carbon, which can bond
on Earth exist on other planets, beyond the Solar with to up four other atoms and forms more
System. compounds than all other elements combined.
However, life could also be based on silicon, which
However, liquid water is not the only possible
is in the same group in the Periodic Table and can
solvent for chemical reactions. Ammonia and liquid also form a huge variety of compounds.
r
25 Stars and the Universe
CONTINUED
You have two tasks.
1 Use the Internet to find more information on one • The search for life within our Solar System:
of the following: you could look at, for example, Mars,
• The search for Earth-like extrasolar planets Europa or Titan.
(planets in other solar systems that 2 Use the information presented here or the
match the conditions required for life on
Earth): you will find there are many other
information you have found on the Internet
to complete a short piece of creative science
requirements for more complicated life fiction writing, based on scientific fact. Aim for
forms (for example, the spin of the planet
a maximum of 800 words (or what your teacher
has to be stable). You can probably think of
suggests). Use your imagination, but make sure
more before going online.
that your story is concise and the science is
clear and correct.
SUMMARY
Our Sun is an average star and is made mainly of hydrogen and helium.
Stable stars shine because of the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen.
The Sun shines in the infrared and ultraviolet as well as the visible light.
A light-year is the distance that light travels in one year.
A light-year is defined as 9.5 x 10' 5 metres.
The Sun is of one of many billions of stars in our Milky Way Galaxy.
The distance between stars is thousands of times bigger than the distance between a star and planets
in its solar system, if it has one.
Our Milky Way Galaxy is one of billions of others in the Universe.
Our nearest galaxy is more than 25 000 light-years from Earth. So, galaxies are much further apart than stars,
and stars are much further apart than planets.
All stars begin as protostars from the collapse of interstellar (molecular) gas clouds and then start using
hydrogen as their fuel.
A stable star uses hydrogen as its fuel and the outward force of radiation pressure due to its high temperature
balances the inward force of gravity.
Low mass stars (less than eight times the mass of the Sun) swell into red giants when they run out of hydrogen
fuel for their nuclear reactions.
When red giants run out of helium, they form a planetary nebula and shrink into white dwarfs.
High mass stars (more than eight times the mass of the Sun) will explode as supernovae that create elements
heavier than iron and send this material into the interstellar medium as a nebulae that form the raw material for
new stars and solar systems.
A star that explodes as a supernova collapses to become a neutron star or, if it has a bigger mass, a black hole.
Redshift is the increase in the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation (including visible light).
481 )
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
CONTINUED
Light from distant stars and galaxies is redshifted, which suggests that they are moving away from us.
The fact that galaxies are moving away from us suggests that the Universe is expanding and supports the Big
Bang theory.
The speed that a galaxy appears to be moving away from us can be found from the redshift in the starlight.
The Hubble equation describes how the speed of galaxies is proportional to their distance from us.
The reciprocal of the Hubble constant tells us the age of the Universe.
The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) is electromagnetic radiation from the early Universe thal
has been redshifted and its wavelength stretched into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The distance to a distant galaxy can be determined by the brightness of a type la supernova.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 Why do stars shine? [1]
A They are burning.
B Nuclear fusion is taking place inside the star.
C They are made of hot gases that are heated up when they collapsed
from gas clouds.
D They are made of ether.
2 What is a light-year? [1]
A the distance light travels in one year
B 366 days
C the time it takes light to travel in one year
D 1.44 x 1011 metres
3 Which of the following is not a star? [1 ]
A neutron star
B white dwarf
C supernova
D red giant
4 Which of the following is not evidence of the Big Bang? [1 ]
A cosmic microwave background radiation everywhere
B galaxies are moving closer together
C stars that are redshifted
D the Universe is expanding
482 )
25 Stars and the Universe
CONTINUED
What causes the redshift in the light arriving from distant galaxies? [2]
Distance
(million light-years) Velocity (km/s)
0.0 0
1.6 270
2.3 360
3.0 470
1.7 890
5.6 990
6.6 1050
7.3 1150
The table shows data for a parallel universe. Plot a graph of recessional
speed (in km/s) versus distance (million light-years) to each galaxy for
this parallel universe. [3]
Use the graph you plotted to find the Hubble constant, making it clear
how you did it. [2]
Find the age of this fictional universe. [2]
COMMAND WORD
[Total: 9]
describe: state the
7 Describe the life cycle of the Sun from how it formed until the point at
points of a topic; give
which it runs out of fuel. [5] characteristics and
8 What is the Big Bang theory and what evidence is there to support it? [3] main features
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps in your knowledge and help you to learn more effectively.
See Needs Almost Confident
1 can
Topic... more work there to move or
Describe what the Sun is made of. 25.1
Recall what parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
25.1
are emitted by the Sun.
Describe what powers a stable star. 25.1
Recall the relative distances between planets, stars
25.2
and galaxies.
Recall what a light-year is. 25.2
Define a light-year. 25.2
Describe how a protostar is formed and how it
25.2
becomes a stable star.
Describe the life cycle of a star like the Sun,
25.2
including the names of the different stages.
Describe the life cycle of stars exceeding eight solar
25.2
masses, including the names of the different stages.
Describe the role of supernovae in creating heavy
25.2
elements and spreading them.
Recall the number of stars in the Milky Way and the
25.2
number of galaxies in the Universe.
Recall what redshift is. 25.3
Recall how the redshift of electromagnetic radiation
from distant stars and galaxies supports the Big 25.3
Bang theory.
Know that the redshift of light from distant galaxies
can be used to work out their speed of recession 25.3
(how fast they are moving away from us).
Recall Hubble’s Law and use it to work out the age
25.3
of the Universe.
Recall where to find the CMBR (cosmic microwave
background radiation) and describe its origin (how it 25.3
came into existence).
Describe how the distance to a galaxy can be
25.3
determined using a type la supernova.
484 y
Appendix
> Appendix
Electrical symbols
You'll need to know the following electrical symbols for the ‘Electricity and magnetism’
section of the syllabus. The symbols highlighted in blue are supplement content.
cell transformer
1 switch
battery of cells or
— F- - 1 earth or ground
Symbols
You'll need to know the usual scientific symbols for a number of physical quantities
and, where relevant, the units that they're measured in. The tables below show you
what you need to know for the Core and Supplement options of the syllabus.
Core
Quantity Usual symbol Usual unit
length 1, h, d, s, x km, m, cm, mm
area A m2, cm2
volume V m3, cm3, dm3
weight W N
mass m, M kg, g
time t h, min, s
density P g/cm3, kg/m3
speed u, V km/h, m/s, cm/s
acceleration a m/s2
acceleration of 9 m/s2
free fall
force F N
gravitational 9 N/kg
field strength
moment of Nm
force
work done W J, kJ, MJ
energy E J, kJ, MJ, kWh
power P W, kW, MW
pressure P N/m2, N/cm2
temperature 0, T °C, K
486
Appendix
Core Supplement
Quantity Usual symbol Usual unit Quantity Usual symbol Usual unit
frequency f Hz, kHz
wavelength A m, cm wavelength A nm
focal length f m, cm
potential V V, mV, kV
difference/
voltage
current 1 A, mA
rn.f. E V
i distance R Q
। harge Q C
। ount rate count/s,
counts/minute
half life s, minutes, h,
days, weeks,
years
Hubble constant Ho S’1
487
>
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
ossary
Command words
Below are the Cambridge International definitions for command words which may be used in exams.
The information in this section is taken from the Cambridge Assessment International Education syllabus (0625/0*1 ')
for examination from 2023. You should always refer to the appropriate syllabus document for the year of your
examination to confirm the details and for more information. The syllabus document is available on the Cambridgt
Assessment International Education website www.cambridgeinternational.org.
calculate: work out from given facts, figures or give: (a reason/example) produce an answer from a given
information source or recall/memory
comment: give an informed opinion identify: name/select/recognise
compare: identify/comment on similarities and/or justify: support a case with evidence/argument
differences predict: suggest what may happen based on available
deduce: conclude from available information information
define: give precise meaning sketch: make a simple freehand drawing showing the k
features, taking care over proportions
describe: state the points of a topic; give characteristics
and main features state: express in clear terms
determine: establish an answer using the information suggest: apply knowledge and understanding to
available situations where there are a range of valid responses in
order to make proposals/put forward considerations
explain: set out purposes or reasons; make the
relationships between things evident; provide why and/or
how and support with relevant evidence
Key words
a.c. generator: a device such as a dynamo used to air resistance: friction acting on an object moving
generate alternating current. through air.
absolute zero: the temperature at which particles have no alpha decay: the decay of a radioactive nucleus by the
kinetic energy. emission of an a-particle.
absorption spectrum: dark lines in a spectrum that are alpha particle (a-particle): a particle made up of two
produced when light passing through cooler gas is absorbed. protons and two neutrons; it is emitted by an atomic
acceleration due to gravity: the acceleration of an object nucleus during radioactive decay.
falling freely under gravity. alternating current (a.c.): electric current that
acceleration of free fall: the acceleration of an object (periodically) changes direction in a circuit.
falling freely under gravity. ammeter: a meter for measuring electric current.
acceleration: the rate of change of an object’s velocity. ampere, amps (A): the SI unit of electric current.
accretion: the coming together of matter under the amplitude: the greatest height or depth of a wave from il
influence of gravity to form larger bodies. undisturbed position.
accretion disc: a rotating disc of matter formed by analogue signal: a signal which varies continuously in
accretion. frequency and amplitude.
activity: the rate at which nuclei decay in a sample of a analogue: a display that has hands (or a needle) and is
radioactive substance. often not very precise.
488
>
Glossary
angle of incidence: the angle between the incident ray bonds: another name for the forces between particles.
and the normal drawn at the point where the ray hits Brownian motion: the motion of small particles
the surface. suspended in a liquid or gas, caused by molecular
angle of reflection: the angle between the reflected ray bombardment.
and the normal drawn at the point where the ray hits calibrate: to mark a standard scale on to a measuring
the surface. instrument
angle of refraction: the angle between a refracted ray and calibrated: should agree closely with a standard or
the normal to the surface at the point where it passes agrees when correction applied.
from one medium to another.
cell: a device that provides an electromotive force (e.m.f.)
anticlockwise: turning in the opposite direction from the in a circuit by means of a chemical reaction.
hands on a clock.
centre of gravity: all the mass of an object could be
armature: the moving part of an electromagnetic device located here and the object would behave the same
such as a relay or bell. (when ignoring any spin).
asteroids and meteoroids: lumps of rock which orbit changes of state: changing from one state of matter to
the Sun. another.
atom: the smallest part of an element that can exist. charge: carried around a circuit by the current; negative
1 attractive forces: forces between particles which hold charge is carried by electrons.
the particles in fixed positions in a solid. chemical energy: energy stored in bonds between atoms
average speed: the speed calculated from total distance that can be released when chemical reactions take place.
travelled divided by total time taken. clockwise: turning in the same direction as the hands on
axis: the imaginary line between the Earth’s North and a clock.
South poles. collision: the meeting of particles or of bodies in which
background radiation: the radiation from the each exerts a force upon the other.
environment to which we are exposed all the time, comet: a ball of ice, dust and gas which orbits the Sun in
bar magnet: a rectangular-shaped permanent magnet with a highly elliptical orbit.
a north pole at one end and a south pole at the other, commutator: a device used to allow current to flow to
battery: two or more electrical cells connected together and from the coil of a d.c. motor or generator.
in series. compression: a region of a sound wave where the
/ beta decay: the decay of a radioactive nucleus by the particles are pushed together.
emission of a 0-partiele. condensing: changing from gas to liquid.
beta particle (0-particle): a high speed electron that is conductor: a material that allows an electric current to
emitted by an atomic nucleus during radioactive decay. flow through it.
Big Bang theory: the Universe (space, time, matter, contaminated: when an object has acquired some
energy) was created at a single point 13.8 billion years unwanted radioactive substance.
ago and has been expanding and cooling ever since,
convection current: the transfer of thermal energy by the
biofuel: material, recently living, used as a fuel, motion of a fluid.
black hole: the final stage in the life cycle of a star that convection: the transfer of thermal energy through a
started with more than eight solar masses; it has enough material by the movement of the material itself.
mass left over after exploding as a supernova to collapse
conventional current: the direction positive charges
to a point where gravity is so strong that not even light
would flow in a complete circuit, from the positive
can escape. to negative terminals of a cell, and opposite to the
bo er: device where thermal energy is transferred to direction that electrons flow.
water to turn it into steam.
converging lens: a lens that causes rays of light parallel
boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid changes to the axis to converge at the principal focus.
to a gas (at constant pressure).
coulomb (C): the SI unit for electric charge.
bo ling: changing from liquid to gas at a fixed count rate: the number of decaying radioactive atoms
temperature called the boiling point.
detected each second (or minute, or hour).
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
crest: (or peak) the highest point of a wave. electrical insulator: a substance that inhibits the fl<
critical angle: the minimum angle of incidence at which electrons (electrical current).
total internal reflection occurs. electrical power: power = current x p.d (P = VI).
current: the rate at which electric charge passes a point in electromagnet: a coil of wire that acts as a magnet
a circuit. an electric current passes through it.
current-voltage characteristic: a graph of current on the electromagnetic induction: the production of an e.i
vertical axis and voltage on the horizontal axis. across an electrical conductor when there is relativ
density: the ratio of mass to volume for a substance. movement between the conductor and a magnetic
diffraction: when a wave spreads out as it travels through electromagnetic radiation, energy that is transferre
a gap or past the edge of an object. electromagnetic waves.
digital signal: a signal that consists of a series of pulses electromagnetic spectrum: the family of radiations
which are either on or off. to light.
digital: a display that shows numbers and is often precise, electromotive force (e.m.f.): the electrical work don
diminished- used to describe an image which is smaller a source (cell, battery etc.) in moving (a unit) char;
than the object. around a circuit; the voltage across the terminals c
a source.
diode: an electrical component that allows electric I
current to flow in one direction only. electron: a negatively charged particle, smaller that
an atom.
direct current (d.c.): electric current that flows in the same
direction all the time. electron charge: the electric charge of a single
dispersion: the separation of different wavelengths of =
electron -1.6 x 10-'9C.
light because they are refracted through different angles, electrostatic charge: a property of an object that cz
it to attract or repel other objects with charge.
displace: moving something to another place so water
is moved out of the way (upwards) when an object is ellipse: a squashed circle.
lowered into it. energy: quantity that must be changed or transferr
dissipated: energy that is spread out becomes not useful make something happen.
or wanted. enlarged: used to describe an image which is biggei
diverging lens: a lens that causes rays of light parallel to the object.
the axis to diverge from the principal focus. (the) Equator: an imaginary line drawn round the I
halfway between the North Pole and the South Pol
doing work: transferring energy by means of a force.
double insulated: when the electric circuit for an electrical equilibrium: when no net force and no net moment
appliance is placed inside a case made from an electrical on a body.
insulator so that it is impossible for a live wire to touch evaporation: changing from a liquid to a gas at any
the outer casing. temperature.
drag: friction that acts on an object as it moves through a event: something that happens or takes place, ofter
fluid (a liquid or a gas). a specific time and place.
earthed: when the case of an electrical appliance is extension: the increased length of an object (for ex:
connected to the earth wire of a three-pin plug; the earth a spring) when a load (for example, weight) is attac
wire is electrically connected to the ground to prevent to it.
current passing through anyone touching a faulty fixed points: known values used to calibrate a meas
appliance. instrument
eccentricity: a measure of how elliptical an orbit is. Fleming’s left-hand rule: a rule that gives the relatic
efficiency: the fraction (or percentage) of energy supplied between the directions of force, field and current v
that is usefully transferred current flows across a magnetic field.
electric field: a region of space in which an electric charge Fleming’s right-hand rule: a rule that gives the
will experience a force. relationship between the directions of force, field a
current when a current flows across a magnetic fiel
electrical conductor: a substance that allows the flow of
electrons (electrical current). fluid: a substance which can flow; liquids and gase:
fluids.
490 y
Glos*
focal length: the distance from the centre of the lens to its immerse: to cover something in a fluid (usually water) !
principal focus. that the object is submerged.
force: the action of one body on a second body; impulse: the change in an object’s momentum, FAp, or
imbalanced forces cause changes in speed, shape or the force acting on an object multiplied by the time for
direction. which the force acts (fx t).
fossil fuels: material, formed from long-dead material, incident ray: a ray of light arriving at a surface.
used as a fuel. induced e.m.f.: (or induced voltage) the e.m.f. created ii
Irequency: the number of vibrations or waves per unit of conductor when it cuts through magnetic field lines,
lune. induced magnetism: when a magnetic material is only
I fiction: the force that acts when two surfaces rub over magnetised when placed in a magnetic field (for examp
one another. when brought close to the pole of a permanent magne
fuse: a device that breaks the circuit if the current infrared radiation: electromagnetic radiation whose
exceeds a certain value; it is a piece of metal wire that wavelength is greater than that of visible light; someth
melts when too much current flows through it. known as thermal radiation.
HHlvanometer: a meter for measuring tiny electric current, insulator: a material that makes it very difficult for an
iumma ray (y-ray): electromagnetic radiation emitted by electrical current to flow through it.
an atomic nucleus during radioactive decay. internal energy: the energy of an object; the total kinet
generator: a device which generates electricity using and potential energies of all of its particles.
electromagnetic induction. internal reflection: when a ray of light strikes the inner
geothermal energy: energy stored in hot rocks surface of a material and some of it reflects back
underground. inside it.
gravitational field strength: is the gravitational force interrupt card: allows the speed of an object passing
। ujrted per unit mass placed at that point.
through a fight gate to be calculated; a timer starts whi
gravitational potential energy (g.p.e): the energy store of
the card breaks the beam and stops when the beam is i
longer broken.
mi object raised up against the force of gravity; more
p vncrally, it is the distance between particles or bodies, interstellar cloud: a cloud of gas and dust that occupiei
the space between stars.
gravity: the force that exists between any two objects with
HUIU. inversely proportional: two quantities are inversely
proportional when increasing one quantity decreases t
hull life: the average time taken for half the atoms in a
other by the same factor; doubling one quantity halves
imple of a radioactive material to decay.
the other.
hard (material): a material that, once magnetised, is
inverted: used to describe an image which is upside dov
to demagnetise.
compare to the object.
Im mi sphere: half of a sphere; the Earth can be considered ionisation: when a particle (atom or molecule) become:
I " be made of two hemispheres divided by the Equator.
electrically charged by losing or gaining electrons.
In 1 1 ; the unit of frequency; 1 Hz =1 wave per second.
ionising nuclear radiation: radiation, emitted by the
1 looke law: the extension of an object is proportional to nucleus which can cause ionisation; alpha or beta
if load producing it particles, or gamma rays.
I lubhle constant: the slope of a graph of galaxy speed irradiated: when an object has been exposed to radiatio
iiynmst distance.
isotope: isotopes of an element have the same proton
I lubhle time: the inverse of the Hubble constant, which number but different nucleon numbers.
ri .m estimate for the age of the Universe.
joule (J): the SI unit of transferred energy (or work don
law: distant galaxies are moving away from work done is the force of one newton (1 N) when appliei
I nth with a speed, v, that is proportional to their through a distance of one metre (1 m); 1 J = 1 Nm.
di 1 1 ih d, from Earth; v = Hod where Ho is the Hubble
।
Kelvin temperature scale: (or the absolute temperature
*।hi (.ml. scale) the temperature measured from absolute zero.
ku ' what we see when we view an object by means of A difference in temperature of 1 kelvin is the same as £
।' ii • led rays.
difference of 1 C. 0 K is approximately -273 °C.
491
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
kinetic energy: the energy store of a moving object. model: a way of representing a system in order to
kinetic particle model of matter: a model in which matter understand how it functions, usually mathematical,
consists of moving particles. molecular cloud: a cloud of interstellar gas that consilt
lamina: flat two-dimensional shape. mostly of molecular hydrogen and is cold and dense
laser: a device for producing a narrow beam of light of a enough to collapse to form stars.
single colour (monochromatic) or wavelength. molecule: two or more atoms joined together by cheniu al
laterally inverted: an image in which left and right have bonds.
been reversed. moment: the turning effect of a force about a pivot; giwu
Lenz’s law: the direction of an induced current always by force x perpendicular distance from the pivot...
opposes the change in the circuit or the magnetic field momentum: the quantity mass x velocity,/; = mv.
that produces it.
monochromatic: describes a ray of light (or other
light gates: allow the speed of an object passing between electromagnetic radiation) of a single wavelength .
them to be calculated electronically.
motor effect: when current flows in a wire in a magnet ii
light-dependent resistor (LDR): a device whose resistance
field which is not parallel to the current, a force is excrt< d
decreases when light shines on it.
on the wire.
light-emitting diode (LED): a type of diode that emits
light when a current flows through it. national grid: the system of power lines, pylons and
transformers used to carry electricity around a country
light-year: the distance travelled in space by light in one
year (it is equivalent to about 9.5 x 105m). negative charge: the type of electric charge carried by
limit of proportionality: up to this limit, Hooke’s law is electrons.
obeyed (so extension is proportional to load). neutral: having no overall positive or negative c large,
load: the force (usually weight) stretches an object (a spring), neutron number (N): number of neutrons in the nucleus
longitudinal wave: a wave in which the vibration is forward of an atom.
and back, parallel to the direction of propagation of neutron star: a collapsed star composed almost entirely
the wave. of neutrons which forms when a star with more than
lubrication: usually a liquid, it allows two surfaces to eight solar masses reaches the end of its life.
slide past each other more easily. neutron: an uncharged particle found in the atomic
magnetic field lines: represent the direction the magnetic nucleus.
force would have on the north pole of a magnet. newton (TV): the force required to give a mass of 1 kg an
magnetic field: a region of space around a magnet or acceleration of 1 m/s1
electric current in which a magnetic pole experiences non-renewables: an energy resource that is gone forever
(feels) a force.
once it has been used.
magnetised: when a magnetic material has been made
magnetic. normal: the line drawn at right angles to a surface at the
point where a ray hits the surface.
main sequence: a stable star that is burning hydrogen in
its core; once it has used up 12% of its hydrogen it goes NTC thermistor: a resistor whose resistance decreases
onto another stage of its life cycle. with increasing temperature.
mass: is the quantity of matter a body is composed of; nuclear energy: energy stored in the nucleus of an atom,
mass causes the object to resist changes in its motion nuclear fission: the process by which energy is released by
and causes it to have a gravitational attraction for other the splitting of a large heavy nucleus into two or more
objects. smaller nuclei.
melting point: the temperature at which a solid melts to nuclear fusion: the process by which energy is released
become a liquid. when two small light nuclei join together to form a new
melting: changing from solid to liquid. heavier nucleus.
meniscus: curved upper surface of a liquid. nucleon number (A ): (or mass number) the number of
minor planet: an object which orbits the Sun but is not nucleons (protons and neutrons) in an atomic nucleus,
large enough or far enough from another object to be nucleon: a particle found in the atomic nucleus; a proton
defined as a planet. or a neutron.
492 )
Glossary
nucleus: small, dense, positively charged region at the potential difference (p.d.): the work done by (a unit)
centre of an atom. charge passing through an electrical component; another
observations: what you see happening in an experiment, name for the voltage between two points.
ohm (JI): the SI unit of electrical resistance; potential divider, part of a circuit consisting of two
I Q = 1 V/A. resistors connected in series to obtain a smaller voltage
ohmic resistor: has a constant resistance; its I-V than supplied.
characteristic is a straight line, so that the current power lines: cables used to carry electricity from power
through it is directly proportional to the voltage across it. stations to consumers.
orbit: the path of an object as it moves around a larger power: the rate at which work is done, or the rate at
object. which energy is transferred.
orbital period: the time taken for a planet to complete
precise: when several readings are close together when
one full orbit of the Sun.
measuring the same value.
orbital radius: the average distance of the planet from
the Sun. pressure: the force acting per unit area at right angles to
a surface.
oscillation: a repetitive motion or vibration.
pascal: the SI unit of pressure, equivalent to one newton primary coil: the input coil of a transformer.
per square metre; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa. principal axis: the line passing through the centre of a
I jriod: the time for one complete oscillation or wave; the lens perpendicular to its surface.
lime it takes an object to return to its original position, principal focus: (or focal point) the point at which rays of
permanent magnet: magnetised magnetic material that light parallel to the axis converge after passing through a
produces its own magnetic field that does not get weaker converging lens.
with time. principle of conservation of energy: energy cannot be
phases of the Moon: the different ways the Moon looks created or destroyed; it can only be stored or transferred.
When viewed from Earth over a period of one month, principle of the conservation of momentum: the total
pivot: the fixed point about which a lever turns; also momentum is constant and does not change because of
I nown as the fulcrum. an interaction between bodies (such as collisions).
plane mirror: (or flat mirror) a mirror with a flat, principle of moments: when an object is in equilibrium, the
inflective surface. sum of anticlockwise moments about any point equals the
planet: a large spherical object that orbits the Sun sum of clockwise moments about the same point.
without another similar object close to it.
process: a series of actions or steps, often taking place
planetary nebula: a bubble of gas surrounding a white
over a long period of time.
dwarf star that used to be the outer shell of a red giant
I t om which it collapsed.
pht <ma: a completely ionised gas in which the
proton: a positively charged particle found in the atomic
nucleus. >
b mperature is too high for neutral atoms to exist so proton charge: the electric charge of a single
H consists of electrons and positively-charged atomic =
proton +1.6 x 1019C.
nuclei. proton number (Z): (or atomic number) the number of
l>b (ting compass: very small compass with a needle that protons in an atomic nucleus.
line up with magnetic field lines, allowing changes in protostar: a very young star that is still gathering mass
held direction to be observed and plotted over a very from its parent molecular cloud.
hurt distance.
plum pudding model: a disproved model of the atom P-waves: fast moving, longitudinal seismic waves.
Inch imagined it to consist of a positive ‘pudding’ with radiation pressure: the outward force due to the high
। h e Irons dotted through it. temperature of the star.
plumb bob: a mass (usually lead) hanging from a string to radiation: energy spreading out from a source carried by
dr I Inc a vertical line. particles or waves.
po dve charge: the type of electric charge carried in the
1 radioactive decay: the emission of alpha, beta or gamma
nue lens of an atom. radiation from an unstable nucleus.
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
radioactive substance: a substance that decays by emitting resistor: a component in art electric circuit whose
radiation from its atomic nuclei. resistance decreases the current flowing.
radioactive tracing: using a radioisotope to investigate a resultant force: the single force that has the same effect oi
problem. a body as two or more forces.
radiocarbon dating: a technique that uses the known right-hand grip rule: a rule which gives the direction of
rate of decay of radioactive carbon-14 to find the field lines around a straight wire when a current flows
approximate age of an object made from dead organic through it.
material.
ripple tank: a shallow water tank used to demonstrate
radioisotope: a radioactive isotope of an element. how waves behave.
random process: a process that happens at a random rate ripple: a small uniform wave on the surface of water.
and in random directions; the timing and direction of the
Sankey diagram: a flow diagram that represents the
next emission cannot be predicted.
principle of conservation of energy: the width of the
rarefaction: a region of a sound wave where the particles arrows is proportional to energy.
are further apart.
scalar quantity: something that has magnitude but no
ray box: apparatus used to produce a ray of light.
direction.
ray diagram: a diagram showing the path of rays of light.
scatter graph: a way displaying two sets of data to see il
ray. a narrow beam of light. there is a correlation, or connection.
real image: an image that can be formed on a screen. secondary coil: the output coil of a transformer.
red giant: a star that began with fewer than eight solar seismic waves: waves caused by earthquakes.
masses and is burning helium in its core; its shell of
hydrogen has expanded and cooled. slip rings: a device used to allow current to flow to and
from the coil of an a.c. generator.
red supergiant: similar to red giants, they form when stars
with eight times the mass of the Sun run out of hydrogen soft (material): a material that, once magnetised, is easy
fuel in their core but fusion of hydrogen continues in the to demagnetise.
outer shells solar cell/photocell/photovoltaic cell: an electrical device
redshift: an increase in the observed wavelength of that transfers the energy of sunlight directly to electricity
electromagnetic radiation (including visible light) from a by producing a voltage when light falls on it.
star or galaxy because it is moving away from us. solar mass: equal to the mass of the Sun (2 x 1030kg).
reflected ray: a ray of light which has been reflected from solar panel: used to collect energy that is transferred by
a surface. light from the Sun.
reflection: the change in direction of a ray or wave when solenoid: an electromagnet made by passing a current
it strikes a surface without passing through it. through a coil of wire.
refraction: the bending of light when it passes from one solid friction: the resistance to motion caused when two
medium to another. surfaces are in contact.
refractive index: the ratio of the speeds of a light wave in solidifying: (or freezing) changing from liquid to solid,
two different media.
specific heat capacity: the energy required per unit mass
relative charge: the charge of a particle relative to the per unit temperature increase.
charge of a proton.
spectrum: (plural 'spectra') waves, or colours, of light,
relative mass: the mass of a particle relative to the mass
separated out in order according to their wavelengths,
of a proton.
relay: a switch operated by an electromagnet.
speed of light: the speed at which light travels (usually in
a vacuum: 3.0 x 108m/s).
renewables: an energy resource that will be replenished
(replaced) naturally when used. speed: the distance travelled by an object per unit time,
resistance: a measure of how difficult it is for an electric spring constant: is the constant of proportionality in
current to flow through a device or a component in a Hooke’s law and is a measure of the stiffness of a spring,
circuit; it is the p.d. across a component divided by the stable: an object that is unlikely to topple over, often
current through it. because it has a low centre of gravity and a wide base.
494
>
Glossary
B«lnbl< star: a star that is not collapsing or expanding ultrasound: any sound with a frequency higher than
1» i <iuse the inward force of gravity is balanced by 20000 Hz.
। ulUit ion pressure, which pushes outwards.
ultraviolet radiation: electromagnetic radiation with a
| «i « < idard: is an absolute or primary reference or wavelength shorter than that of visible light.
mt .inurement. unmagnetised: when a magnetic material has not been
| * i nr of matter: solid, liquid or gas. made magnetic.
electricity: electric charge held by a charged insulator. unstable: an object that is likely to topple over, often
because it has a high centre of gravity and a narrow base,
1' down transformer: a transformer which decreases the
111.Ige of an a.c. supply. upright: used to describe an image which is the same way
*i« p up transformer: a transformer which increases the
up as the object.
ill age of an a.c. supply. variable resistor: a resistor whose resistance can be
changed, for example by turning a knob or moving a
»l< .tn energy: (or elastic energy) energy stored in the
slider.
linlged shape of an object.
।
inn 1 1
495
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Key equations
change in velocity . useful energy output
—
„
,
acceleration = time taken
efficiency = total energy input
a=—
At energy transferred = current x p.d. x time
E — IVt
i
acceleration ofccfree fall
r 11 (m/s2)
/ / 2a
= —
gradient
„ work done on the charge
e.m.f. = charge
acceleration of free fall = g =
E- —Q
average: the average of 12, 15 and 16 is 14.3:
12+ 15 + 16 _ 143 bE^ = -mv2
2
c_ bE %
_w
mbO m
charge momentum, p- mv
current = time
. useful energy output ,, „
percentage efficiency = x 100" n
total energy input
density = -»_
volume
power, p = bE —
496 y
Key equations
4X = Vs
.. , . energy required
power loss = square of current in the cable x resistance
specific heat capacity = mass x temperature increase
P = PR.
pressure force
died speed = distance
time
F
P~A
, work done by the charge force
p.d. = -
charge
spring constant =— : —
unit extension
_
_
refractive index:
sinz
n — ——
voltage across primary coil
voltage across secondary coil
number of turns on primary
number of turns on secondary
sinr
V N
bt
497
>
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
> Index
absolute temperature scale 163 armatures 380
absolute zero 157, 163 artificial intelligence 348
absorbers 201-3 asteroid belt 456
absorption spectra 475 asteroids 103, 456, 457
a.c. generators 399 400 atmospheric pressure 93, 94, 95-6
acceleration 24, 25-31, 45-6 atmospheric stopper 95
calculation 32 atomic numbers see proton numbers
due to gravity 48 atomic structure 415-18
equation 32 atoms 156, 196, 315-16, 414-24
force and mass and 52 4 and elements 419-20
of free fall 48 size 418
from speed-time graphs 33-6, 37-8 attraction, electrostatic 310, 315
units 33, 52 attractive forces 1 59
accelerator 46, 52 average orbital radius 460
accretion 457 average speed 20, 21
accretion discs 457 axis of Earth 454, 455
activity 436 42 axis of symmetry 75
air, convection in 198
air pressure 161 background radiation 429-30, 440
air resistance 45, 49 balloon debates 288-9
airbags 55, 56 balloons 196-7, 310
aircraft 60 bar magnets 295, 297-8, 400
Alaska 455 batteries 105, 108, 323, 338
alpha decay 435 symbol 349
alpha particles (a-particles) 417, 431-3, 442 see also cells
deflection 435-6 beams, balancing 68-9, 71-2
alpha scattering 417-18 beams of charged particles, and magnetic fields
alternating current (a.c.) 323 386-7
aluminium foil 382, 442 bells 352, 380
amber 312, 326 bending 86, 90-1
americium, isotopes 435, 442 beta decay 435
ammeters 324-5, 330, 349, 385 beta particles (0-particles) 431-3, 442-3, 445
ammonia 480 deflection 435-6
ampere (amp) (A) 324-5 Big Bang theory 476
amplitude (A) 222, 262, 263 bimetallic strips 1 72-3
analogue clocks 10 binary star systems 480
analogue meters 324 biomass fuels (biofuels) 127-8
analogue signals 286-7 black dwarf stars 472, 474
Andromeda Galaxy 469-70 black holes 473, 474
angle of incidence (i) 232, 237 black smokers 480
angle of reflection (r) 232 block adaptors 365
angle of refraction (r) 237 bluetooth 286
anticlockwise moments 70 boilers 130
argon, isotopes 445 boiling 155-6, 175, 182
Aristotle 467 boiling points 163, 180, 181
498
Index
499 )
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
501
>
> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
503
>
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
504 y
Index
505
>
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
506 y
Index
507
>
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
508
>
Index
509
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
510
Acknowledgements
> Acknowledgements
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are grateful for the permissions
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or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate
acknowledgements on reprinting.
Thanks to the following for permission to reproduce images:
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Arcurs/GI; John W Banagan/GI; Hadynyah/GI; Yevgen Romanenko/GI; Mike Powell/GI; Alexander Shcherbak/
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GI; John Gurzinski/GI; Barcroft Media/GI; Education Images/GI; Michael Steele/GI; Andreas Wagner/GI; Bill
Pugliano/GI; Robyn Beck/GI; Mike Kemp/GI; Universal History Archive/GI; Boston Globe/GI; Dea/Castiglioni/GI;
John M Lund Photography Inc/GI; Simon Dack/Alamy; Paul Starosta/GI; Tomohiro Takita/GI; 548901005677/GI;
Paul Souders/GI; Earl Gibson III/Wirelmage/GI; Duncan1890/GI; PhotoAlto/Milena Boniek/GI; Eclipse_images/
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History Archive/GI; Stockbyte/GI; Mgkaya/GI; Robert Daly/GI; Pallava Bagla/GI; Veena Nair/GI; Photography
by Jeremy Villasis.Philippines/GI; Monty Rakusen/GI; Renaud Visage/GI; Markus Daniel/GI; Vcg/GI; Christophe
Simon/GI; Keith Lance/GI; Nastasic/GI; Donald Miralle/GI; Lionel Bonaventure/GI; Eric Meola/GI; Patcharin
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Topic Images Inc./GI; Kristen Prahl/GI; Image Source/GI; Portisheadl/GI; Narong Niemhom/GI; Klaus Vedfelt/GI;
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Library/GI; James Marshall/GI; Shepard Sherbell/GI; Sopa Images/GI; Science Photo Library; Steve Allen/SPL;
Encyclopaedia Britannica/GI; Getty Images/GI; Science & Society Picture Library/GI; Klaus Tiedge/GI; Tristan
Savatier/GI; Sandra Konzett/GI; Andrew Lambert Photography/SPL(x2); Dra_schwartz/GI; Andreygudkov/GI;
Martyn F.Chillmaid/SPL; HHakim/GI; Sunisa Kanphian/GI; Matt Meadows/GI; Pierre Vauthey/Sygma/Sygma/
GI; Sam Ogden/SPL; BSIP/Universal Images Group/GI; Science & Society Picture Library/GI; Universal History
Archive/GI; Russell Kightley/SPL(x2); Spauln/GI; Fstopl23/GI; Radius Images/GI; Don Smith/GI; Giphotostock/
SPL; Gabriel Visintin/GI; Mark Garlick/Science Photo Library/GI; Claudiad/GI; Kickers/GI; Goce Risteski/GI;
Michael Roberts/GI; Westend61/GI(x2); Bsip/Universal Images Group/GI; Daily Herald Archive/SSPL/GI; MirageC/
GI; SDI Productions/GI; Wladimir Bulgar/Science Photo Library/GI; Dasril Roszandi/Anadolu Agency/GI; Peter
Dazeley/GI; Roger Ressmeyer/GI; BSIP/Universal Images Group/GI; Universal Images Group/GI; Andrew Lambert
Photography/SPL; Tim Robberts/GI; Derin Thorpe/GI; Douglas Sacha/GI; Diana Robinson Photography/GI; Heidi
Orcino Photography/GI; Sam Edwards/GI; Jurgen Reisch/GI; Comstock/GI; Badins/GI; Prisma/UIG/GI; Wikimedia;
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ullstein bild/GI; Craig F.Walker/The Denver Post/GI; Michael Gottschalk/Photothek/GI; Damien Meyer/GI; Scott
Olson/GI; Richard Blanshard/GI; Image Source/GI; Donna Lu; Andrew Lambert Photography/SPL; Science Photo
Library; Andrew Lambert Photography/SPL; Gecko753/GI; Giphotostock/SPL; Trevor Clifford Photography/SPL.
Charles D.Winters/Science Source/SPL(x2); Jean-Pierre Clatot/GI; Miodrag Ignjatovic/GI; Halbergman/GI; Science
y CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK
Photo Library/GI; Trevor Clifford Photography/SPL(x2); Philippe Huguen/GI; Ashley Cooper/GI; Simon McGill/
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Kindersley/GI(x2); Prof. Peter Fowler/SPL; Fabrice Coffrini/GI; Apic/GI; Daily Herald Archive/SSPL/GI; Public
Health England/SPL; Wellphoto/GI; Hudzilla/GI; Adam Gault/GI; Imaginechina Limited/Alamy; Trevor Clifford
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Thai/The Life Picture Collection/GI; Encyclopaedia Britannica/GI.
Key: GI= Getty Images. SPL= Science Photo Library.
512
Cambridge IGCSE™ Physics
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