Composite Materials

2021; 5(2): 37-45

Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Various Admixtures:

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Received: August 15, 2021; Accepted: September 22, 2021; Published: November 24, 2021

Abstract: This paper reviews the effect of various admixtures in view of increasing strength and reducing deformation
characteristics of black cotton soil from studies carried out by different researchers. Stabilization of black cotton soil is
targeted at providing stable and durable engineering structures. It becomes necessary when materials intended for foundation
and pavement construction failed to meet the requirement in civil engineering practice. Black cotton soil from north-eastern
part of Nigeria and different locations around the world are mostly classified as A-7-6 soils by American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO); CH high plasticity clay soils by Unified Soil Classification System (UCSC)
and high swell potential BCS by Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute (NBRRI). Experiment conducted include;
Atterberg’s Limits, Specific Gravity, Sieve/hydrometer Analysis, Free Swell, Compaction, Triaxial, Shear Box, Unconfined
Compressive Strength (UCS), and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests. Soil characteristics such as the maximum dry density
(MDD), optimum moisture content (OMC), CBR values, shear strength, cohesion, and angle of internal friction were
improved significantly by admixtures such as lime, cement, E-waste, reclaimed asphalt pavement, and steel mill ore, while
admixtures such as groundnut ash, bagasse ash and plantain peel powder demonstrated unsatisfactory improvement when used
as standalone. Thus, it can be concluded that black cotton soil when stabilized with admixtures such as lime, cement,
reclaimed asphalt pavement, E-waste, and still mill ore can be used in foundation and pavement construction. This study
finally recommends the supplementary use of weak admixtures with some rather cementitious material to achieve a strong and
durable foundation.

Keywords: Stabilization, Black Cotton Soil, Admixtures

1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
Due to changes in moisture, black cotton soils are prone
to unfavourable volume changes [21]. These are the 2.1. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Chemical
residual deposits of lava or rockfalls, which mainly occupy Admixtures
arid and semi-arid areas and a large part of the world. The 2.1.1 Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Lime as
soil is problematic for civil engineering construction. The Stabilizer
existence of montmorillonite is the main reason for the Singh [35] While studying the effect of lime on
effective water content of the soil and the shrinkage and geotechnical properties of the black cotton soil established
expansion behaviour of the soil. It is the cause of many that the properties of the soil can stabilized by varying
problems, such as ground-related road damage and proportions of lime. It was found that the liquid limit increases
excessive subsidence [13]. Over the years, various attempts by almost 12.1% at 4% lime content addition. A decrease of
by researchers to improve the swelling and shrinkage nearly 17.1% was observed at 6% lime addition. The M.D.D.
behaviour and strength characteristics of soil have proven was found to decrease by 2.4% and 5.6% at 4% and 6% lime
themselves. content respectively. The C.B.R. value of black cotton soil
mixed with 4% and 6% lime at 2.5 mm penetration indicated a
 Composite Materials 2021; 5(2): 37-45 38

consistent improvement. At 5.0 mm penetration, the increase S. Srikanth [33] Established that Lime stabilization
in C.B.R value also increased consistently. This shows that improve the strength characteristics of the black cotton soil to
lime can be used to stabilized deficient soil. the point where it could be used as a subbase material. The
Hegde [16], determined that when lime is applied to black maximum dry density and optimum moisture content
cotton soil, a pozzolanic reaction occurs, leading to stability. improved at 20% and 80% mixture of brick powder and lime
The hydrated lime combines with clay particles to transform additive respectively. Lime and brick powder-stabilized
them into a strong cement matrix that is durable. The basic black cotton soil increased the soaked CBR value by roughly
parameters of the soil were determined using black cotton soil 135 percent, making it suitable for use as subbase material.
with low to medium swelling potential. Plastic limit, Liquid The use of brick powder minimizes the lime content in the
limit, MDD, OMC, free swelling, swelling pressure, and mix, which in turn reduces the project's cost because of the
California bearing ratio were determined. Adding lime to availability of brick powder. It also decreases community
swelling soil immediately reduces the soil swelling potential sanitation problems.
when it comes in contact with water. As the concentration of
lime in the soil increases, the plasticity of the soil decreases
and the stiffness of the soil increases. The optimum lime
percentage used in the study to improve the strength properties
was observed to be 3.5% to 4.5%.
Amruta [7] have discovered that adding 6% lime to black
cotton soil reduces its flexibility, shrinkage, and swelling
qualities significantly. When wet, the compressive strength
rises to around 15.22 kg/cm2. CBR values increase from 3.3
percent of virgin soil to approximately 62.8 percent. The
treated black cotton soil can be used safely as a sub-grade,
sub-base, or base material, reducing the thickness of a road's
upper crust made of an expansive material such as hard
stone.
2.1.2. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Lime and Figure 1. Various mix proportion of lime-stabilized black cotton soil and
Other Material as Stabilizers brick powder.
Ikeagwuani [18] Investigation indicates that black cotton
soil may be well stabilized to be used as subgrade material. As a result, suitable subgrade material can be obtained by
Adequate strength was accomplished with 16% SDA and 4% stabilizing black cotton soil with lime and brick powder
lime content. The significance of the outcomes is that in additives.
contrast to other lime stabilization instances in where higher Ikeagwuani [18] Tried to improve the strength
proportions of lime is required for the optimum stabilization characteristics of black cotton soil. The study employs the
of expansive clays, desirable effects were accomplished at just use of palm kernel shell ash and lime additives to investigate
45 lime and 16% SDA addition. The CBR value of 20.64% effects on black cotton soil. From the analysis made in the
meets the standards of Nigerian General Specification for paper, it was established that the addition of lime and palm
Roads and Bridges (1997). kernel shell ash to natural soil reduces the maximum dry
Annafi [7] Experimented with the influence of mixing time density while raising the composite mixture's optimum
on the strength qualities of lime and iron ore tailings on black moisture content. When natural black cotton soil was mixed
cotton soil as a subgrade material. The soil was stabilized with with 4 percent lime and 8 percent palm kernel shell ash by
0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% lime and 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% Iron ore weight, the maximum CBR value of 10.2 percent (unsoaked)
trailing content. Atterberg limits, compaction, unconfined and 5.1 percent (soaked) was obtained.
compressive strength (UCS), California bearing ratio (CBR) Ikeagwuani [19] The study looked at the compressibility
tests were performed to investigate the effect. Statistical characteristics of sawdust ash and lime-stabilized black
analysis was carried out by MINI-TAB software. There was a cotton soil in an attempt to find a solution. The soil was
decrease in liquid limit of the mixes as the lime and IOT subjected to consolidation to drive out moisture. The tests
content increased according to the findings. After mixing, the conducted were Atterberg limits, specific gravity test, and
liquid limit of all the treated Black Cotton Soil increased in an sieve analysis to determine the particle distribution. The
hour. The plastic limit (PL) of the soil on the other hand, additive was varied in percentages of 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and
dropped as additives content increased. Between 0 and 2 hours 20% by weight of black cotton soil, while a constant lime
after mixing, the Unconfined Compressive Strength and of 4% by weight of dry soil was also added to all the
California Bearing Ratio values rose as the additives content mixed samples. The settlement characteristics of black
increased. For all lime content evaluated, peak values were cotton soil were significantly enhanced when 16 percent
observed for the 8 per cent lime and 8 per cent Iron Ore Saw Dust Ash and 4 percent lime of the weight of black
Trailing treatment. cotton soil was mixed.
39 Umar Yerima Mai-Bade et al.: Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using
Various Admixtures: A Review

2.1.3. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Cement and maximum dry density of BC soil admixed with 12 percent
Other Materials CKD increased significantly, with a corresponding fall in
Ibrahim [17] Performed an analysis on twenty (20) OMC optimal moisture content, which is ideal. The highest
disturbed soil samples of ordinary Portland cement stabilized UCS value was found in BC soil that has 12 percent CKD
black cotton soil. The additives were added at increasing admixed in it. For BC soil admixed with 12 percent CKD, it
percentages of 2, 4, 6, and 8 and waste glass at increasing was discovered that UCS increases as the curing period
percentages of 5, 10, 15, and 20 blend at optimum moisture increases. As a result, it was determined that 12 percent CKD
content. Statistical regression correlates the soaked California provides the best results in terms of reducing plasticity and
Bearing Ratio values with some measured soil characteristics. increasing strength in BC soil admixed with CKD.
Maximum dry density MDD, waste glass WG, cement Shreyas [36] established that addition of some percentage of
content Cm, liquid limit LL, and plastic limit PL were cement together with fly ash increased the strength properties of
employed as independent variables, and it was observed that Black Cotton soil which in turn increase its stability. California
that the variables for both prediction models and compactive bearing test was conducted by varying proportion of admixtures,
of the CBR are pretty near to the corresponding real findings. it was observed that there is an improvement in the CBR values
Sajja [34] used cement lime and rice husk to stabilized with the increase in percentage of admixtures (cement and fly
black cotton soil, it was established that that at optimum ash). It has been found that with the increase in percentage of
dosage, Free swell index of black cotton soil was improved by M-sand with cement & fly ash there is an increase in Maximum
85%, Plastic limit by 12.35%, Liquid limit by 56.35%. dry density and significant decrease in optimum moisture
Plasticity index for black cotton soil by 44.50%. The Soil been content of the soil.
classified as CH (Inorganic Clays of high plasticity) By Ahmad [3] studied, the efficiency of black cotton soil
AASHTO, The OMC and MDD values were determined as combined with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and treated
28.5% and 1.51 g/cc respectively. bone ash for soil strength investigation. The goal of the study
Paul [30] Studied how black cotton soil (BCS) stabilized by was to improve the strength of black cotton soil by mixing
the use of iron ore tailings (IOT) and cement react to various bone ash with conventional Portland cement and determining
compaction efforts. British standard light compaction For the optimal proportion that may be utilized as a low-cost road
various percentages of iron ore tailings and cement was construction material. At 6 percent OPC/6 percent BA
conducted (0-10%), the optimum moisture content values of treatment on the Black Cotton Soil, the properties was found
21.2, 20.8, 20.5, 20, 20.3, and 20.2 percent were observed. to be suitable for subbase material according to the findings.
Higher cement concentrations and compactive efforts followed combustion by crushing the bone to powder as an additive.
the same pattern. Using software, regression models, Dogo [1] Found that of Rice Husk Admixture in black
Regression analysis reveals that the independent factors cotton soil enhanced the soil's Unified Compression Strength
studied have a significant impact on the dependent variables. in the results of the laboratory experiment conducted.
The amounts of cement and IOT contributions to the Cement was used as admixture, and the Unconfined
improvements were determined using ANOVA (analysis of Compression Strength values decreased as the amount of
variance). As a result, for soil rehabilitation or geotechnical cement increased, and increased with increase in rice husk
engineering applications, black cotton soil treated with a 4 admixture content. A black cotton soil stabilized using 3
percent cement 10 percent IOT blend and compacted with percent cement, 3 percent rice husk admixture, and 1 percent
British Standard Heavy energy produce the optimum strength. promoter achieves the highest compressive strength. From
Prathap [32] Investigates cement kiln dust (CKD) effect on the experiment, It can also be deduced that mixing Rice Husk
black cotton soil, the cement kiln dust is a waste product from Ash with soil boosts its unconfined compressive strength and
the cement industry, it was used as a stabilizing material for shifts the soil's failure mode from brittle to ductile.
black cotton soil (BC soil) in the study. Characterization of Anigilaje [6] While studying the compactive efforts, up to
Black Cotton soil for Atterberg's limits, Specific gravity, pH, 10% cement kiln dust was mixed with Black cotton soil,
compaction properties, and unconfined compressive strength utilizing British Standard heavy (BSH), West African
was carried out in the study by admixing with CKD at various Standard (WAS British Standard light (BSL). The qualities of
percentages. According to the findings of this study, both the the soil improved in general after cement kiln dust was added,
liquid and plastic limits increase as the percentage of people according to the results of laboratory testing on soil
with CKD rises. For BC soil admixed with 12 percent CKD, it specimens. At 10% cement kiln dust addition was the
was discovered that UCS increases as the curing period optimum. It was observed that for the various compactive
increases. Because CKD is an industrial waste, it can be energies, the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) values
utilized to stabilize BC soils and improve their engineering were 357.07, 382.49, and 528.82 kN/m2 for British Standard
performance. With an increase in CKD%, both the liquid and Light, West African Standard, and British Standard Heavy
plastic limits increase. When the percentage of people with respectively, as well as CBR which was obtained to be 7, 10,
CKD exceeds 12 percent, the plasticity index decreases. When and 19 per cent. When the samples were examined by
CKD levels were between 4% and 8%, the pH of CKD electron microscope, reduction in particle sizes was observed
admixed BC soil showed a modest rise in pH. After that, the at the curing period progressed. According to the findings,
pH drops and stabilizes beyond the 12 percent CKD mark. The cement kiln dust may be used to stabilized black cotton soil.
 Composite Materials 2021; 5(2): 37-45 40

Osinubi [21] studied Black cotton soil treated with a blend considered to be an extended soil and largely disposed to
of ordinary Portland cement and locust bean waste ash in a volumetric variations in moisture. In the study, plantain peel
stepwise proportion of 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 per cent each by dry powder (PPP) was employed to stabilize the Black cotton soil,
weight of soil. The three criteria for evaluating strength (UCS, which was acquired from Yola, Adamawa state, Nigeria. The
CBR, and Durability) were evaluated when compaction was Black cotton soil was stabilized in proportions of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8,
done using British Standard light compaction was employed. and 10 percentages. Several laboratory tests, such as
When curing for 7, 14, and 28 days, the Unconfined gradation test, Natural Moisture Content, Linear Shrinkage,
Compressive Strength values of specimens treated with 6 Specific Gravity, Plastic Limit, and Liquid Limit to establish
percent OPC / 6 percent Locust Bean Waste Ash improved the Engineering characteristics of the BCS when stabilized
from initial of 178, 381 and 760kN/m2 for the natural soil to with PPP. The percentage of soil passing sieve 200 is higher
986, 1326, and 1348kN/m2, respectively. The CBR value of 42 than 35%,). The effect of Plantain peel powder on
percent was recorded for the 6 percent Ordinary Portland engineering properties revealed that for 0 to 10 Plantain peel
Cement / 6 percent optimum Locust Bean Waste Ash powder admixture, the liquid limit percent, plastic index
stabilization. percent for the 6 percent OPC / 6 percent LBWA varied between 48 and 32 for liquid limit percentages, 28 and
treatment. The blend's strength and durability improved with 13 for plastic index percent, and 14 and 7.5 for Ls percent,
curing ages, showing that it has the potential for a further indicating that the Plantain peel powder reduces the clay
increase in strength characteristics. content and improve the engineering. It was discovered that
mixing Plantain peel powder with BCS improves the
2.1.4. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Sodium engineering characteristics of the sampled BCS. As a result,
Silicate Plantain Peel Powder (PPP) is ideal for stabilizing roadwork
Ola [26] Sampled black cotton soils from different locations materials if supplemented with stronger admixture.
in North-Eastern Nigeria. It was established that soil from that
location contain high clay and silt proportions. The flexible 2.2.2. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Polyvinyl
pavements are exposed to danger of swell-shrink potential Acetate
which bring about cracks and subsequent failure of the Oluyemi [9] sampled some soil from six different places
pavements in the locals. Acrylic copolymer was used in the across the country, and their geotechnical qualities were
study to stabilized the collected soil and it was found to be assessed in both their natural and stabilized states. The tensile
effective in increasing the geotechnical characteristics by parameters of the soil samples improved significantly when
reducing the plasticity, swelling and shrinkage properties of they were mixed with polyvinyl acetate. All of the samples
the soil. It was concluded that the acrylic copolymer can be were boosted from unsuitable base materials to suitable one,
used widely to stabilized unsuitable soils for engineering according to the CBR data. By stabilizing with this material,
constructions. some of the country's inappropriate commonly available soil
Pramod [31] Studied the blend of lime and Envirobase resources could be used for road operations, assisting in the
sodium silicate and to see their effects on geotechnical supply of decent road networks in the regions.
features of black cotton soil. Laboratory experiment were Oyekan [11] Conducted an experiment which reveals the
conducted such as compaction and California bearing ratio to impact of polyvinyl waste on the engineering properties of
determine the soil properties. The mixing of Envirobase to black cotton clay soil. To determine the soil stabilizing
the black cotton soil significantly boosted the California potentials, the soil was combined the admixture at 5, 10, 15,
bearing ratio, while on the other hand, sodium silicate 20, and 30% content. With an increase in ground polyvinyl
increment with lime decreases the soil's plasticity index. The waste content, both the soaked and unsoaked California
mixing of sodium silicate with lime together with the soil bearing ratio (CBR) rose. At 30% admixture content, the
decreases the liquid limit. When 1 percent Envirobase is unconfined compressive strength was improved by nearly
added to the liquid limit, it remains steady and then decreases 60%. The CBR of the drenched CBR rose by around 20%,
when the proportion of Envirobase is increased. Because whereas the CBR of the un-soaked CBR climbed by nearly
sodium silicate with lime is inexpensive and readily available, 50%. The findings suggest that using ground polyvinyl waste
it can be utilized as a local stabilizer in modest building to improve black cotton soils has a significant effect.
projects. For Envirobase to be used, the construction project Jayaganesh [20] Established that when polymeric resins
must be huge, and Envirobase is one of the best soil are added to soil, the specific gravity values rise. Poly vinyl
stabilizers for highway and airfield development. alcohol and Epoxy resin have the highest specific gravity of
the three polymeric resins, at 15%. The increment of 15%
2.2. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Organic resin to the soil was discovered to reduce the liquid limit
Chemical Admixtures values and plasticity index, resulting in a reduction in
2.2.1. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Plantain Peel plasticity characteristics. Epoxy resin has a lower plasticity
Powder index value than other polymers. As a result, the decrease in
Oluwafemi [27] Examine the effects of plantain peel plasticity index as a result of the increment of the resin is a
powder (PPP) on black cotton soil. Because of the impact of favorable and appealing occurrence. Swelling potential is
montmorillonite which has an extensive lattice, BCS are greatly countered when polymeric resins were added, and
41 Umar Yerima Mai-Bade et al.: Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using
Various Admixtures: A Review

Epoxy resin, in particular, has a nil value, i.e. zero at 15%. limit of the black cotton soil. The CBR value increased from
Polyvinyl alcohol offers a greater CBR value up to a 15% 1.28% to 12.34% for soaked condition, and for unsoaked
addition to soil. It is clear from the test findings that condition CBR value rises from 2.38% to 16.23%.
polymeric resins improve the engineering properties of the
soil, lowering the plasticity index and swelling potential
while increasing specific gravity and CBR. Epoxy resin was
determined to be the most efficient of the three polymeric
resins because at 15%, it drastically decrease the plasticity
index and swelling potential resulting in a reduction in soil
plasticity characteristics.
2.2.3. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Groundnut
Shell Ash
Oriola [29] found the peak soaking CBR values of 4% at
SP and 4% at WA at 6 percent (GSA) and 0 percent (GSA),
respectively. These figures fell short of the CBR's specified Figure 3. Variation in CBR with lime and bagasse ash in unsoaked condition.
requirements. base or sub-basic material value The
specimen's durability, as measured by resistance to loss of
strength, does not meet the necessary 80% resistance to loss
of strength for 7-day cured and 4-day soaked samples. As a
result, groundnut shell ash cannot be used to stabilize black
cotton soil. According to the records of the 7, 14, and 28 days
cured unconfined compressive strength of specimens,
groundnut shell ash displayed improvement in strength with
longer periods of curing.
Ijimdiyaa [38] Established that, for base course material,
Groundnut ash treated soil fail short of the reequipment of
Figure 4. Variation in CBR with lime and demolished waste concrete in
Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute (NBRRI). 6% unsoaked condition.
CBR was found to be the optimum at 8% Groundnut shell
ash. The obtained value does not fulfill the specified Amit [4] Studied some laboratory trials on black cotton
subgrade material requirement. The unconfined compressive soil using Bagasse Ash as a partial substitute (3.2 percent,
strength of 1034.25kN/m2 was obtained at 7 days which is 6.4 percent, 9.6 percent and 12.8 percent). This research
also lower than the TRRL (1977) requirement. As a result, it shows 6 percent substitution of Bagasse Ash improved the
is suggested that groundnut shell ash cannot be used as a characteristics of black cotton soil without using any
standalone stabilizer. chemicals or cementing materials. The Plasticity Index of
Bagasse Ash treated soil was found to be reduced from
24.00 percent to 17.40 percent. The density of black cotton
soils increased significantly from 1.57 to 1.78 g/cc after
adding 6% bagasse ash. However, OMC falls from 17.20%
to 15.00%. Density falls as more Bagasse Ash is added,
whereas OMC rises. At 6% bagasse ash concentration, UCS
values improved from 93 kN/m2 to 429 kN/m2. UCS values
decline as more Bagasse ash is added. When compared to
the other dosages, the rise in California bearing ratio value
at a dosage of 6% had a stronger effect. A decrease in
settling is indicated by an increase in the California bearing
ratio. Because of the addition of 6% waste Bagasse Ash,
CBR values increase significantly from 1.16% to 6.8%.
CBR values start to decline as more Bagasse ash is added.
Figure 2. Variation of UCS with GSA content. Gabriel [12] Looked at how bagasse fiber could be used
to improve the engineering features of expansive soils for
2.2.4. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Bagasse Ash road pavement systems. Preliminary examinations classified
Jayatheertha [14] Conducted a study and established that the clay soils as A – 7 – 6 on the AASHTO Classification
the Bagasse ash waste is used in enhancing engineering System, and the soils are dark grey under all conditions,
properties like CBR value of the soil while demolished waste with 73.85 percent, 67.38 percent, 6.35 percent, 82.35
concrete is more effective than bagasse ash in the percent, and 71.55 percent passing BS sieves #200. Clay
improvement of index properties such as liquid limit, plastic soils' plastic index qualities decreased, according to
 Composite Materials 2021; 5(2): 37-45 42

comparative data. Due to the introduction of bagasse fiber 2.2.7. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Fly Ash
in the compaction test, MDD values fell but OMC values Gourav [13] Investigated the effect of fly ash on black
increased. The results showed that increasing the fibre cotton soils. It was used to stabilize extremely flexible clay in
percentages to soil matching ratio resulted in an increase in this investigation. Geotechnical parameters of the soil were
UCS. With an increase in bagasse fibre percentages, CBR assessed. Laboratory experiment including Atterberg limits,
values increased to a peak ratio of 0.75 percent to soil ratio, California bearing ratio, and unconfined compressive
according to the data. The results demonstrated that strength (UCS) were conducted to achieve the objectives of
costaceae lacerus bagasse fibre (CLBF) might be used as an the study. Various quantities of fly ash were used to stabilize
additive in the treatment of black cotton soils. The swelling the soil, raging between 0 and 30%. The UCS of black cotton
potential of treated soil was reduced by up to 0.75 percent soil–fly ash mixes is found to be highest at 20% fly ash
when bagasse fibre was added. concentration and thereafter falls as fly ash percentage
increases. However, when fly ash was blended with soil, the
2.2.5. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Bagasse Ash CBR value produced was lower than when the soil was virgin.
and Other Additives Furthermore, CBR with two-thirds fly ash soil and one-third
Kiran et al [22] conducted laboratory experiment with subbase yielded superior results. At 20% fly ash
varied amounts of bagasse ash of percentages 4, 8, and 12 concentration, the highest CBR value was determined to be
and additive mix proportions. In addition, a study was 5.03 percent. These findings are noteworthy because they
conducted on the utilization of bagasse ash waste to stabilize show that fly ash may be used as a subgrade material in
pavement materials for construction. for black cotton soil, the real-world settings since the subgrade layer is covered by a
mix proportion of bagasse ash with various percentages of subbase course. The CBR value is used to determine the
lime resulted in an improved values of CBR and Unconfined thickness of flexible pavements. The finding established that
compression strength. However, when the amount of lime in fly ash can used to stabilized deficient soil for pavement and
the mixture increased, the density values fell. After that, an foundation construction.
icrerease in CBR was observed in the blend ffrom 2.12 to John [10] Reported that, Black cotton soil soiln ca be
about 4.57 at 4% bagasse ash addition and 4% lime content, stabilized by the use of lime and block powder. Although
so also the unconfined compression strength, from 84.92 there is improvement in the geotechnical features of the soil
kN/m2 to 153.05 kN/m2 2 with the addition of 4% bagasse under study, the increment was not up to the requirement of
ash and 2% lime. The combination of 2% to 4% lime and 4% subbase material. Hence Block powder and lime-blended
to 8% bagasse produce much higher strength. black cotton soil mixture can be used as a sub base material
2.2.6. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Reclaimed in flexible pavements in rural areas where block powder is
Asphalt Pavement readily available in large quantities, as well as in areas where
Mustapha [25] Studied the effect of Reclaimed Asphalt good quality material is scarce.
Pavement (RAP) to stabilize Black Cotton Soil (BCS) 2.2.8. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Plastic Waste
gathered from Numan in Nigeria's north-eastern area and Mehruddin [37] Carried out an investigation on the
black cotton soil from a collapsed road surface along the potential use of plastic trash for soil enhancement using
Minna-Bida road in Niger state. The BCS was replaced with plastic strips. By varying the plastic waste content from 0%
RAP at a rate of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 100% by weight to 8%, standard proctor tests, CBR testing, and unconfined
of the soil. Quartz, microcline, albite, and kaolinite were compression tests were done. The best amount of plastic
found in abundance in the BCS, whereas quartz, albite, garbage to add to improve each of the three experiments was
orthoclase, phylogopite, and actinolite were found in studied and found to be 2% by weight of black cotton soil.
abundance in the RAP. The mixtures' maximum dry density The OMC values first fall with 2 percent plastic waste
(MDD) improved from 1890kg/m3 at zero percent Reclaimed replacement, according to the results of a standard proctor
Asphalt Pavement content to a maximum of 2036kg/m3 at 30 test. However, once OMC surpassed 2% plastic, it increased
percent RAP, then decreased to 1925kg/m3 at 100 percent until it reached 5% plastic and then declined. At 2% plastic
RAP. Scanning Electron Microscopy demonstrated less and 4% plastic, the OMC value was practically same. The
cracks in mixtures containing 20 and 30 percent RAP, instead maximum MDD value of 1.47 g/cc was recorded with 2
revealing an interlocking of particles of various sizes in a percent plastic, which also had the highest MDD value of all
dense state. Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) rose by the experiments done. As a result, it can be stated that the
58.6% from 392kN/m2 at 0 percent RAP content to optimum plastic content for best compaction using the plastic
947kN/m2 at 30 percent RAP content. After that, at 100 strips used in this investigation is 2%. The CBR value
percent RAP content, the results dropped to 17.5kN/m2. The increased from 14 percent at 0% to 26 percent at 2% plastic.
modulus of elasticity increased by 75.5 percent from 10.4 The CBR value was shown to decline whenever the plastic
MPa at 0 percent RAP to 42.5 MPa at 30 percent RAP. After content exceeded 2%. It's possible that the soil's strength
that, the readings dropped to 2.9MPa at 100 percent RAP improves as a result of the plastic strip reinforcement. As a
content. The combinations' swelling potential ranged from result, it is reasonable to deduce that the optimum plastic
medium at 0% RAP content to low at 30% RAP level. content for enhancing CBR is also 2%. The compressive
43 Umar Yerima Mai-Bade et al.: Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using
Various Admixtures: A Review

strength of the soil was found to be greatest at 2% plastic in soil's free swell index values fall. It can said that E-waste can
an unconfined compression test with varied percentages of be considered as a potential stabilizer for the said soil.
plastic strips. The unconfined compressive strength was 2.36
kg/cm2 without any plastic replacement, and at 2% plastic 2.3.2. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Ionic Soil
replacement, the unconfined compressive strength nearly Stabilizer 2500
doubled to 4.96 kg/cm2. As a result of this research, it is Hashim [15] assessed “Ionic Soil Stabilizer 2500” effects
possible to conclude that plastic trash from stationery on black cotton soil in North-East Nigeria, samples were
products can be used efficiently to increase the strength collected along the Dikwa–Gamboru Ngala route. The black
properties of black cotton soil. cotton soil appeared to be deficient because more than 60%
of the soil passed through 0.0075mm diameter sieve
2.3. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Non-chemical discovered from particle distribution test. The main
Admixtures constituents of the Ionic Soil Stabilizer are organic
bi-sulphate acid and Sulphur. The Ionic Soil Stabilizer doses
2.3.1. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using E-waste of 0, 1, 2, and 3mls were mixed with 6kg weight of black
KPrabin [23] focuses on soil stabilization utilizing strong cotton soil for laboratory investigations. According to the
trash (E-waste). Commercial wastes may be used results of the pH tests, due to the presence of acids in the
successfully as a substitute material in soil stabilization, stabilizer, acidity of the samples rises as the Ionic Soil
according to the findings of the study. It also shown that each Stabilizer increased. There was a significant decrease in
company trash had its unique properties and altered the soil's plasticity, and the electrical conductivity also rises. California
index and engineering homes. Stabilized soil is used as a Bearing Ratio test was carried out utilizing the British light
green material in the construction of structures as a result of compaction technique in line with energy levels. As a result,
these house improvements. the CBR values rose slightly, but still fell short of the criteria
Onkar [28] Experimented a program to evaluate the for soil-cement stabilization in pavement foundation
influence of E-waste at various dosages on black cotton soil. materials. The Ionic Soil stabilizer from the experiment has
Various concentrations of E-waste were mixed with the soil not generated a satisfactory result from which conclusions
ranging from 2%, 5%, to 8%. Physical and strength can be drawn about its usefulness in bringing black cotton
performance tests, such as Atterberg's limit, specific gravity, soil characteristics up to road base criteria.
compaction test, unconfined compressive test, California
bearing ratio (CBR), and direct shear test, were used to assess 2.3.3. Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Steel Mill
the performance of E-waste stabilized soil. These tests were Scale
carried out in order to assess the progress made in the soil's Ogundalu [2] determined Black cotton soil stabilizing
strength qualities According to the findings, the specimen's potentials when treaded using steel mill, tropical Black
unconfined compressive strength rose to a value of 2.63 Cotton clay soils were mixed with Steel Mill Scale at 0
kN/m2 at an optimum dosage of 5%. There was an increase in percent, 5 percent, 10 percent, 15 percent, 20 percent, and 30
the angle of friction (Ф) after performing the direct shear test. percent Steel Mill Scale content (by dry weight of soil). Steel
Friction angle rose as the percentage of E-waste grew. mill scale increased the soil's Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
Because bearing capacity is influenced by C and, it was also by about 19% and decreased the Optimum Moisture Content
discovered that the bearing capacity has improved. As the (OMC) by about 28%. Soaked CBR increased as Steel Mill
holes in the soil were filled with E-waste, MDD increased by Scale content grew, whereas Un-Soaked CBR fell as Steel
2% and OMC reduced by 5%, resulting in dense soil. For an Mill Scale content increased. Steel mill scale increased the
E-waste dosage of 8%, MDD gradually dropped. This shows unsoaked CBR by around 19% while lowering the soaked
that 5% dosage of E-waste can be considered as the optimum CBR by about 75%. With the use of Steel Mill Scale, the risk
dosage percentage. for swelling is reduced by around 60%. At 5% Steel Mill
Mangesh [24] Used Physical and strength performance tests, Scale content, Steel Mill Scale increased the unconfined
such as Atterberg's limit, specific gravity, compaction test, compressive strength of black cotton soils by nearly 53%.
unconfined compressive test, California bearing ratio (CBR), The findings suggest that using Steel Mill Scale to fortify
and direct shear test to assess the performance of E-waste Black cotton soils has potential.
stabilized soil. These tests were carried out to see whether the
soil's strength qualities had improved. According to the 3. Conclusion
findings, the specimen's unconfined compressive strength rose
by an average of 2.41 kN/m2 at a fixed dosage of E-waste. Various researches showed that Black cotton soil can be
There was an improvement in the angle of friction (Ф) after stabilized to achieve better engineering properties rather than
performing the direct shear test. grew in tandem with the just disregarding the type of soil for its undesirable expansive
percentage of E-waste generated. The Specific gravity and features when exposed to variation of moisture condition.
liquid limit increased with the addition of 5% E-waste, but fell Stabilizers such as lime, cement, E-waste, reclaimed asphalt
with the addition of 8% E-waste, while the plastic limit pavement, and steel mill ore has shown an excellent
climbed abruptly with the addition of 5% E-waste. It has been improvement when used to stabilized the soil while on the
discovered that when the amount of E-waste increases, the other hand stabilizers such as groundnut ash, bagasse ash and
 Composite Materials 2021; 5(2): 37-45 44

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[16] Hegde R. A. (2010). The Effect of Lime Stabilization on
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