General Physics 2 Page 1 of 12

Electromagnetic Wave
4.1 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

The Scottish James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) is regarded as the greatest theoretical physicist of
the 19th century. He formulated a complete electromagnetic theory by bringing together all the work that had
been done by brilliant physicists such as Oersted, Coulomb, Gauss, and Faraday, and added his own insights
to develop the overarching theory of electromagnetism.
Maxwell's equations encompass the major laws of electricity and magnetism. What is not so apparent
is the symmetry that Maxwell introduced in his mathematical framework. Especially important was his
hypothesis that changing electric fields create magnetic fields. This is exactly analogous and symmetrical to
Faraday's law of induction and while had been widely suspected for some time, fit beautifully into Maxwell's
equations.
Since changing electric fields create relatively weak magnetic fields, they could not be easily detected
at the time of Maxwell's hypothesis. Maxwell realized, however, that oscillating charges, like those in AC
circuits, produce changing electric fields. He predicted that these changing fields would propagate from the
source like waves generated on a lake by a jumping fish.
The waves predicted by Maxwell would consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields-defined to
be an electromagnetic wave (EM wave). Electromagnetic waves would be capable of exerting forces on
charges great distances from their source, and they might thus be detectable. Maxwell calculated that
electromagnetic waves would propagate at a speed given by the equation
1
𝑐=
√𝜇0 𝜀0

When the values for 𝜇0 and 𝜀0 , are entered into the equation for c, we find that
1
𝑐=
𝑇. m 2
√(4𝜋 x 10−7 ) (8.85 x 10 −12 𝐶 )
𝐴 𝑁. m2
𝑐 = 3.00 x 108 m/s

which is the speed of light. In fact, Maxwell concluded that light is an electromagnetic wave having such
wavelengths that it can be detected by the eye.

4.2 HERTZ'S OBSERVATIONS

The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857 1894) was the first to generate and detect certain types
of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. Starting in 1887, he performed a series of experiments that not
only confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves but also verified that they travel at the speed of light.
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Electromagnetic Wave

Hertz used an RLC (resistor-inductor-capacitor) AC circuit that resonates at a known frequency 𝑓0 =

1
and connected it to a loop of wire as shown in the following figure. High voltages induced across the
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
gap in the loop produced sparks that were visible evidence of the current in the circuit and that helped
generate electromagnetic waves. Across the laboratory, Hertz had another loop attached to another RLC
circuit, which could be tuned (as the dial on a radio) to the same resonant frequency as the first and could,
thus, be made to receive electromagnetic waves. This loop also had a gap across which sparks were
generated, giving solid evidence that electromagnetic waves had been received.
Hertz also studied the reflection, refraction, and interference patterns of the electromagnetic waves
he generated, verifying their wave character. He was able to determine wavelength from the interference
patterns, and knowing their frequency, he could calculate the propagation speed using the equation 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
which is velocity or speed equals frequency times wavelength. With this, Hertz was able to prove that
electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. The SI unit for frequency, the hertz (1Hz = 1cycle/sec), is
named in his honor.
4.3 PRODUCTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Whenever a current varies, associated electric and magnetic fields vary, moving out from the source
like waves. Perhaps the easiest situation to visualize is a varying current in a long straight wire, produced by
an AC generator at its center, as illustrated in the following figure.
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Electromagnetic Wave
The electric field (E) shown surrounding the wire is produced by the charge distribution on the wire.
Both the E and the charge distribution vary as the current changes. The changing field propagates outward
at the speed of light. There is an associated magnetic field (B) that propagates outward as well. The electric
and magnetic fields are closely related and propagate as an electromagnetic wave. This is what happens in
broadcast antennae such as those in radio and TV stations.
Closer examination of the one complete cycle shown in the previous figure reveals the periodic
nature of the generator driven charges oscillating up and down in the antenna and the electric field produced.
At time 𝑡 = 0, there is the maximum separation of charge, with negative charges at the top and positive
charges at the bottom, producing the maximum magnitude of the electric field (or E-field) in the upward
direction. One-fourth of a cycle later, there is no charge separation and the field next to the antenna is zero,
while the maximum E-field has mowed away at speed c.
As the process continues, the charge separation reverses and the field reaches its maximum
downward value, returns to zero, and rises to its maximum upward value at the end of one complete cycle.
The outgoing wave has an amplitude proportional to the maximum separation of charge. Its
wavelength (𝜆) is proporcional to the period of the oscillation and, hence, is smaller for short periods or high
frequencies.

Electric and Magnetic Waves: Moving Together

Following Ampere's law, current in the antenna produces a magnetic field, as shown in the following
figure. The relationship between electric field E and magnetic field B is shown at one instant in the following
figure. As the current varies, the magnetic field varies in magnitude and direction.

(a)The current in the antenna produces the circular magnetic field lines. The current (I) produces the
separation of charge along the wire, which in turn creates the electric field as shown. (b) The electric and
magnetic fields (E and B) near the wire are perpendicular, they are shown here for one point in space.
The magnetic field lines also propagate away from the antenna at the speed of light, forming the
other part of the electromagnetic wave, as seen in the figure. The magnetic part of the wave has the same
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Electromagnetic Wave
period and wavelength as the electric part since they are both produced by the same movement and
separation of charges in the antenna.
The electric and magnetic waves are shown together at one instant in time in the following figure.
The electric and magnetic fields produced by a long straight wire antenna are exactly in phase. Note that
they are perpendicular to one another and to the direction of propagation, making this a transverse wave.

A part of the electromagnetic wave sent out from the antenna on instant in time. The electric and
magnetic fields (E and B) are in phase and they are perpendicular to one another and the direction of
propagation. For clarity, the waves are shown only along one direction, but they propagate out in other
directions too.

4.4 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The following table presents an overview of the production and utilization of electromagnetic waves.
The relationship among the speed of propagation, wavelength, and frequency for any wave is given by 𝑣𝑊 =
𝑓𝜆 , of where 𝑣𝑊 is the propagation speed of the wave, f is the frequency, and 𝜆 is the wavelength. Since
electromagnetic wave has a frequency and a wavelength associated with it and travels at the speed of light
(c) - the equation for electromagnetic waves is 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 , where f is the frequency, 𝜆 is the wavelength and
c is the speed of light. Thus, for all electromagnetic waves, the greater the frequency, the smaller the
wavelength.
The figure below shows the electromagnetic spectrum, showing the major categories of
electromagnetic waves. The range of frequencies and wavelengths is remarkable. The dividing line between
some categories is distinct, whereas other categories overlap.
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Electromagnetic Wave

Table 1. Electromagnetic Waves

Type of Life sciences

Production Applications Issues
EM wave aspect

Communications Requires controls for

Radio & TV Accelerating charges MRI
remote controls band use

Accelerating charges Communications,

Microwaves Deep heating Cell phone use
& thermal agitation ovens, radar

Thermal agitations & Thermal imaging, Absorbed by

Infrared Greenhouse effect
electronic transitions heating atmosphere

Thermal agitations & Photosynthesis,

Visible light All pervasive
electronic transitions Human vision

Thermal agitations & Sterilization, Vitamin D Ozone depletion, Cancer

Ultraviolet
electronic transitions Cancer control production causing

Inner electronic Medical

X-rays transitions and fast Medical Security diagnosis, Cancer causing
collisions Cancer therapy

Medical
Gamma Nuclear medicine, Cancer causing,
Nuclear decay diagnosis,
rays Security Radiation damage
Cancer therapy

Transmission, Reflection and Absorption

It is possible to have partial transmission, reflection, and absorption. We normally associate these
properties with visible light, but they do apply to all electromagnetic waves. What is not obvious is that
something that is transparent to light may be opaque at other frequencies. For example, ordinary glass is
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Electromagnetic Wave
transparent to visible light but largely opaque to ultraviolet radiation. Human skin is opaque to visible light
(we cannot see through people but transparent to X-rays).