FUNDAMENTALS

OF
ELECTROMAGNE
TI CS
Prepared by: Prof. K. K. SAWANT
MAXWELL EQUATIONS
Electric Charges

Electric Currents

Electromotive Force

Within Material Media: Polarization and
Magnetization of charge

Lorentz force equation: for charge velocity
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
MAXWELL EQUATIONS
Electric charges whose density are the sources of
electric field E . MKSA system: Gauss's law-
Electric charges
(1)
Electric currents
If Field lines are closed..?
This is equivalent to the statement that there are no
magnetic monopoles.

Mathematically this is expressed by the equation
(2)
(3)
The electromotive force around a closed field is proportional to
the rate of change of flux of the magnetic field B ( )

Electromotive Force: Faradays law
In differential form this law is expressed by the following formula:
Within material media having polarization ~P and magnetization ~M the above
laws still hold with the following replacements: as the density of , E & B
Within Material Media: Polarization and magnetization
..(4)
..(5)
Polarization
Polarization is a property of wave that describes the
orientation of their oscillations.

EM wave: light wave, exhibit polarization;

When light travels in free space, in most cases it
propagates as a transverse wave the polarization is
perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel.


Acoustic waves: Sound waves in a gas or liquid do not
have polarization because the direction of vibration and
direction of propagation are the same.
If EM wave is composed of two plane waves of equal amplitude, and by 90 phase
difference, then the wave is said to be circularly polarized.
Circularly Polarization
Circularly Polarization
Electric field of the passing wave does not change strength(constant
magnitude) but only changes direction in a rotary manner.
Click here: Animation
of a circularly polarized
wave as a sum of two
components
If wave is clockwise
rotation , then left-
circularly polarized wave
and vice versa
Elliptically polarized wave consists of two perpendicular waves of unequal amplitude
which differ in phase by 90.

Elliptical Polarization
If electric field magnitude is not same or and the phase angle is other than 0, 90, 180.
Elliptical Polarization
Elliptical
The electric field vector describes an ellipse in any fixed plane intersecting, and normal to, the
direction of propagation.
If two plane waves of differing amplitude are related in phase by 90, or if the relative phase is
other than 90 then the light is said to be elliptically polarized.
.


Linear polarization
Linear polarization
The orientation of a linearly polarized EM wave is defined by the direction of
the electric field vector.
- For example, if the electric field vector is vertical direction (alternately up
and down as the wave travels) the radiation is said to be vertically polarized.
A plane electromagnetic
wave is said to be linearly
polarized.
Over long distances, the atmosphere can cause the polarization of a radio wave to
fluctuate, so the distinction between horizontal and vertical becomes less
significant.
Some wireless antennas transmit and receive EM waves whose polarization
rotates 360 degrees with each complete wave cycle. This type of polarization,
called elliptical or circular polarization,
Thus, a vertical antenna receives and emits vertically
polarized waves, and a horizontal antenna receives or emits
horizontally polarized waves. The best short-range
communications is obtained when the transmitting and
receiving (source and destination) antennas have the same
polarization.
The physical orientation of a wireless antenna corresponds
to the polarization of the radio waves received or transmitted
by that antenna.
Methods of achieving polarization
Electric field displacement
By polarization
Magnetic field by magnetization
Lorentz force
1. The force(F) acting on a charge(e) , which is at
rest within an electric field(E), is:
F = Ee.(1)


2. The force acting on a small wire element(dl),
carrying electric current(I), which is placed in a
magnetic field(B), is:
F= I dl x B(2).
Cont.
These two equations suggest that for a charge(e) moving
with velocity(u) , the total force(F) acting on it is(at once
charge movement/velocity from one-2-other point):

F= e (E + u + B).(3)
e e
For a continuous charge() and current(J) distribution, it
is convenient to define the force density (f) is

f= E+ J B(4)
e e e e e e
This is the (3&4)well known Lorentz force equation.

Concluding Remark
Thanks !

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
PROPAGATION
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION
Electromagnetic waves are propagated in:

1. Vacuum/air/outer space

2. Conducting media

3. Non-conducting media
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION
1. Vacuum/air/outer space
EM wave transports its energy through a vacuum at a speed of light c= 3.00 x 10
8
m/s.

The propagation of an EM wave through a material medium occurs at a net speed
which is less than 3.00 x 10
8
m/s.
CLICK: Animation
The mechanism of energy transport through a medium involves the absorption
and reemission of the wave energy by the atoms of the material.
Mechanism of EM energy transport through a medium
EM wave impinges
upon the atoms of a
material
Energy of that
wave is
absorbed
causes the electrons
within the atoms to
undergo vibrations
After a short period
of vibrational
motion
The vibrating
electrons create a
new EM wave
Frequency of
new EM wave is
same as 1
st
EM
wave.
These vibrations
occur for only a
very short time
Then they delay the
motion of the wave
through the medium
Energy of the EM
wave is reemitted
by an atom
It travels through
a small region of
space between
atoms.
It reaches
the next
atom
Then it is known as
EM wave is
absorbed,
transformed into
electron vibrations
and then reemitted
as an EM wave.
*At last speed
of EM wave to
be less than c
* See next slide.
OBSERVATIONS
The actual speed of an EM wave through a material medium is
dependent upon the optical density of that medium.

Different materials cause a different amount of delay due to the
absorption and reemission process.

Different materials have their atoms more closely packed and thus the
amount of distance between atoms is less.

These two factors are depend upon the nature of the material through
which the EM wave is traveling.
Simple Demo
They have the motion, but we cant see
or feel them, but they are around us!




That means, detector placed anywhere
in this room will indicate that the
waves have propagated.
Diagram of Demonstration

key
Power
Source/Battery
+
-
EM wave
Radiator
Detector
EM Wave equation in vaccum
Assume Maxwell simple equation:
------------- For Electric Field
----------- For Magnetic Field
Assumptions that , charge density and current density J were zero, and
that the permeability and permittivity were constants.
We found that the above equations had plane-wave solutions with velocity:
EM wave travels in free space at the speed of light
0=vaccume permittivity
0=vaccume permeability
We can derive from the Maxwell laws following equation:
In a nonconducting media/regions where there are no
charge and no current distributions,
------------- (1) For Electric Field
----------- (2) For Magnetic Field
Then.!
Propagation in nonconducting media ( = 0)
=conductivity, constant
PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Medium with values: =dielectric constant(permittivity); =magnetic
permeability, r= relative permittivity
PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Absent
Their right hand sides are absent**, and
Medium with values: =dielectric constant(permittivity); =magnetic
permeability
Then.!
We can derive from the Maxwell laws following equation:
------------- (1) For Electric Field
----------- (2) For Magnetic Field
PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electric and magnetic fields E and B,
satisfy the free space wave equations. The
waves travels with velocityu.

Electric and magnetic fields of a plane
wave are perpendicular to each other and
both perpendicular to the direction of the
propagation.
**In regions, where there are nonvanishing
charge and current distributions the right
hand sides of eqs. are non-vanishing too
and are the sources of the electromagnetic
waves#.
C=
wave propagating
------ (3)
#The plane waves are particular solutions of (eqn.1,2) in regions where
sources are absent.
In the following we shall use complex notation and write the electric
component of a plane wave as:
------ (4)
Similar expression holds for the magnetic field too with E, E0 replaced by B, B0
respectively.
E0=amplitude of electric field,
k= its wave vector, k=wave no
w=its frequency
k=number of wavelengths per unit distance
K= it helps to describe the magnitude and direction of wave- wavenumber or angular wavenumber and
direction of wave propagation resp.
2. Propagation within a conductor ( 0)
For times much larger than the relaxation time there are practically no
charges inside the conductor, All of them have moved to its surface where
they form a charge density
Charge move almost instantly to the surface of the conductor.
=conductivity, constant
We shall restrict our analysis to the case of conductors, which are defined by:
Where, is a constant, the conductivity of the material.
J is the current density
Cont.
PROPAGATION OF EMWAVES INWAVE
GUIDES

Thanks!



1
2
The Equations of Electromagnetism
E dA
q
}
- =
c
0
B dA
}
- = 0
..monopole..
?
...theres no
magnetic monopole....!!
Gausss Laws
4
The Equations of Electromagnetism
E dl
d
dt
B
}
- =
u
B dl I
}
- =
0
3
.. if you change a
magnetic field you
induce an electric
field.........
.......is the reverse
true..?
Faradays Law
Amperes Law
...lets take a look at charge flowing into a capacitor...
...when we derived Amperes Law
we assumed constant current...
E
B
B dl I
}
- =
0
...lets take a look at charge flowing into a capacitor...
E
...when we derived Amperes Law
we assumed constant current...
.. if the loop encloses one
plate of the capacitor..there
is a problem I = 0
B
Side view: (Surface
is now like a bag:)
E
B
B dl I
}
- =
0
Maxwell solved this problem
by realizing that....
B
E
Inside the capacitor there must
be an induced magnetic field...
How?.
Maxwell solved this problem
by realizing that....
B
E
x
x x x x
x x x x x
x x
A changing
electric field
induces a
magnetic field
Inside the capacitor there must
be an induced magnetic field...
How?. Inside the capacitor there is a changing E
E
B
Maxwell solved this problem
by realizing that....
B
E
x
x x x x
x x x x x
x x
A changing
electric field
induces a
magnetic field
Inside the capacitor there must
be an induced magnetic field...
How?. Inside the capacitor there is a changing E
where I
d
is called the
displacement current
B dl
d
dt
I
E
d
}
- = = c
0 0 0
u
E
B
Changed from previous eqn. instead constant current I
B
E
B dl I
d
dt
E
}
- = + c
0 0 0
u
x
x x x x
x x x x x
x x
A changing
electric field
induces a
magnetic field
Inside the capacitor there must
be an induced magnetic field...
How?. Inside the capacitor there is a changing E
where I
d
is called the
displacement current
Therefore, Maxwells revision
of Amperes Law becomes....
B dl
d
dt
I
E
d
}
- = = c
0 0 0
u
E
B
Maxwell solved this problem
by realizing that....
Derivation of Displacement Current
q EA I
dq
dt
d EA
dt
= = = c c
0 0
( )
For a capacitor, and .
I
d
dt
E
= c
0
( ) u
Now, the electric flux is given by EA, so: ,
where this current , not being associated with charges, is
called the Displacement current, I
d
.

Hence:

and:
B ds I I
B ds I
d
dt
d
E
}
}
- = +
- = +

c
0
0 0 0
( )
u
I
d
dt
d
E
= c
0 0
u
Again the previous equation becomes
Maxwells Equations of Electromagnetism
(with charge & masses)
E dA
q
}
- =
c
0
B dA
}
- = 0
E dl
d
dt
B
}
- =
u
Gauss Law for Electrostatics
Gauss Law for Magnetism
Faradays Law of Induction
Amperes Law
B dl I
d
dt
E
}
- = + c
0 0 0
u
Maxwells Equations of Electromagnetism
in Vacuum (no charges, no masses)
Consider these equations in a vacuum.....
......no mass, no charges. no currents.....
B dl
d
dt
E
}
- = c
0 0
u
E dl
d
dt
B
}
- =
u
E dA
q
}
- =
c
0
B dA
}
- = 0
B dl I
d
dt
E
}
- = + c
0 0 0
u
E dA
}
- = 0
E dl
d
dt
B
}
- =
u
B dA
}
- = 0
Faradays Law of Induction
Amperes Law
X E = - B /t
X H = D/t + J
. D =
. B = 0

Where,
= 1/
0
B
D =
0
E

0
= 4 X 10
-7
h/m

0
= 8.854 X 10
-12
farad/m
The Equations of Electromagnetism
(at this point )
The Equations of Electromagnetism
(in general form at this point )
E dA
q
}
- =
c
0
B dA
}
- = 0
E dl
d
dt
B
}
- =
u
B dl I
}
- =
0
Gauss Law for Electrostatics
Gauss Law for Magnetism
Faradays Law of Induction
Amperes Law


Permittivity is the measure of the resistance that is encountered
when forming an electric field in a medium. i.e.
Permittivity: it is a measure of how an electric field affects, and
is affected by, a dielectric medium.
Permittivity relates to a material's ability to transmit (or "permit") an
electric field.
It Describes how much electric field (more correctly, flux) is
'generated' per unit charge.
Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to
support the formation of a magnetic field within itself.
It is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in
response to an applied magnetic field.
The term ndiactes power density
(watts per meter squared) that the transmitter produces at the target
Or Total power intercepted by the target.
Forces
Forces
Brief review:

Water and sound waves transfer energy
from one place to another- they require a
medium through which to travel. They are
mechanical waves.

Electric field-region in which charged
particles can be pushed or pulled.
Forces
Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
They are Transverse waves without a medium. (They
can travel through empty space)
They travel as vibrations in electrical and magnetic
fields.
Have some magnetic and some electrical properties to
them.
Speed of electromagnetic waves = 300,000,000
meters/second (Takes light 8 minutes to move from the
sun to earth {150 million miles} at this speed.)


When an electric field changes, so does the
magnetic field. The changing magnetic field causes
the electric field to change. When one field
vibratesso does the other.
RESULT-An electromagnetic wave.




Click here Animation: Interaction of vibrating
charges


Waves or Particles
Electromagnetic radiation has properties of waves but
also can be thought of as a stream of particles.
Example: Light
Light as a wave: Light behaves as a transverse wave
which we can filter using polarized lenses.
Light as particles (photons)
When directed at a substance light can knock electrons
off of a substance (Photoelectric effect)


PROPAGATION OF EM WAVES
Power density is intercepted by the target, has
Cross section , which has units of area (meters squared).
= Cross section of Power density .
3.
B. Waves of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrumname for the range of
electromagnetic waves when placed in order of increasing frequency
Click here (AnimationSize of EMwaves)
RADIO
WAVES
MICROWAVES
INFRARED
RAYS
VISIBLE LIGHT
ULTRAVIOLET
RAYS
X-RAYS
GAMMA
RAYS
RADIO WAVES
A. Have the longest wavelengths and lowest
frequencies of all the electromagnetic waves.
B. A radio picks up radio waves through an antenna and
converts it to sound waves.
C. Each radio station in an area broadcasts at a different
frequency. # on radio dial tells frequency.
D. MRI (MAGNETIC RESONACE IMAGING)
Uses Short wave radio waves with a magnet to create an
image

MRI of the Brain
AM=Amplitude modulationwaves bounce off ionosphere can
pick up stations from different cities.
(535kHz-1605kHz= vibrate at 535 to 1605 thousand times/second)
+
FM=Frequency modulationwaves travel in a straight line &
through the ionosphere--lose reception when you travel out of range.
(88MHz-108MHz = vibrate at 88million to 108million times/second)
+
INFRARED RAYS
Infrared= below red
Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than
microwaves.
You can feel the longest ones as warmth on your skin
Heat lamps give off infrared waves.
Warm objects give off more heat energy than cool objects.
Thermograma picture that shows regions of different
temperatures in the body. Temperatures are calculated by
the amount of infrared radiation given off. Therefore
people give off infrared rays.

VISIBLE LIGHT
Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than
infrared rays.
Electromagnetic waves we can see.
Longest wavelength= red light
Shortest wavelength= violet (purple) light
When light enters a new medium it bends
(refracts). Each wavelength bends a different
amount allowing white light to separate into its
various colors ROYGBIV.


ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than
visible light
Carry more energy than visible light
Used to kill bacteria. (Sterilization of equipment)
Causes your skin to produce vitamin D (good for
teeth and bones)
Used to treat jaundice ( in some new born babies.
Too much can cause skin cancer.
Use sun block to protect against (UV rays)


X- RAYS
Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than UV-rays
Carry a great amount of energy
Can penetrate most matter.
Bones and teeth absorb x-rays. (The light part of an x-
ray image indicates a place where the x-ray was absorbed)
Too much exposure can cause cancer
(lead vest at dentist protects organs from unnecessary exposure)
Used by engineers to check for tiny cracks in structures.
The rays pass through the cracks and the cracks appear dark on
film.
GAMMA RAYS
Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than X-
rays
Carry the greatest amount of energy and
penetrate the most.
Used in radiation treatment to kill cancer cells.
Can be very harmful if not used correctly.
Using the EM waves to view the Sun
AnimationView a Galaxy at different wavelengths
Brief SUMMARY
A. All electromagnetic waves travel at the
same speed. (300,000,000 meters/second in a
vacuum.
B. They all have different wavelength and
different frequencies.
Long wavelength-lowest frequency
Short wavelength highest frequency
The higher the frequency the higher the energy.
MICROWAVES
Microwaveshave the shortest wavelengths and
the highest frequency of the radio waves.
Used in microwave ovens.
Waves transfer energy to the water in the food causing them
to vibrate which in turn transfers energy in the form of heat to
the food.
Used by cell phones and pagers.
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)
Used to find the speed of an object by sending out radio
waves and measuring the time it takes them to return.
What is radio frequency ?
Microwave Frequency
frequency: 1 GHz ~ 300 GHz
wave length: 30cm ~ 1mm
Radio Frequency
frequency: several hundred MHz to low
microwave frequency band
IEEE frequency band
Band number Designation Aapplication
2 ELF 30-300 Hz 10-1 Mm
3 VF 300-3000 Hz 1-0.1 Mm
4 VLF 3-30 kHz 100-10 km Navigation,sonar
5 LF 30-300 kHz 10-1 km Radio beacons, navigation
6 MF 300-3000 kHz 1-0.1 km AM broadcast, Coast Guard
7 HF 3-30 MHz 100-10 m Telephone, telegraph
8 VHF 30-300 MHz 10-1 m TV, FM broadcast
9 UHF 300-3000 MHz 100-10 cm TV, satellite links
10 SHF 3-30 GHz 10-1 cm Radar, microwave links
11 EHF 30-300 GHz 1-0.1 cm Radar, experimental
12 Decimillimeter 300-3000 GHz 1-0.1 mm
P-band 0.23-1 GHz 130-30 cm
L-band 1-2 GHz 30-15 cm
S-band 2-4 GHz 15-7.5 cm
C-band 4-8 GHz 7.5-3.75 cm
X-band 8-12.5 GHz 3.75-2.4 cm
Ku-band 12.5-18 GHz 2.4-1.67 cm
K-band 18-26.5 GHz 1.67-1.13 cm
Ka-band 26.5-40 GHz 1.13-0.75 cm
Millimeter wave 40-300 GHz 7.5-1 mm
Submillimeter wave 300-3000 GHz 1-0.1 mm
Frequency Wavelength
Why use Microwaves?
In early century, Communication using electromagnetic radiation
(except for light) used very long wavelengths (low frequencies)
which traveled great distances.
Electronics were developed, including the vacuum tube
Microwaves are easier to control (than longer wavelengths) because
small antennas could direct the waves very well.
Energy could be easily confined to a tight beam.
This beam could be focused on another antenna of dozens of miles away.
Another characteristic is because of high frequency, greater amounts
of information could be put on them.
Both of these advantages (narow beamwidth and modulation bandwidth)
make microwaves very useful for RADAR as well as communications.