Bioresources.: Alkaline Sulfite Anthraquinone and Methanol Pulping of Bamboo (Gigantochloa Scortechinii)
Bioresources.: Alkaline Sulfite Anthraquinone and Methanol Pulping of Bamboo (Gigantochloa Scortechinii)
Bioresources.: Alkaline Sulfite Anthraquinone and Methanol Pulping of Bamboo (Gigantochloa Scortechinii)
com
Alkali ratios and cooking time of the alkaline sulfite anthraquinone (AQ)
and methanol (ASAM) pulping process of bamboo (Gigantochloa
scortechinii) were studied. Bamboo chips were cooked at three different
levels of sodium hydroxide and cooking time, namely 14, 16, or 18% for
60, 90, or 120 minutes. Pulping parameters that remained constant were
the use of 0.5% ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), with an 80/20
ratio Na2SO3/NaOH, 0.1% anthraquinone, 15% methanol, and a
temperature of 170 °C in the cooking process. Samples prepared using
14% NaOH and 90 min of cooking time resulted in the highest pulp yield,
52.4%, and a Kappa number of 18.1. It seems that 16% sodium
hydroxide and 90 min of cooking time are the most appropriate cooking
conditions, giving a 49.1% pulp yield and 14.2 Kappa number. The
quality of bamboo pulp produced by the ASAM pulping process was
found to be beneficial for the use in paper and board manufacturing.
Keywords: Gigantochloa scortechinii bamboo; Fiber dimensions; Chemical composition; ASAM pulping;
Pulp properties
Contact information: a: Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP) - Universiti Putra
Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; b: Department of Forest Production, Faculty of
Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia;
* Corresponding authors: [email protected]; [email protected]
INTRODUCTION
The use of non-wood materials in the production of pulp and paper has attracted
interest worldwide since 1970 (Saijonkari-Pahkala 2001). Bamboo as a non-wood fiber is
a viable alternative source for this kind of industry.
There are more than 70 genera of bamboo available worldwide, and these can be
divided into about 1,450 species (Gratani et al. 2008). Bamboo species are found in
diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East
Asia, to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas (Bystriakova et al.
2003). They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the Mid-Atlantic
United States (Mohlenbrock 1989) to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost
point anywhere, at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native
species of bamboo (Levy 1992).
Bamboo is a hygroscopic type of plant, meaning that it is able to obtain water
from the environment and hold onto it (Erakhrumen and Ogunsanwo 2009). This is a
very good property because, in the chemical pulping processes, cooking liquor needs to
penetrate throughout the chips of a sample such as bamboo. Improper penetration of
chemicals in the chips may lead to uncooked chip centers, high screen rejects, low pulp
yield, and high dirt count. The penetration of chemicals into the chips is considered to
take place by two separate processes: 1) mass flow of liquid and solute into the chips and
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 235
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
2) diffusion of solute through the liquid-saturated chip. These two movements act under
different processes (Smook 1992; Sixta 2006). The movements of liquid into chips is
governed by capillary forces and applied pressure, while the diffusion of chemical into
liquid-filled chip is dependent on the concentration gradient between the liquor
surrounding the chip and that inside the chip (Smook 1992).
Ogunwusi (2001) noted that the efficiency degree of wood and non-woody fibers
to perform excellently in pulp and papermaking is much related to their biometric
characteristics. The characteristics such as fiber length, lumen diameter, and fiber
diameter may influence the performance of pulp and paper properties, namely bulk,
apparent density, and inter-fiber bonding (Dinwoodie 2000). According to Oluwadara
and Ashimiyn (2007) fiber length affects paper tear strength. Longer fiber length
generally results in stronger paper, which leads to higher tear strength. Lumen diameter
influences the effectiveness of beating. Larger lumen diameter of fibers offer better
beating effects in comparison to smaller lumen diameter due to the easiness of liquid
penetration into both the inner and outer part of fibers as the beating process is being
carried out (Smook 1992; Sixta 2006; Reyier 2008).
Patt and Kordsachia in 1986 invented a new pulping process based on alkaline
sulfite anthraquinone with methanol pulping known as the ASAM process. Chemical
materials that used in the ASAM process are: sodium sulfite (Na2SO3), sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), anthraquinone (AQ), and methanol (CH3OH). These materials have key role in
places such as sodium sulfite changed lignin to solvable material, AQ has catalytic effects
on delignification, and methanol improves the solubility of the AQ (Shukry et al. 1999;
Knoblauch et al. 2000; Miranda and Pereira 2002; Jahan et al. 2003; Khristova et al.
2002, 2004; Kordsachia et al. 2004; Sridach 2010).
Few studies have considered the application of ASAM in the cooking process of
both hard and soft wood. Kordsachia et al. (1992) reported that Eucalypt wood and E.
globulus had been cooked by ASAM pulping process, which resulted in 56.9% and
53.6% pulp yield, and 14.3 and 10 kappa number, respectively. Pulp yield and kappa
number of Pinus sylvestris were found to be from 52.9% to 52.5% and 31.8 to 27,
respectively (Kordsachia and Patt 1988).
The ASAM pulping process is an alternative cooking process option for kraft and
soda pulping processes. Some advantages of ASAM are listed as: avoidance of air
pollution, high delignification rate, high brightness of pulp, high pulp yield, and it is
easier to bleach the pulps (Kordsachia and Patt 1988; Patt and Kordsachia 1986; Patt et
al. 1987; Miranda and Pereira 2002).
Parameters with the most significance, which affect delignification and
polysaccharide removal, are alkali charge and cooking time (Khider et al. 2012a;
Mertoglu-Elmas et al. 2012). In addition, ASAM pulping process has better selectivity in
comparison to kraft or soda pulping processes in terms of delignification, which leads to
low kappa number and high viscosity (Knoblauch et al. 2000).
The effects of methanol and AQ in this process are: a) stabilization of
carbohydrates, b) increased solubility of AQ, c) better penetration of chemical materials
into the chips, d) pulp with higher viscosity, and e) better dissolving of lignin. AQ also
has effects on pulp yield, increasing delignification, decreasing carbohydrate degradation,
and consumption of alkali charge. In other words, AQ has a role of accelerant for
dissolution of lignin (Shukry et al. 1999; Sixta 2006; Sridach 2010).
AQ and methanol are two additives that can improve the pulp yield by saving
polysaccharides. In ASAM, since there are AQ and methanol, pulp can be produced with
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 236
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
high yield, low Kappa number, and suitable paper strengths (Khristova et al. 2004).
Another advantage of this pulping process is to produce pulp with a low proportion of
rejected material. Due to the use of methanol in the cooking liquor, more penetration of
chemicals into the chips occurs. Raising pressure of the digester and more air removal of
chips are the two main ways of improving the penetration of chemical materials into
wood or non-wood chips. Therefore, adding methanol while an ASAM cooking liquor is
in the process of penetrating the chips leads to a higher pressure of the digester. As a
result, the entrapped air of the chips is displaced, and chemical materials can penetrate
into both wood and non-wood chips. Consequently, more delignification happens and
fibers can be easily separated (Patt and Kordsachia 1988; Paik et al. 1988).
On the other hand, AQ has the role of effective stabilizer in both wood and non-
wood polysaccharides. Anthraquinone is effective at extremely lower dosage levels of
0.05 to 0.1% on oven-dry wood, giving good results in most cases (Sixta 2006). Aldonic
acid, which is present as a result of isolation from the pulp hydrolyzates, indicates that
stabilization takes place through conversion of the end group to the acid out of an
oxidation reaction (Fiserova et al 2006; Hart and Rudie 2014). Therefore, according to
role of AQ and methanol in ASAM pulping process, one can expect high yields of
ASAM bamboo unbleached pulp.
There is no or a little information on ASAM pulping process of bamboo chips.
Therefore, the objectives of this study are to investigate the effects of ASAM pulping
parameters on bamboo pulp properties.
EXPERIMENTAL
Materials
Gigantochloa scortechinii (bamboo culms), which was used in this study, was
collected from 3- to 4-year-old bamboo plants of Pahang state. The whole of the bamboo
culms was converted to chips generally within the range 2 to 2.5 cm by a chipper
machine at the Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). The moisture content of bamboo chips
was measured after they had been dried in ambient air.
Methods
Biometric measurement
The Franklin method (1954) was used to determine the biometric characteristic of
bamboo such as fiber length, fiber diameter, lumen diameter, and cell wall thickness.
Chemical composition
The bamboo meal for chemical compositions analysis was prepared according to
T 257 cm-85 and T 264 cm-97 of TAPPI standards method. The bamboo meal had been
passed through BS 40-mesh and collected on BS 60-mesh.
The analysis included ethanol-benzene solvent extractives, hot and cold-water
solubility, lignin content, ash content, silicate content, and one percent NaOH solubility
based on TAPPI standards method, namely, T 204 cm-97, T 207cm-99, T 222 om-98, T
211 om-93, T 244 cm-99, and T 212 om-98.
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 237
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
Extractive holocellulose
Five grams of air-dried bamboo meal, which had been screened to select particles
in the 40 to 60-mesh range, were transferred to a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask. The bamboo
extractive materials were removed using an ethanol-benzene mixture according to T 204
cm-97 of TAPPI standard methods.
Distilled water (160 mL), glacial acetic acid (0.5 mL), and sodium chlorite (1.5 ±
1 g) were added successively. A 25 mL Erlenmeyer flask was inverted in the neck of the
250 mL Erlenmeyer flask and the flask was placed in a water bath, which was adjusted to
temperature of 70 to 80 °C in the flask.
The flask was heated for 1 h at the above-mentioned temperature, and the content
were mixed by occasional swirling. Then, without cooling, glacial acetic acid (0.5 mL)
was added, followed by sodium chlorite (1.5 g). The heating was continued at 70 to 80 °C
for an additional hour. At the end of the second and third hours, adding of acetic acid and
sodium chloride are repeated respectively. Acid was always added first.
an ice bath until the contents had cooled below 10 C. The holocellulose was filtered on a
At the end of the third or fourth hour of chlorite treatment, the flask was placed in
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 238
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
Table 1. Pulp Conditions of ASAM Process of Bamboo
Cooking Chemical materials % Time Temp
L/W
Code NaOH Na2SO3 / NaOH AQ EDTA Methanol (Min) (°C)
A1 60
A2 14 90
A3 120
A4 60
A5 16 80/20 0.1 0.5 15 90 170 9/1
A6 120
A7 60
A8 18 90
A9 120
NaOH= Sodium hydroxide/Na2SO3= Sodium sulfite/ AQ= Anthraquinone/ EDTA= Ethylene
diamine tetraacetic acid/Temp= Temperature/ L/W= Liquor to wood ratio
Biometrics Characteristics
Table 2 shows the biometric characteristics of bamboo and other species such as
B. tuda, E. globulus, and cotton stalks.
Average of bamboo fiber length was 1980 µm. The length was the highest among
1890, 840, and 810 µm. The results indicate that bamboo is beneficial to be used in the
making of industrial papermaking such as specialty paper (Adamopoulos et al. 2007;
Strelis and Kennedy 1967; Panshin and De Zeeuw 1980). It is expected that the bamboo’s
final paper products will have stronger properties. According to Oluwadara and Ashimiyn
(2007), longer fiber length contributes to hear tear resistance.
Bamboo has less fiber diameter compared with B. tuda, E. globulus, and cotton
stalks. Kennedy et al. (1993) reported that fiber with smaller cells tends to provide lower
opacity due to fewer air-fiber interfaces and more fiber-fiber interfaces.
As Table 2 shows, bamboo fibers have a suitable lumen diameter, and this has a
positive impact on the effectiveness of beating. A larger lumen diameter of fibers offers
better beating effects in comparison with a smaller lumen diameter due to the easiness of
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 239
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
liquid penetration in the inner and outer part of fibers during the beating process (Smook
1992; Sixta 2006; Reyier 2008).
High Runkel ratios of fibers generally give rise to stiffer, less flexible, and bulkier
paper (Binotto and Nicholls 1977). The results show that bamboo fiber has a similar
Runkel ratio in comparison with E. globulus. Fiber with higher Runkel ratio could
produce paper with greater bulk, i.e. a lower apparent density. Kpikpi (1992) noted that
the best Runkel ratio to produce higher pulp quality is less than 1.
The flexibility ratio affects fiber-to-fiber bonding, which leads to preferable
mechanical paper properties including folding endurance, burst, and tensile index. Since
bamboo shows high elastic properties (with a flexibility ratio of 50.14), fibers with 50 to
75 flexibility coefficients have higher elastic properties (Bektas et al. 1999). On the other
hand, the fiber flexibility coefficients of soft and hardwood are 75 and 55 to 75,
respectively (Smook 1992).
Ververis et al. (2004) reported that any fiber with less than 70 slenderness ratio is
not appropriate to use as a raw material in the wood and paper industry. Therefore, due to
the flexibility and slenderness ratios achieved for Gigantochloa scortechinii, it is
expected that such bamboo will produce pulp and paper with acceptable mechanical
properties.
Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of bamboo and other species are shown in Table 3. The
ash and silica contents were high but within the range of tropical hardwood, 1 to 3%
(Khristova et al. 2004). Bamboo chips had high contents of holocellulose and -
cellulose, which were 68.33% and 47.67%, respectively. The ash content of bamboo
chips was 1.98%, which is very low when compared with other bamboo species such as
D. hamiltonii, with 2.6% (Sharma et al. 2011).
Species
Factors (%)
G. scortechinii D. hamiltonii Rice straw Albizia lebbeck
Ash 1.98 2.6 16.6 1.77
Silica 1.56 - 14.9 0.06
S.E 3.68 2.3 3.5 2.38
1% NaOH 19.82 24.7 49.2 15.64
C.W.S 4.61 3.7 10.7 6.88
H.W.S 5.53 6.7 16.2 7.77
Holocellulose 68.33 73.8 70.9 78.6
Cellulose 47.67 45.1 48.2 46.25
Lignin 26.00 23.9 17.2 25.14
Tutus et al.
References Measured Sharma et al. 2011 Khider et al. 2012b
2004
S.E = Solvent extractives (ethanol-benzene)/ H.W.S = Hot water solubility/ C.W.S = Cold water
solubility/ 1% NaOH = 1% Sodium Hydroxide Solubility
Extractive materials have effects on final pulp yield and brightness. An increase
in the percentage of these materials results in decreases of pulp yield and brightness. On
the other hand, the consumption of alkali charge is increased (Khristova et al. 2004).
According to Robinson (1988), Dutt et al. (2004), and Shakhes et al. (2011) the
amount of cellulose content has a positive effect on mechanical properties of paper. On
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 240
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
the other hand, the pulp yield of chemical pulping is related to contents of cellulose and
holocellulose present in the raw material. Therefore, it could be expected that unbleached
bamboo ASAM pulp will have high pulp yield according to high cellulose and
holocellulose contents.
Bamboo has less lignin content (26%) in comparison to tropical hardwoods (28%
to 33%) (Savard et al. 1954).
54
52
Pulp yield (%)
50
48
46
44
42
40
60 90 120
Time (min)
NaOH 14% NaOH 16% NaOH 18%
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 241
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
Effect of Cooking Parameters on Kappa Number
The relationship between cooking parameters and kappa number is shown in Fig.
2. At 14% NaOH and 60 min cooking time the highest kappa number was obtained.
However, the best cooking time with low kappa number was obtained at 120 min and
18% NaOH. This result occurred due to more penetration of chemical material into the
bamboo chips. During the ASAM cooking, methanol increases the pressure inside the
digester. Increasing digester’s pressure displaces more air from the bamboo chips. By
removing air from the chips, cooking liquor can easily penetrate to the materials and
more delignification happens.
In addition, as noted by Holton (1977), AQ tends to promote the reduction of the
kappa number and increase of the delignification rate. AQ is soluble only in alkali liquor.
During cooking time, two formations of AQ occur. If AQ loses one electron, the
anthrahydrosemiquinone (AHSQ) is formed, and if it loses two electrons, the
anthrahydroquinone (AHQ) is formed. The AHQ is the primary form of AQ that is
responsible for delignification. AHQ and quinine methides (QM) of -aryl ether enter
into the procedure afterward.
of AQ (particularly the AHQ) reacting with quinine methides (QM) and resulting in -
The mechanism of AQ in the delignification process involves the reduced forms
aryl ether fragmentation and in the improved rate of delignification associated with AQ
forms a bond to the C-a carbon of the -aryl ether dimer. The -aryl ether and AHQ
pulping. The usual mechanism proposes that C-10 carbon of the anthrahydroquinone
separate producing a C-∝ / C- olefin. Forming the double bond on the styrene-like
fragment requires two electrons, oxidizing AHQ back to the AQ starting material (Hart
and Rudie 2014).
Therefore, according to the role of AQ and methanol in the ASAM pulping
process, AQ can keep the alkali concentration for bulk phase of delignification process.
About 60% of the main lignin portion was dissolved in the bulk phase. (Smook 1992;
Sixta 2006).
21
19
Kappa number
17
15
13
11
9
60 90 120
Time (min)
NaOH 14% NaOH 16% NaOH 18%
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 242
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
Effect of Cooking Parameters on Pulp Freeness
The results show that the highest NaOH led to the lowest fiber freeness. Longer
cooking times led to much lower fiber freeness. In alkaline cooking, the middle lamella is
removed, and this removal allows the fibrils to extend from the surface of primary wall.
When the structure of the fiber is loosened during the cooking, additional water is able to
penetrate the fibers. The water is avidly attracted by the available surfaces of the
amorphous, hydrophilic hemicellulose material.
Hemicellulose between the elemental threads of the fibers not only provides
cleavage planes, but it also attracts water even more strongly than cellulose.
Hemicellulose is most responsible for the swelling mechanism (Iwamoto et al. 2008; Sun
et al. 2012; Heijnesson-Hultén et al. 2013).
However, besides the possible inclusion of carboxyl groups, hemicellulose is
hydrophilic because of the relative shortness of their molecular chains and the presence
of a polar group situated at one of their ends.
Therefore, with increasing cooking parameters, more delignification happens, and
more fibrils were released on the fiber surface. And also increasing the delignification
rate causes more hemicellulose, cellulose, and amorphous materials to be released on the
fiber surface. Increasing these materials causes of swelling and increasing mutual
bonding. The relationship between cooking parameters and CSF of unbleached bamboo
ASAM pulp is shown in Fig 3.
755
750
745
Freeness (mL)
740
735
730
725
720
60 90 120
Time (min)
CONCLUSIONS
1. Based on the findings in this work, the average fiber length of bamboo, of the type
studied, is similar to that of softwood. The Runkel, flexibility, and slenderness ratios
indicated that the pulp and paper of high quality likely could be produced.
2. The chemical composition of the bamboo, having a 47.67% content of -cellulose
and a 1.98% content of ash, indicates a good potential to produce pulp with suitable
yield in comparison with other non-wood species
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 243
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
3. The optimum cooking parameters were found to be 16% NaOH and 90 min cooking
time with 49.1% pulp yield and 14.2 kappa number, giving a freeness of 737 mL CSF
before refining.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for the support of the Institute of Tropical Forestry and
Forest Products (INTROP) and Research Management Center (RMC) - Universiti Putra
Malaysia (UPM), Grant. No. PB 9413400.
REFERENCES CITED
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 244
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
Granholm, K., Harju, L., and Ivaska, A. (2010). “Desorption of metal ions from kraft
pulps. Part 1. Chelation of hardwood and softwood kraft pulp with EDTA,”
BioResources 5(1), 206-226.
Gratani, L., Crescente, M. F., Varone, L., Fabrini, G., and Digiulio, E. (2008). "Growth
pattern and photosynthetic activity of different bamboo species growing in the
Botanical Garden of Rome," Flora 203, 77-84.
Gupta, V. N. (1970). “Effect of metal ions on brightness, bleachability and colour
reversion of groundwood,” Pulp Pap. Can. 71(16), 69-77.
Hart, P. W., and Rudie, A. W. (2014). “Anthraquinone - A review of the rise and fall of
a pulping catalyst,” Proceedings of the TAPPI PEERS Conference, Tacoma, WA,
September 14-17, 2014, Preprint 24-1, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, 2014.
Heijnesson-Hultén, A., Guo, S., Basta, J., Daniel, G., Zhan, H., and Ulf Germgård, U.
(2013). “Impact of drying on the quality of bamboo kraft pulps,” BioResources 8(1),
1245-1257.
Holton, H. H. (1977). “Soda additive softwood pulping; a major new process,” Pulp and
Paper Canada 78(10), T218-T223.
Iwamoto, S., Abe, K., and Yano, H. (2008). “The effect of hemicelluloses on wood pulp
nanofibrillation and nanofiber network characteristics.” Biomacromolecules 9(3),
1022–1026.
Jahan, M. S., Chowdhury, D. A. N., and Islam, M. K. (2003). “ASAM pulping of jute,”
WPP. Pulp & Paper Science and Technology: Alternative Papermaking Fibres.
Kennedy, J. F., Phillips, G. O., and Williams, P. A. (1993). Cellulosics: Pulp, Fiber and
Environmental Aspects, Ellis Horwood, UK.
Khider, O. T., Omer. S. T., and Shomeina, S. K. (2012a). “Ecologically friendly alkaline
pulping of pigeon pea stalks from Sudan,” Researcher 4(4), 88-95.
Khider. O. T., Omer, S., Taha, O., and Shomeina, S. K. (2012b). “Suitability of Sudanese
cotton stalks for alkaline pulping with additives,” Iranica Journal of Energy &
Environment 3(2), 167-172.
Khristova, P., Kordsachia, O., Patt, R., Khider, T., and Karrar, I. (2002). “Alkaline
pulping with additives of kenaf from Sudan,” Industrial Crops and Products 15, 229-
235.
Khristova, P., Kordsachia, O., and Daffalla, S. (2004). “Alkaline pulping of Acacia
seyal,” Tropical Science 44(4), 207-215. DOI: 10.1002/ts.170
Knoblauch, J., Röderweg, L. W., Zollner-Croll, H., and Kordsachia, O. (2000).
“Comparison of pulp properties from the kraft, sulfite and ASAM process,” Das
Papier, IPW (1), T1-T5.
Kordsachia, O., and Patt, R. (1988). “Full bleaching of ASAM pulps without chlorine
compounds,” Holzforschung 42 (3), 203-209.
Kordsachia, O., Wandinger, B., and Patt, R. (1992). “Some investigations on ASAM
pulping and chlorine free bleaching of Eucalyptus from Spain,” Holz Roh-Werkstoff
50, 85-91.
Kordsachia, O., Roßkopf, O., and Patt, R. (2004). “Production of spruce dissolving pulp
with the prehydrolysis-alkaline sulfite process (PH-ASA),” Lenzinger Berichte 83,
24-34.
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 245
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 246
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
Shakhes, J., Zeinaly, F., Marandi, M. A. B., and Saghafi, T. (2011). “The effects of
processing variables on the soda and soda-AQ pulping of kenaf bast fiber,”
BioResources 6(4), 4626-4639.
Sharma, A. K., Dutt, D., Upadhyaya, J. S., and Roy, T. K. (2011). “Anatomical,
morphological, and chemical characterization of Bambusa tulda, Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii, Bambusa balcooa, Malocana baccifera, Bambusa arundinacea and
Eucalyptus tereticornis,” BioResources 6(4), 5062-5073.
Shukry, N., EI-Kalyoubi, S. F., and EI-barbary, M. H. (1999). “Pulping of Casuarina
glauca with ASAM - An environmental friendly process,” Journal of Scientific &
Industrial Research 1(58), 799-806.
Sixta, H. (2006). Handbook of Pulp, Vol. 1, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
Smook, G.A. (1992). Handbook for Pulp and Paper Technologists, 2nd Edn. Angus Wilde
Publications, Vancouver, pp. 419.
Sridach, W. (2010). “The environmentally benign pulping process of non-wood fibers,”
Suranaree Journal of Science and Technology 17(2), 105-123.
Strelis, I., and Kennedy, R. W. (1967). Identification of North American Commercial
Pulpwoods and Pulp Fibers, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada.
Sun, S. N., Yuan, T. Q., Li, M. F., Cao, X. F., Xu, F., and Liu, Q. Y. (2012). “Structural
characterization of hemicelluloses from bamboo culms (Neosinocalamus affinis),”
Cellulose Chem Technol 46 (3-4): 165-176.
TAPPI Test Method T 204 cm-97 (1997). “Solvent extractives of wood and pulp,”
TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
TAPPI Test Method T 257 cm-85 (1985). “Sampling and preparing wood for analysis,”
TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA
TAPPI Test Method T 207 cm-99 (1999). “Water solubility of wood and pulp,” TAPPI
Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
TAPPI Test Method T 222 om-98 (1998). “Acid-insoluble lignin in wood and pulp,”
TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
TAPPI Test Method T 211 om-93 (1993). “Ash in wood, pulp, and paperboard:
Combustion at 525 °C,” TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
TAPPI Test Method T 244 cm-99 (1999). “Acid-insoluble ash in wood, pulp, paper, and
paperboard,” TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
TAPPI Test Method T 212 om-98 (1998). “One percent sodium hydroxide solubility of
wood and pulp,” TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
TAPPI Test Method T 236 om-99 (1999). “Kappa number of pulp,” TAPPI Press,
Atlanta, GA, USA.
TAPPI Test Method T 227 om-99 (1999). “Freeness of pulp (Canadian standard
method),” TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
TAPPI Test Method T 264 cm-97 (1997). “Preparation of wood for chemical analysis,”
TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
Tutus, A., Alma, H. M., and Bektas, I. (2004). “The effect of service age on various
chemical properties of Scots pine and Crimean juniper wood used indoor
constructions,” Wood Res. 49(4), 25-31.
Tutus, A., Ezici, A. C., and Ates, S. (2010). “Chemical, morphological and anatomical
properties and evaluation of cotton stalks (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in pulp industry,”
Scientific Research and Essays 5(12), 1553-1560.
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 247
PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE bioresources.com
Ververis, C., Georghiou, K., Christodoulakis, N., Santas, P., and Santas, R. (2004).
“Fiber dimensions, lignin and cellulose content of various plant materials and their
suitability for paper production,” Industrial Crops and Products (19), 245-254.
Yuan, M., d´Entremont, M. D., Ni, Y., and van Heiningen, A. R. P. (1997). “The role of
transition metal ions during peracetic acid bleaching of chemical pulps,” Pulp Paper
Canada 98(11), T408-T413.
Article submitted: January 9, 2015; Peer review completed: March 23, 2015; Revised
version received and tentatively accepted: July 15, 2015; Further corrections: August 20,
2015; Further corrections and acceptance: October 25, 2015; Published: November 13,
2015.
DOI: 10.15376/biores.11.1.235-248
Moradbak et al. (2016). “ASAM bamboo pulp,” BioResources 11(1), 235-248. 248