AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MCT 311

‫مقدمة األوتوترونيكس‬
311 ‫همك‬

Prof. Dr. Moussa Said

Automotive Engineering Department
September 2019
 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOTRONICS (PART 1)
Contents

CHAPTER I: Ground Vehicle Types ………………………………………………...………………………. 2

CHAPTER II: Vehicle Main Systems…………………………………………………….……………………… 17

CHAPTER III: Propulsion Systems …………………………………………………………….……………... 38

CHAPTER IV: Braking Systems………………………….…………………..……………………………………… 58

CHAPTER V: Suspension Systems ……………………………………………………………………………… 70

CHAPTER VI: Steering Systems …………………………………………………………………………………… 90

CHAPTER VII: Engine Starting System……………………………………………………………………… 120

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CHAPTER III: PROPULSION SYSTEMS

3.1 Introduction
The automotive propulsion is a system which includes the engine
and the transmission. The most common fuels used for internal
combustion engines are petrol and diesel. Both are conventional
fossil fuels. However, there are also alternative fuels which are
increasingly used.

Some of these Fuels are:

▪ Biofuels, mainly Ethanol and Biodiesel (blended with
conventional fuels or pure)
▪ CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
▪ LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) or Autogas
▪ Hydrogen
▪ Electricity (hybrid or battery)

3.2 Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)

An ICE , is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with
an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal
combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and
high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force
to pistons, and thus, transforming chemical energy into useful
mechanical energy.

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A stroke is the movement of a piston from TDC to BDC or vice versa.
While an engine is in operation, the crankshaft rotates
continuously at a nearly constant speed. In a 4-stroke ICE. Each
piston experiences 2 strokes per crankshaft revolution in the
following order. Starting the description at TDC, these are:

1. Intake: The intake valves are open as a result of the cam

pressing down on the valve stem. The piston moves
downward increasing the volume of the combustion chamber
and allowing air and/or air-fuel mixture to enter.
2. Compression: In this stroke, both valves are closed, and the
piston moves upward reducing the combustion chamber
volume which reaches its minimum when the piston is at TDC.
The piston performs work on the charge as it is being

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 compressed; as a result its pressure, temperature and density
increase. Just before the piston reaches TDC, ignition begins.
In the case of gasoline engines, the spark plug receives a high
voltage pulse that generates the spark which gives it its name
and ignites the charge. In the case of diesel engines, the fuel
injector injects fuel into the combustion chamber as a spray;
the fuel ignites due to the high temperature.
3. Combustion: The pressure of the combustion gases pushes
the piston downward. When the piston is near to BDC the
exhaust valve opens.
4. Exhaust: The exhaust valve remains open while the piston
moves upward expelling the combustion gases. For naturally
aspirated engines a small part of the combustion gases may
remain in the cylinder during normal operation because the
piston does not close the combustion chamber completely;
these gases dissolve in the next charge. At the end of this
stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens, and
the sequence repeats in the next cycle.

Diesel versus Gasoline engines

3.2.1 Performance Parameters of ICE:

Engine performance is an indication of the degree of conversion of
chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical
work. Some of the basic performance parameters of an ICE are :

1. Power and mechanical efficiency.

2. Mean effective pressure and torque.

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4. Volumetric efficiency.
5. Fuel-Air ratio.
6. Specific fuel consumption.
7. Thermal efficiency and heat balance.
8. Exhaust smoke and other emissions.

3.2.2 Power and mechanical efficiency:

The total power developed by combustion of

fuel in the combustion chamber is called
indicated power.

𝒌 𝑷𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝑨𝒏
𝑰. 𝑷. = [kW]
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

Where:
k : Number of cylinders,
Pmi : Indicated mean effective pressure in [N/m2],
L : Length of stroke in [m]
A : Area of piston, [m2].
n : number of explosions per minute,
= N/2 for 4-stroke engine.
= N for 2-stroke engine.
N = speed of the engine in [rpm].

The power developed by an engine at the output shaft is called the

brake power.
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝑩. 𝑷. = [kW]
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Where:
T : torque in [N.m].

3.2.3 Vehicles Fuel Economy (Consumption)

The first (and most common) reference in measuring Fuel
Consumption is [Litres/100 km]. This is how many litres of fuel the
vehicle needs in order to travel 100 [km]. You'll often see it
referred to as 'Fuel Economy'. Anything that is listed as less than 6
[litres/100 km] is considered to be pretty good Fuel Economy.

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Example: Calculation of Fuel Economy
(F.E) in [Liter/100 km] of a vehicle
equipped with gasoline engine:
1) at max Engine Power, and
2) at Maximum Engine Torque.

The 4-stroke gasoline-engine has the

following parameters:

Maximum power 77 [kW] at 4000

[rpm].
Maximum Torque 250 [Nm] at 1900 [rpm].
Engine Capacity 1900 [c.c]
Air Density ρair = 1.22 [kg/m3]
Gasoline Density ρfuel = 840 [kg/m3]
Stoichiometric Ratio A/F Ratio = 14.7:1
Volumetric Efficiency = 0.8

At Max Engine Power:

1900×0.8×4000 𝑐𝑐
Air Volume/sec= = 50.7 × 103 [ ]
2×60 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒× 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 50.7×103 ×1.22 𝑐𝑐

Fuel Volume/sec= 𝐴 = = 4.9 [ ]
× 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 14.7×840 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐹
If the car is travelling with an average speed of 100 [km/h] and full
engine power, then the F.E after driving 100 [km] is:

F.E100= 4.9 x 3600= 17.6 [liter/100 km]

At Max Engine Torque:

1900×0.8×1900 𝑐𝑐
Air Volume/sec= = 24 × 103 [ ]
2×60 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒× 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 24×103 ×1.22 𝑐𝑐

Fuel Volume/sec= 𝐴 = = 2.3 [ ]
× 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 14.7×840 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐹

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If the car is travelling with an average speed of 100 [km/h] and full
engine Torque, then the F.E after driving 100 [km] is:

F.E100= 2.3 x 3600= 8.28 [liter/100 km]

3.3 Electric Vehicles

There are two main types of EV:

➢ Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
➢ Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

3.3.1 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV)

Battery Electric vehicles (BEVs) are becoming promising
alternatives to be remedy for urban air pollution, greenhouse gases
and depletion of the finite fossil fuel resources as they use centrally
generated electricity as a power source.

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It is well known that power generation at centralized plants are
much more efficient and their emissions can be controlled much
easier than those emitted from internal combustion engines that
scattered all over the world. Additionally, a BEV can convert the
vehicle’s kinetic energy to electrical energy and store it during the
braking and coasting.

Configurations of Battery Electric Vehicles

The drive train consists of
three major subsystems:
• Electric motor
propulsion
• Energy source
• Auxiliary
The electric propulsion
subsystem is comprised
of a vehicle controller,
power electronic
converter, electric motor,
mechanical transmission,
and driving wheels.
The energy source subsystem involves the energy source, the
energy management unit, and the energy refueling unit.
The auxiliary subsystem consists of the power steering unit, the
climate control unit, and the auxiliary supply unit.

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Performance of Battery Electric Vehicles
Vehicle’s driving performance is usually evaluated by its
acceleration time, maximum speed, and gradeability. In BEV drive
train design, proper motor power rating and transmission
parameters are the primary considerations to meet the
performance specification. The design of all these parameters
depends mostly on the speed–power (torque) characteristics of the
traction motor.

Traction Motor Characteristics

At the low-speed region, the motor has a constant torque. In the
high-speed region (higher than the base speed), the motor has a
constant power. This characteristic is usually represented by a
speed ratio, defined as the ratio of its maximum speed to its base
speed. In low-speed operations, voltage supply to the motor
increases with the increase of the speed through the electronic
converter while the flux is kept constant. At the point of base speed,
the voltage of the motor reaches the source voltage. After the base
speed, the motor voltage is kept constant and the flux is weakened,
dropping hyperbolically with increasing speed. Hence, its torque
also drops hyperbolically with increasing speed.

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 3.3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)
A hybrid Vehicle uses both electricity and fuel injection.

Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles

1. Series hybrid

➢ The fuel tank goes to the engine, but

the engine turns a generator.
➢ Then the generator can either charge
the batteries or power an electric
motor that drives the transmission.
➢ The gasoline engine does not directly
power the car.

2. Parallel Hybrid

➢ Has a fuel tank that supplies gas to

the engine like a regular car.
➢ It also has a set of batteries that run
an electric motor.
➢ Both the engine and electric motor
can turn the transmission at the
same time.

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 3. Series-Parallel Hybrid

➢ Series-Parallel type also called

Power-split hybrids.
➢ More beneficial then above hybrid.
➢ Most of the latest vehicle based on
this hybrid.

Parts of HEV vehicle

3.4 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV)

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The perfect renewable energy sources to use as an energy source
for vehicles is hydrogen. Like electricity, hydrogen is an energy
carrier that can deliver incredible amounts of energy. A fuel cell is
an electrochemical device that can produce electricity by allowing
chemical gases and oxidants as reactants.

With anodes and electrolytes, the fuel cell splits the cation and the
anion in the reactant to produce electricity. Fuel cells use reactants,
which are not harmful to the environment and produce water as a
product of the chemical reaction. As hydrogen is one of the most
efficient energy carriers, the fuel cell can produce direct current
(DC) power to run the electric car. By integrating a hydrogen fuel
cell with batteries, we can produce a sustainable hybrid car.

The most common type of fuel cell for vehicle applications is the
polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell. In a PEM fuel cell,
an electrolyte membrane is sandwiched between a positive
electrode (cathode) and a negative electrode (anode). Hydrogen is
introduced to the anode and oxygen (from air) to the cathode. The
hydrogen molecules break apart into protons and electrons
because of an electrochemical reaction in the fuel cell catalyst.
Protons travel through the membrane to the cathode.

The electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit to

perform work (providing power to the electric car) then
recombine with the protons on the cathode side, where the
protons, electrons, and oxygen molecules combine to form water.

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 References:
[1] Guzzella, L. and Sciarretta, A., 2007. Vehicle propulsion
systems (Vol. 1). Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

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