Term 2 Reate of Reaction G 12

NORTHERN CAPE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
PHISICAL SCIENCES
CHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL CHANGE
TERM 2
RATE OF REACTION
COMPILED BY:
G. IZQUIERDO RODRIGUEZ
&
G. IZQUIERDO GOMEZ
2020
1
Table of Contents
Lesson 1: RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS 2

Topic: Rate of reaction. Factor affecting rate of reaction. Collision theory. 2
Lesson 2- RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS 14

Topic: Measuring rate of reaction. 14
Lesson 3- RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS 24
Topic: Mechanism of reaction and catalysis. Revision exercises on rate of reaction. 24
Lesson 4 - RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS 31

Topic: Revision exercises on rate of reaction. 31
Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 1

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Lesson 1: RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS
Topic: Rate of reaction. Factor affecting rate of reaction. Collision theory.
Objective:
Learners must be able to:
 Define reaction rate.

 Calculate reaction rate from given data. (Questions may also include calculations
of rate in terms of change in mass/volume/ number of moles per time
 List the factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions.
 Explain in terms of the collision theory how the various factors affect the rate of
chemical reactions. The collision theory is a model that explains reaction rate as the
result of particles colliding with a certain minimum energy.
Introduction:
An important characteristic of a reaction is its spontaneity. Spontaneity refers to the

inherent tendency for the process to occur; however, it implies nothing about speed.
Spontaneous does not mean fast. There are many spontaneous reactions that are so slow
that no apparent reaction occurs over a period of weeks or years at normal temperature.
Some reactions are fast and some are slow. Look at these examples:
 Reactions that occur quickly. They can lead to a dangerous explosion.

 Explosion of nitro-glycerine.
 Exchange ion reactions.
Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) → PbI2(s)
Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) →
+ - AgCl(s)
 Reactions that occur slowly.
 Reaction between oxygen and iron in the presence of water.
 Reaction between O2 and H2 at room temperature.
However we can change the speed of the reactions.

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Development:
Rate of reaction
In a chemical reaction, the substances that are undergoing the reaction are called the
reactants, while the substances that form as a result of the reaction are called the
products. The reaction rate describes how quickly or slowly the reaction takes place.
YouTube video (4 minutes):http://youtube.com/watch?v=NhdtqnEfa9w
So how do we know whether a reaction is slow or fast?
One way of knowing is to look either at how quickly the reactants are used during the
reaction or at how quickly the products form.
The rate of a chemical reaction may be described as the quantity of product produced per
unit time or the quantity of reactant used up per unit time.
This quantity can be in terms of change in mass/volume/number of mole per time.
Bur we will define the rate of reaction as the change in concentration of reactants or
products per unit time.
During the course of the reaction the concentration of the reactants decreases and the
concentration of the products increases. To determine the rate of reaction the
concentration of the substances at the beginning and at the end must be measured.
c
Rate of reaction =
t
 ∆𝑐 is the change in concentration of reactants or products

Rate of reaction is measured in [mol·dm-3∙s-1].
Important: Remember that the rate of reaction can also be in terms of mass/volume or
number of moles.

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Example 1: (Example 1 page 272 Siyavula book):
The following reaction takes place:
4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)
After two minutes, 4 g of lithium has been used. Calculate the rate of the reaction.
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of lithium that are used in the reaction
𝑚 4
𝑛 = 𝑀 = 6,94 = 0,58 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Step 2: Calculate the time (in seconds) for the reaction
t = 2 minutes = 2 × 60 s = 120 seconds
Step 3: Calculate the rate of the reaction
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 0,58

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 0,005 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑠 −1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 120
The rate of the reaction is 0,005 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑠 −1
The rate of reaction can be represented graphically:
Product molecules
Number of molecules
Reactant molecules decreases with time

while product molecules increases with
time
Reactant molecules
Time (s)
Collision theory
The collision theory explains the factors that influence reaction rates. Basically, the theory
postulates that the rates of reactions depend on how often and how energetically the
reacting molecules collide with each other.
In order for two reactants to react, they must come into close contact, in other words, they
must collide. However, it is not sufficient for two molecules to collide in order that they
might react.
The reaction will only take place if the collisions are effective "fruitful", and for this to
happen:
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the molecules must have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the force of repulsion
between the electron clouds.
they must collide with the proper orientation (this is of particular importance when
organic molecules react).
According to the Kinetic Molecular Theory, when the reactants collide they form an
Activated Complex. This complex is an intermediate, short-lived of atoms, high energy,
unstable complex that can decompose to form new products or the original reactants.
If new products are formed, then the collision is described as being effective. If the original
reactants result, then the reaction is ineffective.
There are a number of factors that increase effective collisions and then the rate of
reaction.
Factors affecting the rate of reaction:
 The concentration of the reactants.

 The temperature.
 The pressure (if all reactants are gases).
 The surface area of the reactants (solids only)
 The nature of the reacting substances.
 The addition of a suitable catalyst.
YouTube videos):
http://youtube.com/watch?v=ExHV_cFWYSM
OR
http://youtube.com/watch?v=4SK4IlQjZZ4
Concentration:
If the concentration of any reactant in a solution is increased, the rate of reaction is

increased.
Increasing the concentration, increases the probability of a collision between reactant
particles because there are more of them in the same volume and so increases the chance
of a fruitful collision forming products.
In general, increasing the concentration of reactant A or B will increase the chance or
frequency of a successful collision between them and increase the speed of product
formation (slower => faster, illustrated below).
Slower product formation Faster product formation

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The temperature:
When the temperature of the reaction mixture is increased, the average kinetic
energy increases too and so the rate of the reaction.
The particles will move faster and collide more frequently and more energetically.
The increase of the temperature of the reaction mixture increases both the collision
frequency and the collision success.
The Boltzmann distribution can be used to explain the effect of the temperature in the rate
of reaction. The Boltzmann distribution represents the number of particles with specifics
energies. When the temperature increases the average speed of the particles will also
increase and then the average kinetic energy. More particles will have enough energy to
react.
Thus there are more molecules that have kinetic energies that are greater than the
activation energy (graph below).
The area under the graph represents the total number of molecules and it does not change
with the change of temperature
At the lower temperature, T1, only a relatively small proportion of molecules (area below
the blue curve to the right of Ea will have sufficient energy to react. At the higher
temperature, T2, a much higher proportion of the molecules have the required energy.
Thus, since the rate of the reaction depends on the number of molecules that react in a
given time interval, the rate will be higher at T2 than at T1.

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Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy needed for a chemical reaction to
start.
The pressure:
For reactions involving gases, an increase in pressure

increases the reaction rates. If the volume of the container
decreases the pressure increases.
If the pressure of a gas is increased, the molecules are closer

together and more collisions will occur (figure on the right).
Increasing the pressure of a gas is exactly the same as
Surface Area:
As the surface area of the reactants increases, the reaction rate increases.
If one of the reactants is a solid, the surface area of the solid will affect how fast the reaction
goes. This is because the two types of molecule can only bump into each other at the liquid
solid interface, i.e. on the surface of the solid.
So the larger the surface area of the solid, the faster the reaction will be.
WHY?
o Increasing the surface area of the reactants results in a higher number of reaction
sites.
(Reaction sites - specific sites on molecules at which reactions occur).
o Increasing the number of reaction sites increases the number of total collisions.
o The greater the frequency of total collisions, the greater the frequency of effective
collisions.
o If the frequency of effective collisions increases, so does the reaction rate.
The most effective way of increasing the surface area of a solid is to grind the solid into a
powder.
Nature of the reactants:
Chemical reactions are usually linked to the breaking of chemical bonds in the reagents
and the formation of new bonds to form products. During a chemical reaction the bonds in
the reactant molecules have to be broken to form free atoms. These free atoms can then
rearrange to form new bonds. The bond energy needed to break the existing bonds in
reactant molecules varies according to the nature of the reactants.
Different reactants have different energies of activation. Reaction between polar or ionic
molecules is very fast. Oxidation-Reduction reactions are slower than ionic reactions
because they involve transfer of electrons and bond rearrangement. The physical state of
reacting substances is important in determining their reactivity. The reaction in which ionic
solutions are involved also take place at high speed (figure below).

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The rate of reaction will be slow in reaction where many bonds have to be broken unlike
the precipitation reaction where no bonds have to be broken. The rates of organic reactions
are generally slower than inorganic reactions because organic molecules are generally
larger than inorganic molecules and more bonds must be broken.
The addition of a suitable catalyst:
YouTube video: http://youtube.com/watch?v=eSpnL1bWps8
In many reactions the activation energy is very high. This problem is overcome by using a
catalyst. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a reaction, but is chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction.
When the reaction has finished, you would have exactly the same mass of catalyst as you
had at the beginning.
Catalysts work by increasing the frequency of collisions between reactants, altering the
orientation of reactants so that more collisions are effective, reducing intermolecular
bonding within reactant molecules, or donating electron density to the reactants.
A catalyst increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy (graph below).

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A catalyst provides an alternative route for the reaction (new reaction pathway). That
alternative route has lower activation energy.
This ensures that more effective collisions to take place per unit time. The rate of reaction
therefore increases. Showing this on an energy profile below:
A catalyst creates a new reaction pathway with lower activation energy.
Methods to measure reaction rate.
There are many methods to measure the rate of a chemical reaction, depending upon a
large number of variables. The method used depends on the characteristics of the reaction
being investigated (gas phase, liquid phase, solid phase or mixed phase). In principle any
chemical or physical change that occurs as the reaction proceeds can be used tom
measure its rate. This could be ph, volume, colour, mass, temperature, pressure, etc.
The following are some methods which can be used to measure reaction rate:
Changes in volumes:
This is useful for reactions which produce gases. The
reaction flask is connected to a syringe, as shown in the
diagram on the right, and the volumes indicated on the
syringe scale read off at regular time intervals.
Changes in mass:
If a gas is formed during the reaction, the total mass of the
reaction mixture will decrease as the gas is released, thus
the mass of the mixture can be measure at regular
intervals of time during the reaction.

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Changes in colour:
If a reaction produces a coloured substance, that is, one

that has an absorption maximum at some wavelength in the
visible spectrum, one can measure the increase in the
absorbance of the solution in which the reaction takes place
as a function of time. Since the absorbance of a solute is
directly proportional to its molar concentration, the rate of
the reaction is easy to determine. A spectrophotometer
can be used.
Similar method, known as turbidimetry makes use of the scattering of light from aqueous
suspensions. If a precipitate gradually forms (amount of solid formed), the solution will
become more opaque with time as more finely divided particles precipitate out. The rate at
which the opacity of the liquid increases can be used as a measure of the reaction rate.
Summary:
Rate of reaction as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit

time.
Factors affecting the rate of reaction
REVISION
Activity 1:
Write only the word/term for each of the following descriptions next to the question number.
1.1. The change in concentration of reactants or products per time unit.
1.2. A substance which speeds up a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at the end of
the reaction.
1.3. The minimum amount of energy needed for a chemical reaction to start.
1.4. Intermediate, short-lived group of atoms, before they form the product.
1.5. Theory that explains the factors that influence reaction rates. Basically, the theory
postulates that the rates of reactions depend on how often and how energetically
the reacting molecules collide with each other.

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Activity 2:
Multiple-choice questions
Four options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Each question
has only one correct answer. Choose the correct answer.
2.1 Sulphuric acid and zinc are allowed to react in an open conical flask, producing the
following reaction:
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) →ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Which one of the following will increase the rate of reaction?
A Decreasing temperature.
B Adding a suitable catalyst.
C Closing the flask with a stopper.
D Increasing the amount of hydrochloric acid.
2.2 Magnesium ribbon is added to a dilute hydrochloric acid solution in a flask.
Which one of the following will increase the rate at which hydrogen is produced?
A Closing the flask with a stopper.
B Increasing the amount of hydrochloric acid.
C Using a smaller piece of magnesium ribbon.
D Using the same amount of magnesium powder.
Activity 3:
Consider the reaction represented by the following equation:
FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq) → H2S(g) + Fe Cl2(aq) ΔH < 0
3.1 List all the possible ways to increase the rate of the reaction.
3.2 Explain in terms of the collision theory how an increase in temperature produces
and increase in the rate of reaction.
3.3 Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic? Explain.
3.4 Draw a labelled energy profile for this reaction.

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Activity 4:
For the reaction: MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + H2O (l) + Cl2(g) the following two
experiments were done:
Test tube X Test tube Y

1 mol.dm-3HCl in excess 1 mol.dm-3HCl in excess
1 g MnO2 pieces 1 g MnO2 powder
4.1 Give TWO reasons why the rate of the reaction in Y is higher.
4.2 How will the rate of the reaction in test tube X be affected if more HCl of the same
concentration is added?
4.3 List TWO ways in which the rate at which Cl2 is produced can be increased in BOTH
test tubes.

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Solution of the activities:
Activity 1:
1.1. Rate of reaction/ reaction rate/speed of reaction.
1.2. Catalyst.
1.3. Activation energy.
1.4. Activated complex.
1.5. Collision theory.
Activity 2:
2.1. B
2.2. D
Activity 3:
3.1 Using powdered FeS/ using more FeS/ Using HCl of higher concentration/heat HCl
in warm bath/ Using a suitable Catalyst.
3.2 When the temperature is increased the molecules moves faster then the average
kinetic energy of the molecules increases, more molecules now have sufficient
kinetic energy for more collisions to be effective therefore a higher reaction rate.
3.3 Exothermic. The enthalpy change is negative then energy (heat) is released.
3.4.
Activity 4:
4.1 Powdered MnO2 provides a greater surface area and more effective collisions are
possible.
4.2 Rate won’t be affected. The concentration is the same.
4.3 Use HCl of higher concentration in both / Use more MnO2 in both / Use HCl of higher
temperature in both / Use MnO2 powder in X / Use a suitable catalyst.

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Lesson 2- RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS
Topic: Measuring rate of reaction.
Objective:
 Answer questions and interpret data (tables or graphs) on different experimental

techniques for measuring the rate of a given reaction
Introduction:
Summary:
Rate of reaction is the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.
Factors affecting the rate of reaction

We also learned that there are many methods to measure the rate of a chemical
reaction, depending upon a large number of variables.
The method used depends on the characteristics of the reaction being investigated (gas
phase, liquid phase, solid phase or mixed phase).
In principle any chemical or physical change that occurs as the reaction proceeds can be
used to measure its rate.
This could be ph, volume, colour, mass, temperature, pressure, etc.

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Development:
MEASURING THE RATE OF REACTION:
Measuring the volume of gas produced per unit time.
The volume of gas produced in a reaction may be measured by collecting the gas in a gas
syringe.
As more gas is produced, the plunger is pushed out and the volume of the gas in the
syringe can be recorded.
By measuring the volume at set time intervals, we can graph the data and hence determine
the rate of the reaction.
Examples of reactions that produce gas are listed below:
 Reactions that produce hydrogen gas:

When a metal reacts with an acid, hydrogen gas is produced. The hydrogen can be
collected in a test tube. A lit splint can be used to test for hydrogen. The ’pop’ sound
shows that hydrogen is present.

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For example, magnesium reacts with sulfuric acid to produce magnesium sulphate and
hydrogen.
Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
 Reactions that produce carbon dioxide:

When a carbonate reacts with an acid, carbon dioxide gas is produced. When
carbon dioxide is passed through limewater, it turns the limewater milky. A burning
splint will also stop burning (be extinguished) in the presence of CO 2 gas. These
are simple tests for the presence of carbon dioxide.
For example, calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce calcium
chloride, water and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (ℓ) + CO2 (g)
 Reactions that produce oxygen:

Example: Hydrogen peroxide decomposes in the presence of a manganese (IV) oxide
catalyst to produce oxygen and water. .
2H2O2 (aq) → 2H2O(ℓ) + O2(g)

𝑀𝑛𝑂2
Changes in mass:
For a reaction that produces gas, the mass of the reaction vessel can be measured over
time. The mass loss indicates the amount of gas that has been produced and escaped
from the reaction vessel.
If the reaction vessel is sealed this method will not work.
Note that the mass of the sample will decrease as the reaction proceeds and the mass lost
from the sample will increase as the reaction proceeds. The material lost (that accounts
for the mass loss) can be collected and measured (for example with the gas syringe
method as shown.

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Changes in colour:
In some reactions there is a change in colour which tells us that the reaction is occurring.
The faster the colour change the faster the reaction rate.
For example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid) is titrated with sodium hydroxide, an
indicator such as phenolphthalein is added. The solution is clear in an acidic solution and
changes to pink when the reaction is complete. If the concentration of the base were
increased, the colour change would happen faster (after a smaller volume of base was
added), showing that a higher concentration of base increased the reaction rate.
CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (ℓ)
If a reaction produces a coloured substance, that is, one that has an

absorption maximum at some wavelength in the visible spectrum, one
can measure the increase in the absorbance of the solution in which
the reaction takes place as a function of time. Since the absorbance of
a solute is directly proportional to its molar concentration, the rate of
the reaction is easy to determine. A spectrophotometer can be used.
Similar method, known as turbidimetry makes use of the scattering of light from aqueous
suspensions. If a precipitate gradually forms (amount of solid formed), the solution will
become more opaque with time as more finely divided particles precipitate out. The rate at
which the opacity of the liquid increases can be used as a measure of the reaction rate.

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Formation of a precipitate:
In reactions where a precipitate is formed, the amount of precipitate formed in a period of

time can be used as a measure of the reaction rate. For example, when sodium thiosulfate
reacts with an acid, a yellow precipitate of sulfur is formed. The reaction is as follows:
Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + SO2 (aq) + H2O(ℓ) + S (s)
One way to estimate the average rate of this reaction is to carry out the investigation in a
conical flask and to place a piece of paper with a black cross underneath the bottom of the
flask. At the beginning of the reaction, the cross will be clearly visible when you look into
the flask.
However, as the reaction progresses and more precipitate is formed, the cross will
gradually become less clear and will eventually disappear altogether.
Measuring the time that it takes for this to happen will give an idea of the reaction rate.
Note that it is not possible to collect the SO2 gas that is produced in the reaction, because
it is very soluble in water.

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Experiment 1:
Aim: To measure the effect of concentration on the average rate of a reaction.
Apparatus:
300 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3 solution. (Prepare a solution of sodium thiosulfate
by adding 12 g of Na2S2O3 to 300 cm3 of water). This is solution ’A’.
300 cm3 of water
100 cm3 of 1:10 dilute hydrochloric acid. This is solution ’B’.
Six 100 cm3 glass beakers, measuring cylinders, paper and marking pen, stopwatch
or timer
Variables
Dependent: Rate of reaction
Independent: Concentrations
Controlled:
temperature (constant), the same concentration of of hydrocloric acid,
The same volume of the sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 (aq) plus water
The same volume of acid 
Method:
WARNING!
Do not get hydrochloric acid (HCl) on your hands. We suggest you use gloves and safety
glasses whenever handling acids and that you handle with care.
One way to measure the average rate of this reaction is to place a piece of paper with a
cross underneath the reaction beaker to see how long it takes until the cross cannot be
seen due to the formation of the sulfur precipitate.
1. Set up six beakers on a flat surface and label them 1 to 6.

2. Pour 60 cm3 solution “A” into the first beaker and add 20 cm 3 of water
3. Place the beaker on a piece of paper with a large black cross on it.
4. Use the measuring cylinder to measure 10 cm3 HCl. Now add this HCl to the solution
that is already in the first beaker (NB: Make sure that you always clean the
measuring cylinder you have used before using it for another chemical).
5. Using a stopwatch with seconds, write down the time it takes for the precipitate that
forms to block out the cross.
6. Now measure 50 cm3 of solution A into the second beaker and add 30 cm 3 of water.
Place the beaker over the black cross on the paper. To this second beaker, add 10
cm3 HCl, time the reaction and write down the results as you did before.

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7. Continue the experiment by diluting solution A as shown below.
Beaker Solution A (cm3) Water (cm3) Solution B (cm3) Time (s)

1 60 20 10
2 50 30 10
3 40 40 10
4 30 50 10
5 20 60 10
6 10 70 10
The equation for the reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid is:
Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + SO2 (aq) + H2O(ℓ) + S (s)
Results:
 Calculate the reaction rate in each beaker. Remember that:

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑
rate of the formation of product = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
In this experiment you are stopping each experiment when the same approximate amount
of precipitate is formed (the cross is blocked out by precipitate). So a relative reaction rate
can be determined using the following equation:
1
reaction rate = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
 Represent your results on a graph. Concentration will be on the x-axis and reaction rate on
the y-axis. Note that the original volume of Na2S2O3 can be used as a measure of
concentration.
 Why was it important to keep the volume of HCl constant?
 Describe the relationship between concentration and reaction rate.
Analysis of the results:
From the results learners will get a graph of rate of reaction vs. concentration similar to the
sketch graph sown below.

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The shape of the graph is a straight line which is a graph of a linear function then from the
shape of the graph we can conclude that the rate of reaction increases proportionally when
the concentration of the sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3 (aq) increases.
Conclusions:
The higher the concentration the less time for the precipitate to form – therefore indicating a
higher or faster rate of reaction. The temperature and other relevant factors were kept
constant.
OR
The higher the concentration of the reactants, the faster the average reaction rate.
OR
The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of one of the reactants.
Summary:
There are many methods to measure the rate of a chemical reaction.

 Measuring the volume of gas produced per unit time.
 Changes in mass
 Changes in colour
 Formation of a precipitate
REVISION
Activity 1: (QUESTION 5 Trial 2014)
A group of learners use the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid to
investigate ONE of the factors that affects the rate of a reaction. The following equation
represents the reaction that takes place.
Mg(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → MgCℓ2(aq) + H2(g)
The learners add 4,8 g of magnesium ribbon to EXCESS DILUTE hydrochloric acid and
measure the mass of magnesium reacting per unit time.
The results recorded for the reaction are represented in the graph below. (The graph is
not drawn to scale.)
Amount of Mg (mol)
0,16
0 30 Time (s)

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1.1 Does the graph represent reactants used or products formed per unit time?
Write down only REACTANTS USED or PRODUCTS FORMED. Explain the
answer. (2)
1.2 Use the data on the graph to calculate the change in the mass of magnesium (4)
during the first 30 s of the reaction.
1.3 Calculate the average rate of the reaction (in grams per second) during the (2)
first 30 s.
1.4 The learners repeat the experiment with EXCESS CONCENTRATED

hydrochloric acid.
Copy the graph above into the ANSWER BOOK. On the same set of axes,
use a dotted line to show the curve that will be obtained when concentrated
hydrochloric acid is used. Label that curve M (no numerical values are
required).
(2)
[10]

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Solution to the activities:
Activity 1:
1.1 Reactants used/Reaktante gebruik 
The graph shows the reaction starts with a certain amount (0.2 mol) of
reactant (magnesium) which decreases as the reaction proceeds. 
Die grafiek toon dat die reaksie begin met ‘n sekere hoeveelheid (0.2 mol)
reaktante (magnesium) wat afneem soos wat die reaksie verloop. 
(2)
1.2 n = 0.2 – 0,16 = 0.04 
m
n= 
M
m
0,04 = 
24
m = 0,96 g 
(4)
1.3  amount
Average rate =
 time
0.96
= 
30  0
(2)
= 0.03 g∙s-1  (0,032 g∙s-1)
1.4
Hoeveelheid mg (mol)
Amount of Mg (mol)
Notes
0,16  Steeper gradient (slope) 

 Graph M intercept sooner with time axis 
0 30 Time/ Tyd (s) (2)
[10]

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Lesson 3- RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS
Topic: Mechanism of reaction and catalysis. Revision exercises on rate of reaction.
Objective:
 Define the term positive catalyst as a substance that increases the rate of a
chemical reaction without itself undergoing a permanent change.
 Interpret graph of distribution of molecular energies (number of particles against
their kinetic energy or Maxwell-Boltzmann curves) to explain how a catalyst,
temperature and concentration affect rate.
 Explain that a catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by providing an alternative
path of lower activation energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation
energy.
Introduction:
In lesson 45 we mentioned that it is the collision of particles that causes reactions to occur
and that only some of these collisions are successful.
This is because the reactant particles have a wide range of kinetic energies, and only a
small fraction of the particles will have enough energy (and the correct orientation) to
actually break bonds so that a chemical reaction can take place.
We learned in Grade 11 that the minimum energy that is needed for a reaction to take
place is called the activation energy.
Development:
Interpret graphs of distribution of molecular energies (number of particles against

temperature and concentration affect the rate of reaction.
YouTube video: http://youtube.com/watch?v=GwcF3K_-WeY
Remember that activation energy is the minimum energy required for a chemical
reaction to proceed.
Even at a fixed temperature, the energy of the particles varies, meaning that only some of
them will have enough energy to be part of the chemical reaction, depending on the
activation energy for that reaction.
Increasing the reaction temperature has the effect of increasing the number of particles
with enough energy to take part in the reaction, and increasing the reaction rate.

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Remember that a molecule must have energy greater than the activation energy, as well
as the correct orientation, for the reaction to take place. Increasing the temperature of a
reaction mixture raises the average kinetic energy of the particles
A higher proportion of the particles can now react making the reaction faster.
With the increased movement of the molecules the chances of a molecule having the
correct orientation is also increased.

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An endothermic reaction an be represented by the graph below:
Reactants + Energy → Products i.e. a reaction that absorbs energy
An exothermic reaction can be represented by the graph below:
Reactants → Products + Energy i.e. a reaction that releases energy.
A catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by providing an alternative path of

lower activation energy.
A catalyst increases reaction rates in a slightly different way from other methods of
increasing reaction rate.
The function of a catalyst is to lower the activation energy so that a greater proportion of
the particles have enough energy to react.
A catalyst can lower the activation energy for a reaction by:
orienting the reacting particles in such a way that successful collisions are more
likely
reacting with the reactants to form an intermediate that requires lower energy to
form the product.

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In conclusion:
A catalyst provides an alternative route for the reaction (new reaction pathway). That
alternative route has lower activation energy.
This ensures that more effective collisions to take place per unit time. The rate of
reaction therefore increases.
Some metals e.g. platinum, copper and iron can act as catalysts in certain reactions. In
our own bodies, we have enzymes that are catalysts, which help to speed up biological
reactions. Catalysts generally react with one or more of the reactants to form a chemical
intermediate, which then reacts to form the final product.
The chemical intermediate is sometimes called the activated complex.
The following is an example of how a reaction involving a catalyst might proceed. A and B
are reactants, C is the catalyst, and D is the product of the reaction of A and B.
Step 1: A + C → AC Step 2: B + AC → ACB Step 3: ACB → C + D
ACB represents the intermediate chemical. Although the catalyst © is consumed by

reaction 1, it is later released again by reaction 3, so that the overall reaction with a catalyst
is as follows:
A+B+C→D+C
You can see from this that the catalyst is released at the end of the reaction, completely
unchanged. Without a catalyst the overall reaction would be:
A+B→D
The catalyst has provided an alternative set of reaction steps, which we refer to as an
alternative pathway. The pathway involving the catalyst requires less activation energy and
is therefore faster. This can be seen in the following diagram.

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Positive catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself undergoing a permanent change.
Or
A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction, without being consumed by the reaction.

It increases the reaction rate by lowering the activation energy for a reaction.
Energy diagrams are useful to illustrate the effect of a catalyst on reaction rates.
Catalysts decrease the activation energy required for a reaction to proceed (shown by the
smaller magnitude of the activation energy on the energy diagram, and therefore increase
the reaction rate. Remember that with a catalyst, the average kinetic energy of the
molecules remains the same but the required energy decreases.
Summary:
Activation energy is the minimum energy required for a chemical reaction to proceed.
A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction, without being consumed by the reaction. It
increases the reaction rate by lowering the activation energy for a reaction.
A catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by providing an alternative path of lower
activation energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation energy

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REVISION
Activity 1 (Exercise 7-4.2 page 295 Siyavula book grade 12)
5 g of zinc pieces are added to 400 cm 3 of 0,5 mol.dm-3 hydrochloric acid. To investigate
the average rate of the reaction, the change in the mass of the flask containing the zinc
and the acid is measured by placing the flask on a direct reading balance. The reading on
the balance shows that there is a decrease in mass during the reaction. The reaction which
takes place is given by the following equation:
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
a) Why is there a decrease in mass during the reaction?

b) The experiment is repeated, this time using 5 g of powdered zinc instead of pieces
of zinc. How will this influence the average rate of the reaction?
c) The experiment is repeated once more, this time using 5 g of zinc pieces and 600
cm3 of 0,5 mol·dm-3 hydrochloric acid. How does the average rate of this reaction
compare with the original reaction rate?
d) What effect would a catalyst have on the average rate of this reaction?
Activity 2 (Exercise 7-4.3 page 295 Siyavula book grade 12)
5 g of calcium carbonate powder reacts with 20 cm 3 of a 0,1 mol·dm-3 solution of

hydrochloric acid. The gas that is produced at a temperature of 25 ⁰ C is collected in a gas
syringe.
a) Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
b) The average rate of the reaction is determined by measuring the volume of gas that
is produced in the first minute of the reaction. How would the average rate of the
reaction be affected if:
i. a lump of calcium carbonate of the same mass is used
ii. 20 cm3 of 0,2 mol·dm-3 hydrochloric acid is used

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Activity 1:
a) The reaction does not take place in a sealed container and so the hydrogen gas can
escape from the reaction vessel.
b) The rate will increase since there will be a greater surface area of zinc to react with
the acid.
c) There is a larger volume of hydrochloric acid. However the concentration is not
increased and so the reaction rate is unchanged.
d) The average rate of reaction would increase.
Activity 2:
a) CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (ℓ) → CaCl2 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O(ℓ)
b)
i. The surface area is decreased; therefore the average rate of reaction would decrease.
ii. The average rate of reaction depends on the concentration of liquid reactants and not
on the volume. The concentration is increased however, so the rate will increase.

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Lesson 4 - RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS
Topic: Revision exercises on rate of reaction.
Objective:
 Calculate reaction rate from given data. (Questions may also include calculations
of rate in terms of change in mass/volume/ number of moles per time
 List the factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions.
 Explain in terms of the collision theory how the various factors affect the rate of
chemical reactions. The collision theory is a model that explains reaction rate as the
result of particles colliding with a certain minimum energy.
 Answer questions and interpret data (tables or graphs) on different experimental
techniques for measuring the rate of a given reaction
 Interpret graph of distribution of molecular energies (number of particles against
temperature and concentration affect rate.
 Explain that a catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by providing an alternative
path of lower activation energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation
energy.
Introduction:
Summary:
Rate of reaction is the change in concentration of reactants or products per
unit time.
Factors affecting the rate of reaction:

There are many methods to measure the rate of a chemical reaction.
 Measuring the volume of gas produced per unit time.

 Changes in mass
 Changes in colour
 Formation of a precipitate
Activation energy is the minimum energy required for a chemical reaction to
proceed.
A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction, without being consumed by the reaction.

It increases the reaction rate by lowering the activation energy for a reaction.

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A catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by providing an alternative path of lower
activation energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation energy.
Development:
Activities for revision
Activity 1:
Study the following graph:
1.1 What is meant by the activation energy of a reaction?

1.2 If the activation complex is 43, determine the activation energy of the reaction as
represented on the graph.
1.3 What is represented by X on the graph?
1.4 Explain this state.
1.5 Determine the reaction heat of this reaction.
1.6 Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic? Motivate.
1.7 What effect will the addition of a catalyst have on this reaction? Also use a graph
in your explanation.
Activity 2:
A group of grade 12 learners used the measuring of volume during a chemical reaction
where a gas is form as a method to determine the rate of reaction. They used the reaction
of magnesium with hydrochloric acid. The volume of the gas collected was measured
every minute. The first experiment using single lump, second experiment using
granulated zinc.
The following results are obtained.
Time (minute) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3
Experiment 1 Volume of H2 (cm ) 0 35 102 130 145 154 154
Experiment 2 Volume of H2 (cm3) 0 50 120 144 151 154 154
2.1 Draw a diagram showing how the apparatus was set up to collect the results.
2.2 Write the balanced equation of the reaction that took place.
2.3 State the hypothesis for this investigation?
2.4 What is the dependent variable?
2.5 Name variables that must be control during this investigation.
2.6 Plot a graph using the results of the investigation.
2.7 How would you determine the rate of reaction from this graph?
2.8 Write a conclusion for this investigation.
2.9 Explain this conclusion using the collision theory.

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Question 3:
Marble chips (CaC03) of mass 1,05 g were placed in a flask and covered with 10 cm 3 of
a 2 mol·dm-3 hydrochloric acid solution at 20°C. The flask was weighed at two-minute
intervals to determine the loss in mass caused by the production of carbon dioxide. A
graph labelled Q was drawn from the results. Use this graph to answer the questions
that follow.
3.1 Write a balanced equation for the reaction between the marble chips and
hydrochloric acid.
3.2 What mass of carbon dioxide was formed after 18 min?
3.3 During which ONE of the following time intervals was the reaction fastest? (Choose
from: 0 - 2 minutes, 2 - 4 minutes, 8 - 10 minutes or 16 - 18minutes.)
3.4 After how many minutes had only half of the CaCO3 reacted?
3.5 Predict what will happen to the rate of production of carbon dioxide in the following
cases:
(Choose from: increases, decreases or stays the same.)
3.5.1 The marble chips are ground to powder
3.5.2 A 20 cm3 sample of a 2 mol·dm-3 hydrochloric acid solution is used.
The experiment is then repeated by increasing the temperature of the HCl solution from
20°C to 30°C.
3.6 Which graph, P, Q or R, will be obtained from these results?

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Activity 4:
A group of grade 12 learners investigated the rate (speed) of the reaction between calcium
carbonate and hydrochloric acid, the changed in the mass of the flask containing calcium
carbonate and 1 mol.dm3 of hydrochloric acid was measured by placing the flask on a
direct reading balance as shown in figure below.
The following data was obtained during the investigation.
Decrease in Time (min)

mass (g)
0 0
1 1,3
2 2.3
3 3.0
4 3.5
4.1 Write the balanced equation of the
reaction that took place. 5 3.8
4.2 Write a possible investigative question
for this investigation. 6 3.8
4.3 State the hypothesis for this
investigation? 7 3.8
4.4 What is the dependable variable?
4.5 With the result of the experiment plot a graph of decrease in mass vs time.
4.6 Write a conclusion for the experiment done.
4.7 Explain the shape of the graph in terms of the collision theory.
4.8 Determine the average rate of production of CO2 in grams per second during the
two first minutes.

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Activity 5:
During a practical examination a learner investigates the reaction rate of the reaction
between zinc pieces and an excess of hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) at 25°C.
A dish with 20 g zinc pieces and an excess of hydrochloric acid is placed on an electronic
scale. The following results are obtained from the observations:
5.1 What type of reaction system occurs here, open or closed? Motivate.
5.2 When will the reaction rate be the highest?
5.3 Explain what can be deduced from points I, J and K.
5.4 Draw a sketch graph of the loss of mass (g) against time (s) for the reaction. (Label
the graph P.)
5.5 On the same set of axes draw the corresponding sketch graph Q if hydrochloric acid
with a concentration of 0,5 mol.dm-3 is used instead of the original concentration of 1
mol·dm-3.
5.6 Using the collision theory explain how the above change in concentration influenced
the reaction rate.
5.7 Name three ways (excluding a change in concentration) in which reaction rate can
be increased. Give a reason for each.

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Activity 6:
A learner investigates a method to increase the rate at which hydrogen gas develops in
the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid.
6.1 By changing one of the reaction conditions the learner obtains the graph below, in
which:
 Curve X represents the original conditions.
 Curve Y represents the changed condition that results in a higher reaction rate.
6.1.1 Which reaction condition did the learner change?

6.1.2 Apply the collision theory to explain why the changed condition leads to a
higher reaction rate.
6.2 She then changes another condition. The effect is represented in the following
graph in which, once again:
 Curve X represents the original condition

 Curve Y represents the changed condition, which produced a higher reaction
rate.
6.2.1 Which reaction condition did the learner change?

6.2.2 Name the energy value that is represented by:
(a) P
(b) Q
(c) R
6.3 Draw the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve to show the effect of this change.

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Activity 1:
1.1. It is the minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to take place.
1.2. EA = Eactivated complex - Ereactants
EA = 43 – 20
EA = 23 kJ
1.3. The activated complex; also called transition-state intermediate.
1.4. It is a group of free/unbound ions/atoms (derived from the reactants) that exist after
existing bonds in the reactants have been broken. It is a temporary transitional
product before the particles are rearranged to form new bonds (products).
1.5. ΔH = H(products) - H(reactants)
ΔH = 10 - 20 = -10 kJ
1.6. Exothermic. The energy of the products is less than that of the reactants and
energy is therefore released during the reaction.
1.7. A catalyst will decrease rate of the reaction by providing an alternative path of lower
activation energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation energy required for
this reaction and therefore the reaction can take place at a faster rate.
Activity 2:
2.1
2.2 Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g).

2.3 The rate of reaction depends on the surface area it is higher for granulated zinc than
for single lump of zinc.
2.4 Rate of reaction.
2.5 Temperature, concentration of HCl and mass of zinc.

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2.6
Volume of gas produced

(cm3 ) Time (min)
2.7 Determine the gradient of the graph. (or average gradient).

2.8 When granulated zinc is used the speed of reaction (reaction rate) is greater than
when a single lump is used because the surface area increased.
2.9 When granulated zinc is used the surface area is increased then more effective
collision can take place simultaneously and thus the reaction rate increases.
Activity 3:
3.1. CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (ℓ) + CO2 (g)
3.2. 0,5 g (loss of mass = mass of CO2 formed
3.3. 2-4 minutes (graph is steeper or larger gradient.
3.4. 5 minutes. (half of the total mass of CO2
3.5. 1. Increases (surface area is increased)
3.5.2. Remains the same (the acid is in excess, but the concentration is still the
same, therefore reaction rate remains the same.
3.6. P
Increase of temperature increases the reaction rate, therefore 0,5 g of CO 2 will be
produced in a shorter time.
Activity 4:
4.1 CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
4.2 What does occur to the rate of reaction when hydrogen is released during the
reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid during time?
4.3 During the reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid the rate of mass
decrease as hydrogen is released then rate of reaction decreases with time.
4.4 Rate of reaction.
4.5
5
Decrease in mass (g)
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time in munutes

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4.6 The rate of mass decrease as hydrogen is released then rate of reaction decreases
with time.
4.7 As the reactants are used up, the concentration of the acid is decreased and the
surface of calcium carbonate is decreased. As a result the number of collision
between the reactants is steadily reduced and then the rate of reaction decreases.
2.3g  0
4.8  0,0192 g  s 1 or 0,0192 g/s
120s  0
Activity 5:
5.1 Open system; the reaction takes place in an open dish. Some of the products that
form can escape. Therefore, interaction with the environment can take place in this
case.
5.2 At the start of the reaction, as soon as the reactants are added together and their
concentrations are high.
5.3 The mass of the container and contents does not change after 80 s. The reaction is
complete.
5.4. and 5.5
5.6 The hydrochloric acid with a lower concentration has less hydrochloric acid particles
per volume.
Therefore:
- fewer particles have Ek ≥ EA
- fewer effective collisions
- slower reaction rate
5.7 Use zinc powder instead of zinc pieces:

 the state of division is finer therefore:
 the reaction surface area is greater
 more effective collisions take place
 reaction is faster
 Add a suitable catalyst because it lowers the activation energy required therefore:
 more particles have Ek ≥ EA
 reaction rate increases
 Conduct the reaction at a higher temperature
 the reactant particles obtain extra energy to move faster and more
chaotically,
Therefore:
o the average Ek of the particles increases
o more particles have Ek ≥ EA
o more effective collisions
o reaction rate increases
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Activity 6:
6.1.1 The temperature of the reaction mixture is increased.
6.1.2 At a higher temperature, a greater fraction of the molecules/more molecules move

faster.
>: more particles have a higher Ek
>: more particles have Ek ≥ EA
>: more effective collisions between the particles
>: reaction rate increases
6.2.1 A catalyst was added.
6.2.2 a) P: ΔH, heat of reaction, change in enthalpy

b) Q: activation energy for the reaction without a catalyst.
c) R: the activation energy for the reaction with a catalyst.
6.3 A larger number of particles available when Ek ≥ EA; because EA for the reaction
with a catalyst is lower.

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NORTHERN CAPE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Lesson 1: RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS 2

Lesson 2- RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS 14

Lesson 3- RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS 24

Topic: Mechanism of reaction and catalysis. Revision exercises on rate of reaction. 24

Lesson 4 - RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS 31

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 1

Topic: Rate of reaction. Factor affecting rate of reaction. Collision theory.

Learners must be able to:

 Define reaction rate.

An important characteristic of a reaction is its spontaneity. Spontaneity refers to the

 Reactions that occur quickly. They can lead to a dangerous explosion.

However we can change the speed of the reactions.

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 2

YouTube video (4 minutes):http://youtube.com/watch?v=NhdtqnEfa9w

So how do we know whether a reaction is slow or fast?

This quantity can be in terms of change in mass/volume/number of mole per time.

 ∆𝑐 is the change in concentration of reactants or products

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 3

The following reaction takes place:

4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)

Step 2: Calculate the time (in seconds) for the reaction

t = 2 minutes = 2 × 60 s = 120 seconds

Step 3: Calculate the rate of the reaction

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 0,58

The rate of the reaction is 0,005 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑠 −1

The rate of reaction can be represented graphically:

Reactant molecules decreases with time

Factors affecting the rate of reaction:

 The concentration of the reactants.

If the concentration of any reactant in a solution is increased, the rate of reaction is

Slower product formation Faster product formation

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 5

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 6

For reactions involving gases, an increase in pressure

If the pressure of a gas is increased, the molecules are closer

Nature of the reactants:

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 7

The addition of a suitable catalyst:

YouTube video: http://youtube.com/watch?v=eSpnL1bWps8

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 8

A catalyst creates a new reaction pathway with lower activation energy.

Methods to measure reaction rate.

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 9

If a reaction produces a coloured substance, that is, one

Rate of reaction as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 10

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) →ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Which one of the following will increase the rate of reaction?

2.2 Magnesium ribbon is added to a dilute hydrochloric acid solution in a flask.

Consider the reaction represented by the following equation:

FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq) → H2S(g) + Fe Cl2(aq) ΔH < 0

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 11

Test tube X Test tube Y

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 12

Developed by: G. Izquierdo Rodríguez & G Izquierdo Gómez Page 13

Learners must be able to:

 Answer questions and interpret data (tables or graphs) on different experimental

Factors affecting the rate of reaction