Review of The Anatomy and Phisiology of The Affected Organ: Isabela State University College of Nursing
Review of The Anatomy and Phisiology of The Affected Organ: Isabela State University College of Nursing
Review of The Anatomy and Phisiology of The Affected Organ: Isabela State University College of Nursing
KIDNEYS
Parts Function
HILUM Several structures including the ureters, the renal blood vessel
and nerves enters or exits the kidney at the hilum.
FIBROUS CAPSULE Enclose each kidney and gives a fresh glistening appearance
RENAL CORTEX The outer region of the kidney and it is where the nephron
begins.
RENAL MEDULLA It regulates the concentration of the urine
MINOR CALYX Collects urine from the medulla pyramids
MAJOR CALYX Where the urine passes before continuing through the renal
pelvis
RENAL PELVIS Urine collects here and is funnelled into the ureters that’s
connects the kidney to the bladder.
RENAL ARTERY They carry large amount of blood from the aorta to the kidney
approximately ½ cup of blood passes from renal arteries every
minute.
Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
City of Ilagan Campus, Isabela
COLLEGE OF NURSING
SEGMENTAL ARTERIES
INTERLOBULAR Supplies blood to the glomerular capillaries.
ARTERIES
ARCUATE ARTERIES Deliver blood into the inter lobar veins
CORTICAL RADIATE Drain blood from the renal cortex into the arcuate vein.
VEIN
ARCUATE VEIN Veins of the kidney that accompany the arcuate arteries, drain
from the interlobular veins, and empty into the into the inter
lobar vein.
INTERLOBULAR VEIN Run alongside the interlobular arteries and collects venous
blood from the capillary plexus of the cortex.
RENAL VEIN Carries filtered blood form the kidney and ureters to the inferior
vena cava.
URETER Tube that caries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
This illustration shows the processes involved in the renal system which comprises glomerular
filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion.
Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
City of Ilagan Campus, Isabela
COLLEGE OF NURSING
THE PANCREAS
In addition to its role as an exocrine organ, the pancreas is also an endocrine organ and the
major hormones it secretes - insulin and glucagon - play a vital role in carbohydrate and lipid
metabolism. They are, for example, necessary for maintaining normal blood concentrations of
glucose.
converted to concentrated energy sources like glycogen or fatty acids and saved for later use.
When there is not enough insulin produced or when the doorway no longer recognizes the insulin
key, glucose stays in the blood this entering the cells.
Pancreatic exocrine cells are arranged in grape-like clusters called acini. The exocrine cells
are packed with membrane-bound secretory granules which contain digestive enzymes that are
exocytosis into the lumen of the acinus. From there, these secretions flow into larger intralobular
ducts, which eventually combine into the main pancreatic duct which drains directly into the
duodenum.
Pancreatic islets house three major cell types, each of which produces a different endocrine
product:
Alpha Cells (A cells) secrete the hormone glucagon
Beta Cells (B cells) produce insulin which are the most abundant of the islet cells
Delta Cells (D cells) secrete the hormone somatostatin, which is also produced by a
number of other endocrine cells in the body
The different cell types within an islet are not randomly distributed – beta cells occupy the
central portion of the islet and are surrounded by a rind of alpha and delta cells.
Islets are highly vascularized, allowing their secreted hormones’ ready access to the
circulation. Although islets comprise only 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas, they receive
about 10 to 15% of the pancreatic blood flow. Additionally, they are innervated by
parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons, and nervous signals clearly modulate secretion of
insulin and glucagon.
1. Insulin facilitates entry of glucose into muscle, adipose and several other tissues. The
only mechanism by which cells can take up glucose is by facilitated diffusion through a
family of hexose transporters. In many tissues, such as muscle, the major transporter used
for uptake of glucose (called GLUT4) is made available in the plasma membrane through
the action of insulin.
In the absence of insulin, GLUT4 glucose transporters are present in cytoplasmic vesicles,
where they are useless for transporting glucose. Binding of insulin to receptors on such cells
leads rapidly to fusion of those vesicles with the plasma membrane and insertion of the glucose
transporters, thereby giving the cell an ability to efficiently take up glucose. When blood levels
of insulin decrease and insulin receptors are no longer occupied, the glucose transporters are
recycled back into the cytoplasm.
Please note that some tissues, such as the brain and liver, do not need insulin for efficient
uptake of glucose. This is because they use a glucose transporter that is not insulin dependent.
2. Insulin stimulates the liver to store glucose in the form of glycogen. A large fraction of
glucose absorbed from the small intestine is immediately taken up by hepatocytes, which convert
it into the storage polymer glycogen.
Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
City of Ilagan Campus, Isabela
COLLEGE OF NURSING
Insulin has several effects in liver which stimulate glycogen synthesis. First, it activates the
enzyme hexokinase, which phosphorylates glucose, trapping it within the cell. Coincidently,
insulin acts to inhibit the activity of glucose-6-phosphatase. Insulin also activates several of the
enzymes that are directly involved in glycogen synthesis, including phosphofructokinase and
glycogen synthase. The net effect is clear: when the supply of glucose is abundant, insulin "tells"
the liver to store as much of it as possible for use later.
In the absence of insulin, glycogen synthesis in the liver ceases and enzymes responsible for
breakdown of glycogen become active. Glycogen breakdown is stimulated not only by the
absence of insulin but by the presence of glucagon, which is secreted when blood glucose levels
fall below the normal range.
Insulin promotes synthesis of fatty acids in the liver. As discussed above, insulin is
stimulatory to synthesis of glycogen in the liver. However, as glycogen accumulates to high
levels (roughly 5% of liver mass), further synthesis is strongly suppressed.
When the liver is saturated with glycogen, any additional glucose taken up by hepatocytes is
shunted into pathways leading to synthesis of fatty acids, which are exported from the liver as
lipoproteins. The lipoproteins are ripped apart in the circulation, providing free fatty acids for use
in other tissues, including adipocytes, which use them to synthesize triglyceride.
Insulin inhibits breakdown of fat in adipose tissue by inhibiting the intracellular lipase that
hydrolyzes triglycerides to release fatty acids. Insulin also facilitates entry of glucose into
adipocytes, and within those cells, glucose can be used to synthesize glycerol. This glycerol,
along with the fatty acids delivered from the liver, is used to synthesize triglyceride within the
adipocyte. By these mechanisms, insulin is involved in further accumulation of triglyceride in fat
cells.
Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
City of Ilagan Campus, Isabela
COLLEGE OF NURSING
From a whole-body perspective, insulin has a fat-sparing effect. Not only does it drive most
cells to preferentially oxidize carbohydrates instead of fatty acids for energy, but insulin also
indirectly stimulates accumulation of fat in adipose tissue.