National Open University of Nigeria: School of Arts and Social Sciences

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: PCR 111
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PEACE STUDIES

PCR 111
Course Guide
COURSE
GUIDE
PCR 111
INTRODUCTION TO PEACE STUDIES
Course Title Introduction to Peace Studies
Course Developer Dr. Osita Agbu

Nigerian Institute of International Affairs
Lagos
Course Writer Joshua Olusegun Bolarinwa

Lagos
Course Editor Joan Mbagwu

C/o Olive Branch Konsult,
Lagos.
Course Coordinator Mr. Oyedolapo B. Durojaye School
of Arts & Social Sciences National
Open University of Nigeria Lagos
ii
PCR 111
Course Guide
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2006
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-038-7
All Rights Reserved
Printed by CANAL PAPER CONVERTERS LTD, LAGOS.

Tel: 01-7229367, 08056380799
For
iii
PCR 111
Course Guide
CONTENTS Pages
Introduction …………………………………………… 1
What you will learn in this course ……………………. 1
Course Aims ………………………………………….. 1-2
Course Objectives …………………………………….. 2
Course Requirements …………………………………. 2
Course Materials ……………………………………… 2
Study Units …………………………………………… 3
Set Textbooks ………………………………………… 4-5
Assignment …………………………………………… 5
Tutor Marked Assignment ……………………………. 6
Final Examination and Grading ……………………… 6-7
Course Marking Scheme ……………………………… 7
How to get the most from this Course ………………... 7-9
Tutors and Tutorials …………………………………... 9-10
Summary ……………………………………………… 10
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INTRODUCTION
PCR 101 Introduction to Peace Studies is one- semester 3 credit units’

foundation level course. It is available for students as a prerequisite
towards a B.A in Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution. This course will
consist of 4 modules, and it has been developed using local examples.
This Course Guide will tell us what this course is all about, what
materials will be relevant, and how to use them. It will also provide you
a guide on how much time to use in order to successfully complete the
course. It will also give you some guidance on your tutor-marked
assignments, and other details, which will be found in a separate
‘Assignment File.’
What you will learn in this course
The general aim of this course is to give you an introduction to major

themes, issues and challenges in study of peace, as well introduce some
of the tools, techniques and relevant peace institutions creating the
connections and synergies between peace studies and other courses
offered in the institution. This course will provide a wider view of issues
relevant to peace, through the lens of peace studies, which the sole aim
of providing the right tools and the necessary level of commitment to
effect a change for the better in terms of peace, violence and conflict on
all levels.
COURSE AIMS
The four major aims of the course are to:
To introduce Peace Studies as an academic discipline, with emphasis

on the genesis of peace studies, the theoretical background that
supports its fundamental insights, questions, and the ethics of war and
peace.
To analyze contemporary conflict and introduce the main issues in
the field of conflict mapping and conflict theory.
To examine some of the important dimensions of peace, conflict and
violence on various levels including ethnic and religious factors,
questions and marginalization, justice, equality, environment and
structures of international agencies and systems.
To review some of the most approaches to peace, including missions,
activities of UN organs, role of NGOs, civil society organizations,
and international and human rights laws.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Course, you should be able to:

PCR111 Introduction to Peace Studies
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(i) Construct definitions of conflict and peace

(ii) Distinguish between conflict and violence
(iii) Identify what is positive about conflict
(iv) Analyze a conflict they have experienced
(v) Identify the different categories of causes of conflict
(vi) Be able to differentiate between root causes and triggers
(vii) Be able to differentiate between external and internal factors
(viii) Develop a comprehensive picture of the conflict – issues,
stages of conflict etc.
(ix) Help the mediator gain direction on how to intervene in the
conflict
(x) Identify all the parties to the conflict
(xi) Know and understand the different methods of analysis
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
To complete this course, you are expected to read all the study units,
suggested books and other relevant materials to achieve the
objectives. Each unit contains tutored marked assignment, and you are
required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. There will be an
examination at the end of the course. The course should take you a total
of 15 weeks to complete. Please find below a list of the major
components of the course.
COURSE MATERIALS
Major of the course components are:

Course Guide
4 Modules
References/Further Readings
Assignment Files
STUDY UNITS
There are 4 Modules in this course. Each module has 5 Units. The
modules are designed to cover the four major aims of the course and
arranged accordingly.
Module 1 – Concepts and Theories in Peace and Conflict

Studies
Unit 1 Definitions
Unit 2 Theories
Unit 3 Causes of Conflicts
Unit 4 Conflict Analysis
Unit5 Peace Processes I
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Module 2 – Fundamentals of Peace Studies

Unit 1 Peace Processes II
Unit 2 Communication
Unit 3 Ethnicity
Unit 4 Factors for National Integration
Unit 5 Civil-Military Relations and the promotion of Peace in
Democratic Nigeria
Module 3 – Issues in Conflict Management

Unit 1 Religion, Peace and Conflicts in Nigeria
Unit 2 Peace Education
Unit 3 African Endogenous Peace Institutions
Unit 4 Small Arms, Children and Girls in Armed Conflicts.
Unit 5 Post Conflict Reconstruction
Module 4 – Discourse in Peace and Conflict Management

Unit 1 Peace Building
Unit 2 Gender and Peace Building
Unit 3 Human Rights
Unit 4 International Peace Institutions
Unit 5 Conflict Prevention
Textbooks And References
These books are recommended for further reading. There are more
references at the end of each unit:
Albert, I.O. (2002). Introduction to Third Party Peaceful Transformation

Forum Intention in Community Conflicts. John Archers
(Publisher) Limited.
Albert, I.O. (2001), Introduction to Third Party Intervention in

Community Conflicts, PETRAF and John Archers (Publishers)
Ltd.
Zartman and J.L. Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International

Conflicts, methods and Techniques, Washington DC: US Institute
of Peace press.
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Gayle Millers and Carol Miller Lieber (2001) Conflicts in Context:

Local to Understanding Global Security. Education for Social
Responsibility
Amoo Sam G. (1997) The Challenge Of Ethnicity And Conflicts In

Africa: The Need For A New Paradigm. Emergency Response
Division United Nations Development Programme. New York
Burton J. (1987). World Society. University Press of America. Lanham

Imobighe T. (ed) (2003) Civil Society and Ethnic Conflict
Management in Nigeria. Spectrum Books, Ibadan, Nigeria
Nnoli O. (1980). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Fourth Dimension, Enugu.

Nigeria
Otite O and Olawale I. (ed) (1999) Community Conflicts in Nigeria:

Management, Resolution, and Transformation. Ibadan Spectrum
Books, Nigeria
Burgess, H. and Burgess, G.M. (1997), Encyclopedia of conflict

Resolution, Santa Barbara, ABC - CLIO.
Goldberg, Stephen: Sander, Frank E. A.; Rogers, Nancy H. (1992)

Dispute Resolution: Negotiation, Mediation and other processes,
Little, Brown and Co.
Miller, Christopher A. (2004), A Glossary of Terms and Concepts and

Conflict Studies, University for Peace.
Schmid, Alex P. (2000), Thesaurus and Glossary of Early Warning

Conflict Prevention Terms, Forum on Early Warning and
Early Response.
Deutsch, M.A. (1973), The Resolution of Conflict, New Haven, Conn:

Yale
Rubin, J. (ed.) (1981), Dynamics of Third Party Intervention: Kissinger

in the Middle East, New York: Praeger.
Assignment File
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. In this file, you
will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for
marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments will count towards
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the final mark you obtain for this course. Further information on
assignment will be found in the Assignment File itself, and later in this
Course Guide in the section on assessment.
There are many assignments for this course, with each unit having at
least one assignment. These assignments are basically meant to assist
you to understand the course.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, are the
tutor-marked assignments; second, is a written examination.
In tackling these assignments, you are expected to apply the information,
knowledge and experience acquired during the course. The assignments
must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with
the deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your
tutor for assessment will account for 30 per cent of your total course
mark.
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final examination of
three hours duration. This examination will account for the other 70 per
cent of your total course mark.
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAS)
There are 20 tutor-marked assignments in this course. You only need to

submit all the assignments. The best four (i.e. the highest four of the 20
marks) will be counted. Each assignment counts for 20 marks but on the
average when the four assignments are put together, then each
assignment will count 10 % towards your total course mark. This implies
that the total marks for the best four (4) assignments which would have
been 100 marks will now be 30% of your total course mark.
The Assignments for the units in this course are contained in the
Assignment File. You will be able to complete your assignments from
the information and materials contained in your set books, reading and
study units. However, it is always desirable at this level of your
education to research more widely, and demonstrate that you have a very
broad and in-dept knowledge of the subject matter.
When each assignment is completed, send it together with a TMA (tutor-

marked assignment) form to your tutor. Ensure that each assignment
reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in the Assignment
File. If, for any reason you cannot complete your work on time, contact
your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an
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extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless there
are exceptional circumstances warranting such.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination for PCR 101 Introduction to Peace Studies will
be of three hours’ duration and have a value of 70% of the total course
grade. The examination will consist of questions which reflect the
practice exercises and tutor-marked assignments you have previously
encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed.
Use the time between the completion of the last unit and sitting for the
examination, to revise the entire course. You may find it useful to review
your tutor-marked assignments and comment on them before the
examination. The final examination covers information from all aspects
of the course.
Course Marking Scheme
Table 1: Course marking Scheme
ASSESSMENT MARKS
Assignments Four assignments, best three marks of the four
counts at 30% of course marks.
Final examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks
How to get the most from this Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This is
one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work
through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a
time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to the lecturer. In the same way a lecturer might give
you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read, and which
are your text materials or set books. You are provided exercises to do at
appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise.
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Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is a
set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you
should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. These
learning objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is
finished, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the
objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly improve
your chances of passing the course.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a
Reading section.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your
tutor’s job is to help you. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to
call and ask your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.
2. Organize a Study Schedule. Design a ‘Course Overview’ to guide

you through the Course. Note the time you are expected to spend on
each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. You need to
gather all the information into one place, such as your diary or a wall
calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on
and write in your own dates and schedule of work for each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything to

stay faithful to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get
behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with your
schedule, please, let your tutor know before it is too late for help.
4. Turn to Unit 1, and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. You will need your set books and the
unit you are studying at any point in time.
6. Work through the unit. As you work through the unit, you will know
what sources to consult for further information.
7. Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due dates).
Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the assignment
carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of
the course and, therefore, will help you pass the examination. Submit
all assignments not later than the due date.
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8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have
achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review
the study materials or consult your tutor.
9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives,
you can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course
and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule.
10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking,
do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your
schedule. When the Assignment is returned, pay particular attention
to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-marked assignment form
and also the written comments on the ordinary assignments.
11. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself
for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit
objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course
objectives (listed in the Course Guide).
Tutors and Tutorials
There are 15 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You

will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials,
together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and
provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor-
marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two
working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and
returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion
board. The following might be circumstances in which you will find help
necessary. Contact your tutor if –
i. You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings.
ii. You have difficulties within the exercises.
iii. You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your
tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment.
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You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to
have face to face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course
of your study. To gain the maximum benefits from course tutorials,
prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn quite a lot
from participating in the discussions.
Summary
PCR 101 is an introductory course to Peace Studies as an academic
discipline. Focus is on the genesis of peace studies, its theoretical
background, and the ethics of war and peace. It also examines how to
analyze contemporary conflict and introduces the main issues in the field
of conflict mapping and conflict theory. Some of the important
dimensions of peace, conflict and violence on various levels including
ethnic and religious factors, marginalisation, justice, equality,
environment and structures of international agencies and systems are also
discussed.
We wish you success in your studies.
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MAIN
COURSE
Course Code PCR 101
Course Title Introduction to Peace Studies
Course Developer Dr. Osita Agbu

Lagos
Course Writer Joshua Olusegun Bolarinwa

Lagos
Course Editor Joan Mbagwu

C/o Olive Branch Konsult
Lagos.
Course Coordinator Mr. Oyedolapo B. Durojaye School

of Arts & Social Sciences National
Open University of Nigeria Lagos
x
v1

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2006
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-038-7
All Rights Reserved
Printed by CANAL PAPER CONVERTERS LTD, LAGOS.

Tel: 01-7229367, 08056380799
For
Table of Content
xi
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Page
MODULE 1
Unit 1 Definitions….................................................. 1-6
Unit 2 Theories ……………............................……....... 7-16
Unit 3 Causes Of Conflict ……....................………...... 17-22
Unit 4 Conflict Analysis ………………………....... 23-35
Unit 5 Peace Processes 1 ……….….............................. 36-47
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Peace Processes II .. ……………… .................. 48-55

Unit 2 Communication………..........…….................... 56- 63
Unit 3 Ethnicity ………......................……………....... 64-70
Unit 4 Factors for National Integration
of Nigeria ………………………………............ 71-79
Unit 5 Civil -Military Relation And The Promotion
of Peace In Democratic Nigeria ……………….. 80-88
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Religion, Peace And Conflicts In Nigeria .…...... 89-94

Unit 2 Peace Education………………………............... 95-100
Unit 3 African Endogenous Peace Institutions............. 101-108
Unit 4 Small Arms, Children And Girls In
Armed Conflicts …………………………..…… 109-117
Unit 5 Post Conflict Reconstruction …….........…....... 118-125
MODULE 4
Unit 1 Peace Building …………………....…………… 126-133

Unit 2 Gender And Peace Building ..………………….. 134-141
Unit 3 Human Rights and Social Justice …….……….. 142-150
Unit 4 International Peace Institutions In
Africa …………………….………......................
151-159
Unit 5 Conflict Prevention …......................................... 160-167
APPENDIX......................................................................... 168-172
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MODULE 1
Unit 1 Definitions
Unit 2 Theories
Unit 3 Causes Of Conflict
Unit 4 Conflict Analysis
Unit 5 Peace Processes 1
UNIT 1 DEFINITIONS
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Conflict
3.2 Definition of Peace
3.3 Different Perspectives of Peace
3.3.1 Ahimsa
3.3.2 `Satyagraha
3.3.3 Conflict Resolution Strategies
3.3.4 Pacifism
3.3.5 Just War
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This module will make you aware of the definitions of conflict and
peace. It will also explain the philosophies guiding the analysis of
conflict and peace studies. It is important because it will help you
understand the subsequent modules. The objectives below specify what
you are expected to learn after going through this module.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. Distinguish between conflict and violence;
ii. Identify what is positive about conflict; and
iii. Analyze a conflict situation.
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3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definitions of Conflict
Careful analysis of these definitions will reveal what they have in

common. First, they indicate the inevitability of conflict in human
affairs. Second, they reveal key features of conflict situations. Many of
the definitions, for example, stress that conflicts involve interdependent
parties who perceive some kind of incompatibility between them.
Author(s) Definition Key Terms

Coser Social conflict is a struggle between opponentsStruggle,
1956 over values and claims to scarce status power andopposition,
resources scarcity
Deutsh A conflict exists whenever incompatible activitiesIncompatibility,
1973 occur … one party is interfering, disrupting,inter-ference
obstructing, or in some other way making anothereffectiveness
party’s actions less effective
Hocker ‘Conflict is the interaction of interdependentBehaviors,
and people who perceive incompatible goal and disagreement,
Wilmot interference from each other in achieving thosecom-petition
1985 goals’
Pruitt and Conflict means perceived divergence of interest, orInterests,
Rubin a belief that the parties’ current aspirations cannotaspirations, beliefs
1986 be achieved simultaneously
Conrad Conflicts are communicative interactions amongCommunication,
1991 people who are interdependent and who perceiveinter-dependence
that their interests are incompatible, inconsistent,tension
or in tension
Folger, Conflict is the interaction of interdependent peopleInteraction
Poole, who perceive incompatible goals and interferenceinterdependence,
Stutman from each other in achieving these goals Incompatibility
1997
3.2 Definition of Peace
Peace is defined as ‘a political condition that ensures justice and social

stability through formal and informal institutions, practices and norms’.
Miller and King (2003). It is dangerously misleading to think that the
absence of war means the presence of peace. It is also important to know
that simply avoiding conflicts, does not mean peace, but acting in
accordance to some of the conditions that must be met to guarantee
peace in any society. Balance political power sharing in any region;
legitimacy for decision makers and implementers in the eyes of their
respective groups, supported by external parties through transparency
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and accountability; recognized and valued interdependence among the

people fostering long-term co-operation during disagreements,
agreements, normality and crises; trusted and reliable institutions for
resolving conflicts; mutual understanding of incompatibility, and every
member of that community must be given a sense of respect and
belonging in principle and practice, collectively and individually in
accordance with international standards. All these conditions mentioned
above come to guarantee positive peace. Peace sought outside the
premise of social justice as mentioned above is called negative and it is
not true peace.
3.3 Different Perspectives of Peace
A lot of perspectives of peace making and processes are developed over

years. But for the purpose of this module, we will describe the
following:
3.3.1 Ahimsa
This is religious base. It originated within the Jainism, a reforming sect

of Hinduism, a faith prominent in Indian region where Gandhi grew
up. Ahimsa is translated into English as ‘non-violence’, but in the
original Sanskrit, it conveys more meanings compassing ‘non-injury’ to
all aspects of forms of life, be it man, animal or plant.
3.3.2 Satyagraha
This is another principle of peace which was also pushed by Gandhi

which means ‘the pursuit of truth’ or ‘insistence on truth’ Gandhi
(1928:36) argued that there is law of nature guiding the process of
acquisition. The law according to him states that whatever guided the
process of acquisition, will also guide the sustenance or the keeping of
that acquisition. He therefore argued that it is then better to acquire
whatever thing we want, be it political, economic or social in a non-
violent way, so that we can keep it the same way. ‘A thing acquired by
violence can be retained by violence alone’ Gandhi (1928:36). The idea
of satyagraha goes beyond non-violence, but ‘embodied a life long
pursuit of truth’.
3.3.3 Conflict Resolution
This perspective talks about mediation, negotiation and

arbitration. These processes encouraged the use of neutral third party to
facilitate the process of peace making. The processes could be applied to
inter and intra personal and group conflicts. These processes can be
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studied and practiced independently. Agreements reached with these

processes can be binding, therefore enforceable in the court of law.
3.3.4 Pacifism
This is historical theory that rejects war as a means of settling

disputes. This theory argues that peaceful efforts should be applied in
conflicts. It was first used in 1902 at the tenth Universal Peace
Conference at Glasgow, Scotland. People opt for pacifism because of
religion or the belief that war is ineffective and obsolete. To some, it
goes beyond no war, to include the pursuit for justice and human
rights. We have absolute pacifists who believe in no war, even, for self-
defence. But the conditional pacifists oppose war and violence in
principle, but recognize war to be the last resort in some cases. Some
pacifists engage in humanitarian acts during wars, but some just refuse
to participate in any form. They may be sentenced to community
services in cases of state assignments that they refused to be drafted in.
3.3.5 Just War
This theory was derived from the works of Bishop Augustino of Hippo
after the fall of the Roman Empire. The theory makes case and
guidelines for war. This theory has influenced much of the Western
political thoughts in general and international wary laws in particular. It
states 1. That the decisions be made by a legitimate constituent assembly
or authority, not by aggrieved individuals, 2. That the decision be made
based on the right intention and just cause, 3. That the success be
reasonably attentable and 4. That the envisioned peace be preferable to
the situation if war was not fought. Conditions 3-4 are termed
proportionality principles.
Self Assessment Exercise
Describe the various perspectives to peace.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this Unit, you have learnt the definitions of conflict and peace, their
authors, and the terms of emphasis. The objectives of the Unit and from
the discussions, you would be able to tell what is positive peace,
negative peace and the conditions that define conflict and peace. This
preliminary attempt to define conflict as an introduction to peace studies
is based on functional approach and grounded on the general proposition
that conflict can only take place within the following premise of
communication, interdependence, incompatibility, cooperation
competition, interaction, interdependence struggle, opposition, scarcity,
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strategy, bargaining, dependence, incompatibility, interests, aspirations,

beliefs. Finally, peace should be sought within the premise of justice for
sustainable peace or we will have negative peace.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has defined the concepts of conflict and peace. It has also
examined various perspectives of peace achieve a better understanding.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
1. Describe your associations with the word “conflict.”

2. Write the word “conflict” in the center of the paper and circle it.
Write your words associated with conflict at the end of lines
radiating from the circle. Related ideas can be grouped together.
3. To discuss the web, answer the following questions:
a. What do you notice about the web?
b. Are there any generalizations we might make about our

associations with the word conflict?
c. Why are most of our associations with conflict negative?
d. What are some examples of conflicts?
Survey about Conflict and Me
When filling this out be as honest as possible!
1. Most people fight or argue when they:

2. Most people fight or argue over:
3. One good thing people get from arguing or fighting is:
4. One bad thing about arguing and fighting is:
5. For the fact that Nigeria is not engaged in any civil war in recent
time, does that mean that we have peace?
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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Conrad C. (1991). Communication in Conflict Style – Strategy

Relationships. Communication Monographs. 58: 135-155
Coser C. (1956) The Function of Social Conflict. New York. Free Press
Deutsech, M. (1973). The Resolution of Conflict. New Haven
Yale University Press.
Folger, J.: Marshall, P.: and Stutman, R. (1997). Working Through

Conflict Addison – Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. USA
Hocker, J.I., and Wilmot, W.W. (1985) Interpersonal Conflict. Dubuque,

IA: WM.C. Brown
Miller, C., and King, M. (2003) A Glossary of Terms and Concepts in

Peace and Conflict Studies. University for Peace, Costa Rica.
Pruitt, D. G. and Rubin, J. (1986) Social Conflict: Escalation Stalemate

and Settlement. New York, Random House.
CRESNET (2001) Conflict Management Training Manual. USAID/OTI

Isaac Olawale Albert (2001) Introduction to Third Party Peaceful
Transformation Forum Intervention in Community Conflicts. John

Archers (Publisher) Limited
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UNIT 2 THEORIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Traditional Perspective on Conflict
3.2 Contemporary Perspective on Conflict
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Unit will make you aware of the theories of conflict and peace. I
will also explain the philosophies guiding the analysis of conflict and
peace studies. It is important because it will help you understand the
subsequent modules. The objectives below specify what you are
expected to learn after going through this Unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. Describe the different theories of conflict and peace; and

ii. Identify the different perspectives guiding the study of conflict
and peace
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Traditional Perspective on Conflict
Theory is defined to be ‘an explanation of the relationship between

elements or variable’ (Folger, Pool and Stutman 1997). This implies that
when we talk about conflict theories or perspectives, we are simply
trying to understand the explanations or reason guiding the relationship
of the variables involved, so, the theory of Conflict and peace studies is
an explanation of the ideas guiding the study of peace and conflict in the
world today.
There are basically two perspectives – the traditional and the

contemporary. The traditional perspectives considers ideas outside the
field of communication, namely, the psychodynamic perspective, field
theory, experimental gaming research, the human relation perspective
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and the inter- group conflict research, the human relation perspective
and the inter-group conflict
The Psycho – dynamic perspective – this perspective ‘probes the basis

of conflicts in unconscious human need psychological dynamics’ and
can be traced to Freud and the Impressionists who have been ridiculed
and harshly critiqued by many. However, this provides insights into our
daily thinking concepts that ‘the unconscious’ ‘ the ego’ and ‘ and ‘the
id’ processes like repression and wish fulfillment are fundamentals to
our understanding of conflict. ‘Psycho –dynamic, theorists attempt to
describe the mechanisms in the human mind that constrain and channel
psychic energy. Their mode has three components:
1. The identity, the source of energy

2. The superego, the value system designed to constrain this energy:
3. The ego, the excusive function that relates function that relates to the
identity, and superego to actual behavior described human mind as a
reservoir of psychic energy ‘that can be channeled into various
activities. They further argued more on the effect of anxiety,
frustration and self hate to be forces that could be destructive as most
times, this aggression is targeted towards the ‘vulnerable or
acceptable targets’ and not towards the actual sources of frustrations,
especially when the source is powerful or valued by the person. This
explains the ‘perception’ characteristics of conflict as identified in
the definition. At times, ideas are not true, but perceived.
Although, this perspective is true to certain extent in explaining what

goes on in the human mind, it does not consider the external factors,
which has to do with actions, reactions and counter actions.
The second flaw of this theory is that, it did not explain how one could
re-route the impulses in situations for a change of action. Also, why a
particular group of people are studied like the case of the German Jews,
on this theory.
The Field Theory: Kurt Lewin (1951) is the propagator of this theory.
His argument was that human behavior is determined by various fields
of force. This movement is called ‘life space’ which consists of one’s
important goal, the barriers and necessary requirements to attain to the
perception, which is psychological and subjective. It is not objective.
Falling back on the definition of conflict, it is important to know that
Social external factors, not only the personal view of the person that
contribute to actions and reactions that constitute the conflict synergy.
In explanting his theory, he further argued that the climate is the quality
of the field, which could be pervasive when the climate is ‘continent’ as
everyone perceives the gain of the other to be his loss. The level of
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hostility will be high, but when the interdependence is ‘promotive’,

persons involved in conflict perceive the gain of the other to be the gain
of all, therefore, creating a healthy climate. Therefore, interactions, co-
operative or competitive create the climate. This theory explains what
goes on in organizational conflicts. When a worker is having poor
assessment goes into the office of his boss for reviews, and finds the
interaction competitive, he is likely to get aggressive and defensive and
the result will be a pervasive climate.
One limitation of this theory is the problem of narrowness. It simplified

conflict analysis to co-operation and competition. This approach could
be very misleading as conflict is far more complex than that.
The second limitation is over-emphasis on perception of individuals as

the main cause of conflicts, because there are other causes, beyond
perception.
Experimental Game Research: Pruitt and Kimmel (1977) propagated this

theory, which is similar to the Social Exchange Perspective. Both
perspectives believe that two important factors must be known about
conflict, - conflict involves people who are interdependent and conflict
people go for interactions that are more rewarding and less costly. The
social exchange perspective believes that human behavior is guided by
self-interest, ‘meets people’s needs’. They also assume that rewards are
not objective, but depending on the individual’s perception.
The second assumption is that rewards and cost are seen as ‘exchange of
resources among participants during interaction’. The conclusion is that
‘parties exchange resources to influence others behaviors in ways that
produce acceptable outcomes’. Therefore, conflict will emerge when one
feels that his or her outcomes are too low, and secondly, when he
anticipates that there will be resistance when an effort is made to
improve on these outcomes, and the other is seen to be responsible for
the poor outcomes.
This theory looks at conflict as a game of chess with the following

assumptions:
The game is structured to be a composition of choices and rewards

that which they receive as they select their options.
The choice like life opportunities are limited and the players know
what their choices are.
The rewards (payoffs) they receive do not only depend on their
choices, but on the choices of others.
The choice and the rewards are known to the players; therefore, it
makes it all meaningful as they are aware of the implications.
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Players rewards depend on the choices they make, therefore, they

make selections based on high rewards.
The game research and social exchange provide several insights into
conflict interaction and conclude that ‘conflict interaction can be
reduced to a series of exchange governed by participants’ calculations
and potential outcomes’
The short fall of this approach is that it reduced the extremely wide
variety of choices people have in real life to just a few that the game
allows. It is very complex in real life to determine what outcomes of
actions could be. Some of them come with rewards and costs; so, it is
not easy to draw a line between costs and rewards.
It could be very cumbersome to go on calculating rewards and outcomes

before taking an action. This is sometimes quite unrealistic.
Human Resource Perspective: This is the last of the traditional

perspective. It is the most recent and it emphasizes the motivation of
workers at the work place. The human relation researches believe that
five distinctive types of conflict behaviors based on two independent
components of conflict characteristic exist. The assertiveness concerns
itself with self-satisfaction and co-operations concern itself with the well
being of others. The styles that could be measured assertively or co-
operatively are competing, accommodating, avoiding, collaborating and
compromising.
Inter Group Conflict Research: Inter group conflict analysis emphasizes

the peculiarities that go with inter group relationships. There are
conflicts characters that can only be noticed because people are from
different nationalities, religious or ethnic group. The peculiarities of
these conflicts lie in the characteristics of the group and it is inevitable.
There are two major problems noticed in inter group conflicts. One or
two groups may have economic or political interest and one group stands
to gain at the defeat of the other. But, most of the time, both groups do
not know these ultimate interests and groups differences are
emphasized. Most times the driving force for the conflict is not
known. This further complicates the intervention that could be planned
for the group.
The second consideration to be noted in inter group conflicts, is that

groups in conflict on their own do not have the inherent ability to
execute the conflict, but depend on the interaction of the other groups to
act. So, prejudice should be discouraged. It is rather important to know
that the search for identity is the driving force for group affiliation and
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the group he does not belong. The inter group perspective focuses on the
external social group and how they generate conflict.
3.2 The Contemporary Perspectives
Contemporary perspective to conflict cut across traditional boundaries

revealing a multidisciplinary approach. As many as the disciplines are,
they have been grouped into two, - the cognitive and the interaction
perspectives. The cognitive and interaction theories seek to be
descriptive and predictive. The descriptive answer the question of how
people do things in conflict situation, and the predictive answer the
question why people do things to escalate conflict.
The Cognitive Perspective
This refers to those theories that believe thoughts and perception are
most important in determining thoughts and perceptions are most
important in determining communication behaviors. These are the
theories that believe that what goes on in the mind of a person
determines what he will say. They also believe that everybody is
different and unique, therefore will see things differently. So, the
cognitive look at ideas of communication – encoding, decoding,
planning and strategizing. They also assume that the cognitive constructs
are revealed in their beliefs, attitudes, values, and perceptions.
The cognitive try to answer three research questions in conflict analysis:

1. How do individuals and groups differ in their approach to conflict?
For example, are women less violent than men? 2. What trait best
predicts communication during conflict? Personality traits are searched
here, from verbally aggressive, to assertiveness, etc and 3. How does
perception influence communication during conflict? For example, what
are socially acceptable conducts?
Interaction Perspective
This perspective believes that behavior has the key to understanding

meanings. They argue that you cannot understand a concept outside of
the context. ‘Meaning cannot be discerned independent of
context’. ‘Situations are negotiated by actors through the behavior they
enact’ Situations to them is fluidic than fixed, therefore, there is much
mutual influence, as ‘realities and meanings between people emerge and
are negotiated through the moves and counter moves of discourse’.
(Folger, Marshal and Stutman 1997. Pg.48). Interaction perspectives
seek to answer the following three questions: 1. What rules do people
use to interpret conflict situations? 2. What is the interaction pattern in
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conflict situation? 3. How do people use messages to accomplish many

objectives in conflict?
The cognitive and interaction perspectives later broke further into three
each, making six contemporary theories.
Verbal Aggressiveness Theory – VAT
Knowing fully well that the contemporary theories are communication

oriented, the VAT being one of them argues that aggression as a trait
possessed by people can be ignited based on the interaction with factors
in a particular situation. Infante and Wigley, (1987) argue that verbal
aggression is depended on one’s level of argumentativeness which is
motivated by a willingness to want to argue. If one feels satisfied
arguing, they will argue, but if reverse is the case, the person will not
want to argue. The implication of this is that people with low
argumentative traits, are high in verbal aggressiveness, because they are
frustrated and lack the skills to succeed in such situations and therefore
turn to aggression in a negative trait that can lead to conflict escalation,
long-lasting damage to self-concept and deterioration of relationships. It
is important to encourage people to develop argumentative traits as it is
positively related to career satisfaction, achievement, superior-
subordinate satisfaction, organizational growth and development.
Attribution Theory
This theory applies mostly in interpersonal conflict. In analyzing

conflicts, people look at the causes of the action by attributing it to the
characteristic, intentions and the attitudes of the people involved. The
second effect of attribution theory is that because their actions will be
attributed to other factors, they are encouraged to act appropriately in
different situations. Innate (internal) ability of an individual to act in a
particular way is referred to as dispositional factors, while external
factors like the nature of the task, luck, interferences are called
situational factors. So, in analyzing any conflict situation, both
dispositional and situational factors are considered. These attributions
help in the choice of conflict management style that could be adopted.
Integrative Theory
This theory allows the open discussion of conflict without any negative
evaluation of the parties involved. Emphasize is on the problem. It calls
for problem solving (dialogue) and collaboration. The second style is
avoidance, which attempts to avoid direct discussion and management of
the conflict. It involves denial of conversation etc. The third method is
distributive, which aims to resolve the conflict at a win/lose
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situation. You could employ insults, direct criticism and negative

evaluation of the other party.
There are three propositions of this theory: people like to use it because
it is easy to attribute the causes of the conflict to others or situation. The
second reason is that, it encourages non-cooperative modes which is
easy to identify with in angry situations and the third proposition is that
the choice of the method to use in resolving the conflict will affect the
outcome and the degree of satisfaction in the relationship.
Social Influence Theory
This theory emphasized the use of aggressive verbal acts when they can
find justification for it. As much as verbal aggressiveness is frowned at,
people can still get coercive without getting the condemnation that go
with it because they can find justification for it. ‘At the heart of this
theory lies the premise that not all coercive acts are perceived as
aggressive’ (Folger, Marshall, and Stutman 1997).
The Coordinated Management of Meaning CMM
This theory in conflict analysis emphasizes that meanings of

conversations depend on the context or nature of the relationship
between the discussants, including their self-concept cultural
background. The uniqueness of an individual based on exposure and
hereditary comes into play in understanding what he or she is
saying. Factors like cultural patterns, life script, constructs, episodes,
speech acts, content and raw data are all come together to contribute to
understanding what was said. ‘The coordinated management of meaning
provides a basis for identifying and understanding how the same event
can have different meanings for parties involved how these meanings
affect their actions’ Page 60 (Folger, Marshall, and Stutman 1997).
Confrontation Episode Theory
Newell and Stutman (1988 and 1991) argue that communication is not
just words, but activity that two or more people come together to co-
create. Social confrontation deals with conflict that has to do with
conduct and rules. Before conflict can be discussed, the disputants will
first and foremost find out the legitimacy of the rule guiding the
relationship. The theory has six tracks – 1. No legitimacy 2. Justification
3. Deny behavior 4. Deny rule broken 5. Deny responsibility and 6.
Accept responsibility.
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Explain the principle of traditional perspective on conflict.
4.0 CONCLUSION
To recap what we have learnt in this unit, it is important that we

remember that we defined conflict and peace with analyses of the
definitions with emphases on major ideas that guide the proper
understanding of the concepts of peace and conflict. The different
perspectives of theories that have been guiding the study of peace and
conflict will be discussed in full in the cause of the course. The essence
of this approach is to acquaint the students with the different schools of
thoughts which will explain for the different approaches to conflict and
peace studies and analyses. ‘Conflict is the interaction of interdependent
people who perceive incompatible goal and interference from each other
in achieving those goals’ (Hocker and Wilmot 1985). There are two
major perspectives of conflict – the traditional and the
contemporary. The traditional was further divided into four –
Psychodynamic perspective, Field Theory and the Concept of Climate,
Experimental Gaming and Social Exchange, The Human Relation
Perspective and Inter Group Conflict Resolution.
The Contemporary Perspective and the Inter-action Perspective: This

defined as ‘A political condition that ensures justice and social stability
through formal and informal institutions, practices and norms’. Miller
and King (2003). Different perspectives of Peace were identified and
discussed in Unit 1. – Ahimsa, Satyagraha, Conflict Resolution
Strategies, Pacifism and Just War.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has examined various traditional and modern conflict theories.
The knowledge of these theories will definitely assist us to understand
the concept of conflict.
Read through the conversation on the Parking Lot and discuss the
questions below to differentiate between the different perspectives of
conflict. Write on one of the questions of your choice for your TMA.
Jay: What’s your problem? What the hell did you do to my Honda? I
said, what did you do?
Femi: I drove into my spot and didn’t see your bike. What was it doing
parked there?
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Kola: Look, my tire is flat. I can’t move the wheel. Crushed in and
doesn’t move.
Femi: I didn’t see it until I was on top of it.
Kola: You are going to have to pay for this. I can’t afford this.
Femi: What was it doing in a parking space?
Kola: What’s your problem? It was parked. Look at the wheel. You
came around pretty good.
Femi: Listen, this is my spot. I didn’t see it and it shouldn’t have been
there. You’re lucky I stopped when I did. Look at my
bumper. What was it doing there?
Kola: You ass. Who cares whose spot. Some jerk like you drove over
my Honda and says, ‘This is my spot’. I don’t care who you are,
you will fix my Honda.
Femi: You are one with a problem. Do you work here?
Kola: What does that have to do with anything? Stop looking at your
bumper, it looks fine. I want your driver’s license and insurance.
Femi: Who in the hell do you think you are? (Starts walking away)
Kola: You are not going anywhere (Grabs Tom’s arm)
Femi: Let go of me. You are screwed. I’m calling the police. (Turns to
move towards the office)
Jay slugs Tom from behind. The two scuffle for a few moments until
others arrive to break them apart. (Adopted from Working through
Conflict)
a. Why did the conflict escalate to physical violence?

b. What assumptions does your answer reveal?
c. Do you think the change in strategy was due to a change in
attributions the parties were making?
d. What justifications might have been used by the involved parties
to defend their use of aggression?
e. Analyze your own behavior in a recent conflict using CMM
concept.
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Folger, J.: Marshall, P.: and Stutman, R. (1997). Working Through

Conflict. Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. USA
Hocker, J.L., and Wilmot, W.W. 1985 International conflict. Dubuqe,

IA: Wm.C Brown
Infante, D.A., and Wigley, C.J. 1986 verbal aggressiveness: An

International model and measure. Communication Monographs
53
Newell, S.E., and Stutman, R.K. 1989/90 “Negotiation

confrontation: The problematic nature of initiation and
response”. Research on Language and social Interaction.
Cresnet (2001). Conflict Management Training Manual. USAID/OTI
Isaac Olawale Albert (2002). Introduction to Third Party Peaceful

Transformation Forum Intention in Community Conflicts. John
Archers (Publisher) Limited.
UNIT 3 CAUSES OF CONFLICT
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CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Causes of Conflict
3.2 List of Causes of Conflict
3.3 Causes of Conflict: Discourse
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References and Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Conflict is any form of confrontation between two or more parties

resulting from ‘a situation where (these) two or more interdependent
groups or systems of action have incompatible goals (Diller, 1997:6). Of
course, it is universally acknowledged that conflict is inevitable. Thus, it
is every moment occurrence’. This unit tends to examine various causes
of conflict to arouse our better understanding of the subject matter (i.e.
conflict) and as its related to our every day operations and relationships
or interactions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the time you complete this unit, you should be able to:
i. Explain various causes of conflict; and

ii. Relate these various causes of conflict to all levels of relationship
i.e.intra-personal, interpersonal, intra-group, inter-group,
national, and international.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Causes of Conflict
According to Maoz (1982), conflict is “a state of incompatibility among

values, where the achievement of one value can be realized only at the
expense of some other values. Conflict may arise within single
organisms pursuing multiple goals as well as between striving at
incompatible goals” (1982:12). This definition shows the nature of
inevitability in the relationships between two or more parties. The
definition further opined that one may find his aspirations not
compatible with his personal qualities, which tends to lead to frustration
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(conflict), and when such frustration (conflict) gets to the climax, then
crisis will emerge.
It is important to note that not all conflict situations are negative; some
often facilitate a transition, which create opportunity for change and
even development. Please, you are advised to study well the previous
units in this module in order to advance a proper understanding of the
concept of conflict as well as to develop a strong mechanism for analysis
and interpretation of the various sources of conflict, we are about to
discuss.
3.2 List of Causes of Conflict
Though, there are several causes of conflict, but they can be categorized
into the following:
Conflicts may occur due to resources;

Conflicts may take place as a result of psychological needs;
Conflicts may erupt due to values
Conflicts may emerge resulting from (mismanagement of
information.
3.3 Causes of Conflict: Discourse.
Both at the intra-group, inter-group, national and international levels,

many experts in peace and conflict studies have shown great concern on
the rise in frequency and intensity of conflict, with major focus on the
roots or causes of conflict. Thus, there is no way, a meaningful peace
can be achieved without considering and analyzing the causes of conflict
at all levels including intrapersonal.
A. Resources: Conflicts can emerge due to resources. It is very

easy to identify any conflicts that emerge consequent on
resources. These conflicts erupt when two or more parties aspire
for scarce resources. It is economic phenomenon of demand and
supply. Thus, there is tendency for emergence of conflict in a
situation whereby the aspiring parties in their demands are more
than the available (scarce) resources. Some political analysts have
held a contrary view, argued that conflict can emerge as a result
of over-availability of resources. For instance, before the advent
of ‘Petro-Naira’ or discovery of crude oil in Nigeria in 1970s,
Niger-Delta enjoyed a relative peace, until the crudeoil
discovery. This discovery, rather than be a blessing, has become a
curse to the region. The Region is now baptized with
environmental degradation, catastrophic increase in inter
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communal crisis, insurgency and counter insurgency, political

exclusion and structural backwardness.
The conflict in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria can be easily

identified due to the Resource nature of the conflict. The Nigeria
Delta Dissidents as well as their leaders are of the view that Nigeria
should reverse to Pre 1970 revenue sharing formula of 50% which
later brought about the struggle for true federalism and resource
control in Nigeria polity.
The major cause of the violent conflict in Liberia is “the control

and exploitation of diamonds, timber and other raw materials…
Control over these resources financed the various factions and gave
them the means to sustain the conflict” (Report of the UN Secretary
General). Here, resources play a dual role: they serve as the root
cause of conflict as well as conflict sustenance element.
At interpersonal level, you may see two pupils (fighting over a

pencil (resource), each laying claim to the pencil. One of them of
course, may decide to let go the pencil (object of conflict) to the
other pupil (party), and this will render the conflict terminated.
Thus, in some cases such a concession may only achieve a negative
peace, and there is need to always adopt a win-win approach
because sweeping dirt under the carpet, does not make room clean,
but it can only guarantee a bumper harvest of heap. Hold your
breath! In the next segment of this unit, we discuss another cause of
conflict i.e. psychological needs.
B. Psychological Needs: Any conflict that arises due to

psychological needs are those that cannot be seen. Psychological
needs are psychical in nature, as they involve a mental
phenomenon within an emotional framework.
Different people with different levels of perception, and one’s

perception determine the direction of his relationship with other
parties. It is worth knowing, a wrong perception tends to generate
conflict. Thus, there are different dimensions of perceptions:
- Intrapersonal perception: The way an individual

perceives or sees himself in a given time;
- Interpersonal perceptions: Here, the way one sees other

people. This may include the way a child sees his father
compared to somebody else’s father. Having a negative
perception about other people can lead to conflict.
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- Perception of situation/environment: These perceptions

are informed by the happenings about us. For instance, the
issue of insecurity among the workers in Nigeria has
created a form of psychological torment, which has made
most of these workers develop an habit of hostility, that
has often resulted in a conflict situations between them and
innocent citizens who often deal with government
agencies. Some of these workers have begun to seek for
alternative and corrupt means to limit the effect of job
insecurity may have on their future or doing some strategic
saving for the life after retirement. This kind of
psychological need usually affects the input of an average
worker because he has lost faith in the entire system where
labor is disarticulated.
This example shows the multidimensional ways to conflict.

Resources have made an average worker to develop a
psychological need – working against insecurity. Thus, the
insecurity takes different forms i.e. economic; political and social.
C. Values: Conflict may also emerge due to differences in the value

of the people or organizations. Value includes philosophy,
religion, and ideology among others. The values describe our
personalities, our potentials and our shortcomings, even our
down-lows. In Nigeria, religion crises have been great problems
to this nation. The main problem is not the difference in the
religion practice but the conduct and operations of various
religious classifications are the problems.
In the two major religions in Nigeria, it is preached that human

blood is sacred and must not be shed not to incur the wrath of the
Almighty God. Yet, both religions are culprits in Nigeria. In order
to understand the root of a particular conflict, one must consider
the issue of value. Again, before the collapse of Soviet Union at
the close of 1980s, there was cold war between the west and east
bloc, which were led by the USA and defunct USSR respectively.
The conflict between the blocs aligned the global system, which
attracted a holocaust in several parts of the world. Africa has its
own share of the violent situation generated by the cold war. The
effect of the west-east conflict was felt through out the world,
which necessitated the establishment of Non-Alignment
organization, and Nigeria was one of the members.
Still on ideology, some political elites who believe in a state-

based economy will never acknowledge individuals or private
organizations control of the means of production. The conflict
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between Cuba and America is not basically based on resources

but one ideology. America’s hatred for communism (or
socialism) is always demonstrated in the activities of the US
against Cuba and other anti capitalist-countries like North Korea.
Thus, ideology plays a big role in the generation of conflict.
D. Management of Information: Information plays a vital role in

the conduct of human and organizational interactions or
relationships. Information if not well -managed can generate
conflict situation. The way an average informed person perceives
things will definitely be different from the way an uniformed
individual will behave on a specific issue at a given time.
In Nigeria because government understands the importance of

information, that is why there are various information gathering
and dissemination agencies like public complaints commission,
National Orientation Commission, Ministry of Information
among others. This is not to say that government in Nigeria is
doing enough in the management of information, that is why
there exist several communal crises, sectarian armed conflicts and
insurgency in Nigeria, despite the existence of various security
machineries, particularly the State Security Services (SSS) and
police, who ought to have developed a form of crisis or conflict
prevention strategies and peace, generation mechanisms. It is
unfortunate that most of our security personnel don’t have the
knowledge and skills of conflict management. A case study was
the brutal murder of Saro-Wiwa and other Ogoni leaders. After
the state killing, by Late Gen. Sani Abacha, of these Ogoni
leaders, the crisis in the Nigeria Delta has taken a new and more
violent dimension rather than subsiding.
At International level, the current Iraq war has shown the

importance of information in the conduct of international
relations. Had it been that the US Government had substantial
information about Iraq, she and her allies wouldn’t have gone for
the war but rather adopt some diplomatic means to address the
Saddam issue. Now, they have displaced Saddam, but no peace
has been achieved so far in spite of huge material and human
resources being pumped into the prosecution of the war. Again, at
last no nuclear weapon has been found in Iraq for more than two
years since the war erupted.
Discuss the various levels of causes of conflict.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
In this Unit, we have learnt different causes or sources of conflict.

Conflict as we have been made to understand in this Unit, is that conflict
is inevitable but you should improve on our communication and
perception, and channel enough resources to renounce or discourage
violent and negative conflict. In this unit, we described the concept of
conflict and as it relates with our day-to-day interactions and
relationships.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we examined resources, psychological needs, values and

information management as the root causes of conflict at all levels of
human interactions ranging from intra or interpersonal, intra or
intergroups, national then to international level which could either be
positive or negative in nature.
1. List three sources of conflict and discuss OR
2. Most armed conflicts in Africa are caused by disagreement over

resources. Discuss.
Diller. M. (1997). Handbook on Human Rights in situations of conflict,

Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights (M.S) March.
Maoz, Z. (1982). Paths to Conflict, International Dispute Initiation, 1816

1976.
Galtung, Johan (1990), Peace by Peaceful means: Peace and Conflict,

Development Civilization. London: Sage.
The Report of the United Nations Secretary General (1997), “The

Causes of Conflict and Promotion of Durable Peace and
Sustainable Development in Africa”, (25th September).
Sitaram, K.S. (1970) “Intercultural Communication: The what and why

of it”, International Communication Association, Division V
Minneapolis, Minnesota, 7 – 8 May.
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UNIT 4 CONFLICT ANALYSIS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Conflict Analysis
3.2 The Onion Analytical Tool
3.3 Force Field Analysis
3.4 Conflict Mapping
3.5 The ABC Triangle
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In everyday dealings and undertakings by state and non-state actors,

there is bound to be emergence of conflict, at least, occasionally. This
unit exposes the students on various ways through which conflict can be
analysed. The students will understand how positions, values, issue,
interests, objectives, and needs contribute to situation of conflict
between two or more parties. This Unit intends to expose the students to
a number of conflict analytical tools and techniques top enhance our
better understanding of conflict analysis.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

i. Describe concept of conflict analysis;
ii. Understand different stages of conflict analysis;
iii. Explain various tools of conflict analysis; and
iv. Describe the conduct and working relevance of these conflict
analytical tools for students and practitioners of peace and
conflict studies.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Conflict Analysis
Many people wonder what analysis of conflict is. In practice, how

reliable, conflict analysis is, particularly in view of proffering solutions
to conflict situation? Can conflict be analyzed at all levels of relationship
either interpersonal, or intra-group or inter-group or communal or
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national or international? The concept of conflict analysis may look

some how abstract to the experience of people. Conflict analysis remains
a great and difficult task particularly in this part of the world where there
is value-laden problem. The primordial and sectarian sentiments that
people attach to their operations, actions, and judgemental imperatives,
may affect the process and outcome of our analysis of
conflict. Therefore, conflict analysis requires objectivity and neutrality
rather than personal values, emotions and manipulations.
In practical terms, conflict analysis is a process, which examines and

unravels the root causes, dynamics, issues and other fundamentals of
conflict through the use of various perspective mechanisms for our
better understanding of the conflict. This understanding of conflict
affords us a great opportunity to develop certain strategies and actions
for possible termination of conflict. Conflict analysis answers questions
on the background and history of conflict situation, identifying parties to
the dispute. It also identifies the cultural background of the parties’
relationship as well as factors responsible for such conflict and the
trends of the conflict situation and the relative power of the parties.
Conflict analysis is a continuous exercise, which must be undertaken

from time to time to develop strategies and actions to change factors and
dynamics of conflict events. This task is carried out through the use of
some analytical tools and techniques. In this unit, the students will be
exposed to some of these tools and techniques. When you intervene as a
peace expert in a conflict, you are expected to take or rather fulfill some
conditions in order to achieve at least minimum level of success. Data
gathering is very important, even before you bring together the
disputants. Thus, during the intervention, you gather additional
information, and if there is any new information subsequently, you must
incorporate all of them to your conflict analytical strategy. This will give
you a substantial direction on the choice of strategies for successful
intervention, even if it would necessitate an alternative strategy other
than the one (s) initially adopted in the resolution of the conflict. The
stages or conditions to consider in the analysis of any conflict situation
should include:
1. Conflict History
(a) Consider the significant events between the disputants;

(b) Consider if there have been any previous disputes between
the disputants;
(c) Examine their relationships, if there has been any change
in record time;
(d) Have there been any past efforts to solve the conflict, and
consider why these past efforts failed.
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2. Context
(a) Examine the step taken by the disputing parties to resolve

their differences
(b) Study the physical environment of the conflict;
(c) Evaluate the level and trends of communication between
the parties and their decision-making principles.
3. Primary Parties
(a) The major parties to a conflict must be identified;

(b) Examine the positions of the parties;
(c) The interests of the parties must be evaluated;
(d) The values of the parties be examined;
(e) The analysis should also consider how the parties perceive
themselves; (Examine the leadership authority to dispute
settlement.
(g) Examine if there are any mutual interests goals or needs
between the parties.
4. Power
(a) Relative power capabilities of the parties should be

studied to know if one party is more powerful than the
other;
(b) If there is balance of power between the disputants, what
method of peace process is suitable for the success of
the intervention?
(c) Identify the source (s) of the parties’ power
(d) Identify the resources at each of the parties’ disposal.
(e) Examine how often the parties use their power, and the
consequence or result of such power exercise.
(f) Examine untapped power bases by the parties.
5. Other parties / Stakeholders
Here, we have the secondary parties and shadow parties who

must also be considered and their relationships with the primary
parties be assessed in order to understand the overall underlying
problems of conflict. It is easier to identify the secondary parties
than the shadow parties. Shadow parties often hide their identities
but provide resources to the primary parties in the prosecution of
conflict. You should therefore examine:
(a) The roles these parties play in the conflict
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(b) The activities / either aligned or neutral) of these parties

towards each of the primary parties;
(c) The availability of agencies or organizations either private
or public whose involvement in the interaction is
important to the resolution of the conflict;
(d) When and how, can these parties be involved in the peace
process?
6. Issues
(a) Identify the basic issues, which the parties have already
identified themselves;
(b) Identify the hidden or secondary issues not stated by the
parties, if any. The data or relationship or values or
interest or secondary issues not stated by the parties,
if any,
(c) Consider the types of issues are these. Are they problems
of information or values or interest or structure?
(d) Determine the most relevant intervention procedure to the
identified issues;
(e) Examine the conflict situation closely and discover if the
conflict is a new one or the consequence of improper
resolution of previous conflict.
(f) Determine the time and effort, which must expended on
the conflict for quality resolution.
7. The Immediate Situation
The intervenor should determine the most effective conflict

management strategy to adopt according to the urgency and
demand, the situation of conflict demands. For instance, if the
conflict is becoming very violent, the intervenor may decide to
adopt some violence reduction strategies to limit the casualty rate,
which the conflict may generate.
8. Stage of Conflict
(a) Consider if the conflict is still stabilising or escalating or

even deescalating and the reasons for the trend;
(b) In the case of conflict escalation, you determine
i. If the issues are transiting from specific to general;

ii. The level of size increase of the issues or resources in
the conduct of the conflict by the parties;
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iii. If there is any transition to confrontation from

disagreement;
iv. The level of increase in the parties exercise of power;
v. Emerging relationships between the parties?
vi. Situation of communication and propaganda between
the parties;
(c) In the case of stabilization, the following should be

considered/evaluated;
i. Any continued presence of safety-value mechanisms;

ii. The level of fear of conflict escalation;
iii. Existence of agreements on norms and values;
iv. The level of presence of social bonds and traditional
or
cultural alliance between parties (in a larger
organizational structure);
v. The level of external interference or threat;

vi. The level of time constraints, if any, on the further use
of resources.
9. Timing
(a) Determine the right or actual time to intervene;
(b) Determine the most profitable time for the success of the
intervention;
(c) Identify the party that is more likely to derive benefits

from immediate intervention.
10. Alternatives and Options for Settlement
(a) Consider the parties’ level of knowledge and

understanding of their alternatives;
(b) Consider the level of parties awareness of each other’s

alternative or options;
(c) Examine the steps or efforts taken so far by the disputing

parties in the achievement of their alternatives or options;
(d) Evaluate the realistic nature of the disputing parties.
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3.2 The Onion Analytical Tool
This analytical tool is also known as Avocado or Doughnut analytical

tool. Onion/Avocado/Doughnut lays the three layers – the outer; the
whitish; and the inner. This analytical tool is based on the analogy of
Onion where the outer layer contains the position (what we say we
want). The whitish layer contains the interests of the parties in conflict,
which are what they want to achieve from any particular situation. The
third layer is the core cause (B) of the situation, and these are needs –
these are what we must achieve from the situation. Every intervenor is
expected to carry out this analysis on each of the disputants.
FIGURE 2.1
Interest
Needs What we say we want
what we
must have
Interest
What we want
TheOnionConflictAnalyticalTool
In any conflict situation, particularly at national and international levels,

one may see a large number of people agitating for the same thing
(position). Here, the intervenor must exercise some caution in the
analysis of the conflict. For instance in Nigeria, a large number of
people are clamouring against inclusion of three tenures of four years
each in the amended constitution. Their position is campaign against
third term.
The analyst of any conflict situation should be conscious of the need to

develop the analytical framework which will consider both the position,
interest and needs of the parties. The anti third term campaigners,
definitely will have different interests (what they really want). Some
may not dislike totally the issue of third term but may only want
President Olusegun Obasanjo to relinquish power in 2007 basically for
the actualisation of their needs (what they must achieve). The needs of
some of them may be to escape any further onslaught against their
persons in the raging war against corruption. The needs of some of these
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people may be achievement of political reckoning. At the same time,

some may only wish that the country achieve institutionalisation of good
governance, economic development, justice and respect for the rule of
law, which they believe could only be achieved, if there is absence of
sit-tight syndrome or long stay in leadership.
Additionally, some of these anti-third term protesters’ or campaigners’

needs may be power rotation to any of the other regions or regional
divides other than South-West. But for those who are in support of three
terms of office for the executive positions, they have different needs.
Some may articulate such position (support for third term) for monetary
benefits; some for political relevance and power consolidation; some for
continued policy implementation of OBJ Administration for national
growth; some for mere academic exercise; some for continued war
against corruption among others.
Alternative Dispute Resolution process focuses more with interests and

needs than positions. While the court system pays great premium on
positions, which is capable of increasing the adversarial relations
between the parties. It is not far fetched that it is somehow difficult to
see the disputing parties shaking hands or exchanging pleasantries after
court ruling; but may occur on rare cases. Apart from the positions of the
parties, you are expected to analyse the interests and needs of the party.
The interests can easily be identified but needs are always hidden.
Understanding the needs of the parties is very important, this you can
only achieve through building of trust. The parties need to trust you
before they let you know their main targets or needs (what they must
achieve).
3.3 Forces-Field Analysis
This analytical tool can be explored to show the different forces

influencing a conflict situation. In the course of taking some action plans
with the aim of facilitating a change, some other forces may either
support or hinder your aspirations. This tool helps one to identify such
positive and negative forces that affect or influence the desired change
he aspires to make or achieve. Through this analytical tool, one will
assess the strengths and weaknesses of those positive and negative
forces. It also assists one to identify if there is any form of status quo.
The Force Field Analysis was developed by American social
psychologist Kurt Lewin (1951) as a useful tool built on the premise that
forces are often driven by habits, customs, and attitudes that can affect
the change process.
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Force Field Diagram
Change Issue
Driving forces Restraining forces
weak
weak
moderate
strong force
EQUILIBRIUM
no change change
With this tool, we begin the analysis by naming some specific objective
(the change we desire to achieve). We will write this objective at the top
of the page and we draw a lie down the centre of the page. On one side
of the line, we list all the forces that seem to support and assist the action
or change, which is to happen. Next to each of the already drawn forces,
we draw an arrow towards the centre, varying the length and/or
thickness of the arrow to show the relative strength of each force. These
arrows are pointing in the direction of the desired change. FIGURE 2.2
(Source: www.valuebasedmanagement.net)
On the other side of the line, use list all the forces that tend to hinder our
desired action or change from happening. Then, we draw an arrow
pointing to each of the negative forces back towards the centre, against
the direction of the desired change. Thus, the length and thickness of
each arrow will show its relative strength. Thereafter, we will consider
which of these forces, we can influence, either to increase the strength or
to minimise the negative forces, so as to increase the probability of the
desired change coming into fruition.
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We may wish to review our plan of action and make modifications or

amendments to our strategy with the aim of increasing the strength of
positive forces and to limit the effects of negative forces.
3.4 Conflict Mapping
Mapping is a technique used to represent a conflict graphically, placing

the parties in relation both to the problem and to each other. When
people with different viewpoints map their situation together they learn
about each other’s experiences and perception. How to Map a Conflict
Situation
1. Decide on what you want to map, when and from what point of view.
Choose a particular moment in a specific situation. If you try to map
the whole of a regional political conflict in detail, the results may be
so time-consuming, so large and so complex that it is not really
helpful. It is often useful to do several maps of the same situation
from a variety of viewpoints and see how the different parties might
perceive it. Trying to reconcile the differing viewpoints is the reality
of working on the conflict. It is a good discipline to ask whether
those who hold a particular view would actually accept your
description of their relationships with the other parties.
2. Don’t forget to place yourself and your organization on the map.
Putting yourself on the map is a reminder that you are part of the
situation, not above it, even when you analyse it. You and your
organization are perceived in certain ways by others. You may have
contacts and relationships that offer opportunities and openings for
work with the parties involved in the conflict.
3. Mapping is dynamic – it reflects a particular point in a changing
situation and points towards action. This kind of analysis should
offer new possibilities. What can be done? Who can best do it? When
is the best moment? What groundwork needs to be laid beforehand?
What structures built afterwards? These are some of the questions
you should ask as you are carrying out the mapping.
4. In addition to the “objective” aspects, it is useful to map the issues
between parties that are in conflict. Why does the conflict exist?
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3.4b Conventions in Conflict Mapping
The size of these circles represents the parties,

A B
Thus, a straight line between the two parties

shows that there is a good relationship between
Joan Kasa
the parties.
This depicts strong relationship
When two lines are drawn, there is a pact between

the parties. The two lines represent alliance.
This shows a broken relationship, you may then

provide the reasons for such a severance of
relationship
This depicts a broken pact or alliance
This shows intermittently the relationship that is

neutral neither a friend nor an enemy.
This means that Chairman has problem with the

Chairman M.D
M.D, but M.D does not have any problem with the
Adele Adele Chairman
This shows the presence of shadow parties
This depicts smaller conflict.
This depicts major conflict.
It is quite important for you to know that you can develop your own (or
additional) inventions other than the conventional ones discussed
above. Thus, Conflict mapping, according to Albert, “enables the peace
worker to gain an insight into hidden issues in the conflict --- Mapping
entails keeping a graphical record of the location of a conflict, or how
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the parties are strategically positioned against each other” (Albert,

2001:61)
Mapping cannot give ultimate and desired result in intervention in
isolation to other tools, because it does not give answer to all
questions. It only presents the peacemaker or intervenor an insight to
appreciate the underlying causes of conflict and the point of entry for the
possible and the point of entry for the possible resolution of conflict that
is why you need to understand other analytical tools.
3.5 The ABC Triangle
This analytical tool sees conflict having three underlying

elements. These elements are the context or situation; the behaviour of
the disputing parties and their attitudes. Thus, these three factors affect
one another. This tool seems to analyze these factors relate one another,
relating them to needs and fears of the parties.
See figure 2.3.
Fig. 2.3:
The ABC Triangle Behaviour
Attitude Content
For example, a group of students may want the school management to

reduce the prices of course materials, and if the school management
ignores such a demand, that group of students may develop an attitude of
frustration, which may bring about violent demonstration. This violent
behaviour may even attract a context of further denial of rights and
privileges, the school management may even maintain the initial stand of
not reducing the prices of course materials, and even ask the students to
pay some penalty levy for disrupting the order of the school, and the
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school calendar. The decision may even increase the frustration of that
group of students, which may generate more violent demonstration.
In the management of such conflict, the third party intervenor or

peacemaker would look for ways or develop some interventionist
strategies (particularly violence reduction strategy) to charge the context
of the conflict situation. Resources must be channeled for the reduction
of frustration by the peacemaker; this he/she can do by helping the
disputants to focus on the long term nature of their struggle or providing
outlets for non violent behaviour in order to limit the tension.
Furthermore, how do you carry out the task of an intervenor with the
application of this tool? First, you draw up a separate ABC Triangle for
each of the major stakeholders in the conflict. You list the key issues
relating to attitude, behaviour and context from the party’s
viewpoint. Identify the most important need and fears, and inform each
of the parties, his needs and fears as you think, and place these in the
middle of the triangle of each of them. This is the product of your
perception.
Thereafter, you compare and contrast the perceptions of the

parties. After detecting the major object of conflict, then attention can be
paid on such majority. These causes and issues, which are the products
of the parties’ differences, shall be focused on, and the peacemaker will
make the parties see reasons on why they should change their negative
perceptions as a way to bring about a positive and desired peace.
Explain the concept of conflict analysis.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This Unit has presented us with the definition of conflict analysis, and
the stages to undergo in order to have an effective analysis of any
conflict situation. This unit also exposed us to several tools of conflict
analysis as well as their relevance and shortcomings. But students should
know that there are some other analytical tools that discussed in the unit
or courses, which you will have opportunities to explore subsequently in
the course of your academic aspirations at the National Open University
of Nigeria.
5.0 SUMMARY
The Unit explains conflict analysis and its importance in the

management of conflict. The Unit has also presented different tools of
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conflict analysis to stimulate a better understanding and appreciation of

conflict analysis, particularly in relation to conflict resolution.
6.0 TUTOR MARKET ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
1. List three conflict analytical tools, and discuss.

or
2. Describe conflict mapping and use any organization as a case study.
or
3. Use Avocado to discuss any current conflict situation in any part
of Nigeria.
7.0 REFERENCESFURTHER READINGS

Ltd.
Lewin Kurt (1951) Field Theory in Social science. New York: Harper
Brothers
Wehr, P (1979), Conflict Resolution, Boulder, Co: West view press.

www.valuebasedmanagement.net
Deutsch, Morton, (1973) The Resolution of Conflict: Constructive and

Destructive Processes. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Pruitt, Dean G., Jeffrey Z. Rubin and Sung Hee Kim (1994). Social
Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement. 2nd Edition.
New York: McGraw Hill College Division. January 1,
Tillett, Gregory (2000), Resolving Conflict: A Practical Approach, 2nd

edition. Oxford University Press.
UNIT 5 PEACE PROCESSES 1
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CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Alternative Dispute Resolution
3.2 Reasons for Adoption of ADR
3.3 Advantages of ADR
3.4 Forms of ADR
3.4b Stages of Negotiation Process
3.4c Strategies of Negotiation Process
3.5 Mediation
3.5b Stages to Mediation Process
3.6 Conciliation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Peace processes are practical undertakings basically designed to identify

and handle conflict in a reasonable, fair, and effective manner. Students
in peace and conflict studies are expected through their training, to
develop relevant conflict management skills, though their adequate
application of relevant conflict management techniques, will definitely
find answer to every conflict situation, either at interpersonal or intra-
group or even at international and every other levels of human and state
interactions, particularly within the framework of inter dependent
relationships. This Unit aims to explain and examine various forms of
Alternative Dispute Resolution. Their relevance and contradictions, as
processes to the achievement and maintenance peaceful co existence of
all members of an organizational structure and social formations, will be
examined.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
i. Analyse the Alternative Dispute Resolution as a viable

mechanism for peace and conflict management;
ii. Describe the various forms of Alternative Dispute Resolution;
iii. Explain the reasons for adopting ADR;
iv. Explain the advantages and forms of ADR
v. Describe the stages, strategies and demerits of negotiation;
vi. Define mediation and its stages;
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vii. Explain conciliation and its relevance to dispute settlement.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
Alternative Dispute Resolution refers to various dispute management

techniques, which allows for introduction of a neutral third party
intervention. It denounces the gamut of traditional adversarial
processes. Alternative Dispute Resolution only involves all forms of
conflict management mechanisms, which are not ad-judicial; these
include negotiation, mediation, and arbitration (Burgess and Burgess,
1997: 8). The principal ADR processes remain mediation and arbitration
(Goldbery et al, 1992).
ADR unravels systematic and professional ways through which third

party neutrality can create opportunities to promote creative joint
problem solving culture as well as supervision and facilitation of mutual
good agreements, which consider the needs of the parties rather than
their positions. But court adjudication basically considers positional
views of the parties.
Before adopting ADR approach for the resolution of any conflict, the
parties in dispute should ask the following questions:
a. Despite the broken alliance or relationship, is there any need to

restore the conflict-ridden relationship?
b. Are there any communication problems, and is it necessary to
seek for the assistance of skilled neutral third party intervention,
and consider the reliability of such intervention?
c. Are we (the parties) willing to meet to settle the areas of dispute?
d. What level of importance do we (the parties) attach to
confidentiality?
e. Do we (the parties) wish to retain full control over the outcome?
f. How important is time?
3.2 Reasons for Adoption of ADR
a. One of the reasons for the choice ADR is time. ADR is quicker than
the traditional judicial method. People prefer ADR to court process
because the latter takes a long period of time before a dispute can be
determined for possible resolution, while in most cases, due to the
characteristic preferences, the court processes, accord positional
ethos, achieving positive peace remains a difficult task – it often
presents parties as gladiators or enemies;
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b. Cost: ADR is cheaper, in spite of being faster. The cost of adopting

the court process is enormous. For instance, A 5 year study
conducted by Assistant United State Attorneys (AUSA’s) shows the
prominent status of ADR in dispute resolution. During the period,
63% success was recorded in the ADR interventions, while estimated
$10, 700 was saved in litigation costs, and at least eight – nine hours
of staff time, and six months of litigation time were also
saved. Therefore, ADR remains the most effective (Senger, 26).
c. Participation: ADR affords the parties a great opportunity to take part

fully in the whole peace process, through which a mutually
acceptable agreement can be reached. The parties ask questions from
themselves with shared feelings, exploring the possibilities for
restoring hope and confidence between themselves (parties) in the
actualization of dispute resolution. Here is a story culled from one of
the works of the Association for Conflict Resolution, based in their
United State of America:
One stormy autumn morning in September 2001, in a small Midwestern

River town, 20-year-old Lee was driving his huge commercial truck,
delivering milk. In a hurry to make his stops, he was driving slightly
over the speed limit. Suddenly, the truck hit a wet patch on the road,
hydroplaned and struck a passenger car head-on, instantly killing
Nicole, the other driver, age 24. The lives of family and friends of both
Nicole and Lee were changed forever by this unexpected
tragedy. Subsequently, Lee was charged by the criminal justice system
with a felony-negligent vehicular homicide. What options were there for
Lee (his mother and fiancée) and the victims (Nicole) family members?
1. Lee could have pled not guilty and thereby diminished his level of
responsibility and engaged in a lengthy, adversarial court process,
with a skilled lawyer representing him, he may have pled to a lesser
charge, or even gotten off completely.
2. Lee could have pled guilty, gone to court and received a court
imposed sentence, which likely would have involved time in prison
along with community service or other sanctions…
3. Lee could have pled guilty and been offered the opportunity to
voluntary participate in a Victim Offender mediation/ Conference
(VOM/C), with Nicole is surviving family members prior to
sentencing.
In a rare case of collaboration and compassion, the families chose

option three and participated in a Victim Offender Mediation /
Conference (VOM/C). The conference ---, lasted several hours, --- Lee
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agreed to help maintain Nicole’s gravesite and attend annual

celebrations of Nicole’s life. Nicole’s family recommended no jail time
and both families agreed to keep in contact – starting with a potluck
picnic in a local park. A mutually acceptable agreement was signed and
presented to the judge. (Raye and Roberts, 2004: 9).
ADR affords the disputing parties to discuss and debate on their

differences and see the need to improve their relationship for mutual
good and understanding rather than articulating a win-lose philosophy.
The above incident shows how the victim and offender can come
together and discuss on ways to change their conflict situation to that of
tranquility and mutual respect for each other’s needs.
3.2.3 Advantages of ADR
a. It does not consume much time;

b. It is more cost effective. It is of course cheaper than the traditional
alternative of court process;
c. It affords the parties opportunity to control the outcome of the peace
process;
d. The parties agree without compulsion from the diplomatic
framework through which their dispute can be resolved;
e. It tends to improve the relationships between the parties, creating a
win-win situation for the attainment of positive peace;
f. It also considers the needs of the parties.
3.3.4 Forms of ADR
Negotiation: According to Pruitt, “negotiation is a form of decision

making in which two or more parties talk with one another in an effort to
resolve their opposing interest --- a process by which a joint decision is
made by two or more parties” (Pruitt, 1981: xi -xii). Negotiation can also
be defined as “Talks between conflicting parties who discuss ideas,
information and options in order to reach a mutually acceptable
agreement. Initially at least, negotiations may not be face – to
face” (International Alert, 1996, 111: 53).
One of the underlying properties of negotiation is that process, which

involves two or more parties, who are interested in preserving or
improving a relationship that conflict has seemed to distort. Thus,
negotiation can also be regarded as a verbal, interactive process that is
targeted at building or remolding relationships through the mutual
aspirations of the parties sharing a mutual destiny, striving to jointly
reach an agreement or set of agreements on issues for mutual
benefits. Negotiation involves any voluntary bargaining process in
which the parties, articulate a shift from enmity to friendship, discern the
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need to facilitate an escape exit from the threshold of positional

imperatives – for instance, in an organization, the position of the
workers may be, call for the sack of the Managing Director of the
organization, for not articulating well the workers’ welfare at the board
meetings. Here, ‘sack of the M.D.’ is the position of the workers, while
these workers may have different ‘needs’ some of them clamoring for
sack of the M.D. may be advancing such a position for their in ordinate
ambition of becoming the successor of the M.D. For the better
understanding of the subject matter, students are advised to see unit 4 of
this module.
Have you read and understood the above-recommended unit? If not, see
your tutorial facilitator or student counselor for professional assistance
or guidance. Now, let’s go back to negotiation (subject in
discussion). Negotiation dominates almost all fields of international
relations, not only those which can cover the shaping of new law, but
also the settlement of disputes (Henkins et al, 1982: 281). Henkins et al
further argue that ‘the first stage of settlement is reserved to
negotiation’ (ibid), Negotiation does not always involve the intervention
of a neutral third party, which makes it different from other forms of
ADR (Show, 1997: 751). The International Court of Justice has also
throws its weight behind the relevance of negotiation in the peaceful
settlement of dispute in the North Sea Continent Self Case Convention,
and the court held that:
The parties are under an obligation to enter into negotiations with a view
to arriving at an agreement, and not merely to go through a formal
process of negotiation as a sort of prior condition --- they are under an
obligation so as to conduct themselves that the negotiation are
meaningful, which will not be the case when either of them insists upon
its own position without contemplating any modification of it (ICJ
Reports, 1969, 3: 47).
In the German External Case, the World Court argued that an agreement
to negotiate does not actually imply an obligation to reach an
agreement. In the legality of the threat or the use of Nuclear Weapons,
the World Court reemphasized on the Article VI of the treaty on the non-
proliferation of nuclear weapons to pursue negotiations in good faith in
effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an
early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on a general and
complete disarmament under strict and effective international court’ (ICJ
Reports, 1996).
On the disadvantage of negotiation, several scholars in the fields of

peace and conflict studies as well as international law and relations,
believe that negotiation is ‘not always a good method of settling
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international dispute’ because its facts are difficult to be objectively

ascertained (Malanczuk, 1997: 275). It also lacks the moderating
influence of neutral third parties, and cannot curb ‘extreme claims’ by
the contending parties especially when there is a strong bargaining
power (ibid).
3.3.4b Stages of Negotiation Process
There are various stages through which negotiation can be

facilitated. According to Albert (2004:1), these stages include:
i. Establish contact with other directly, by written words or symbols

or through an intermediary;
ii. Create at least a minimally positive professional relationship;
iii. Identify topics to be addressed and determine how discussions
will be conducted;
iv. Transmit both substantive information and messages about the
type and strength of feelings;
v. Communicate about their desires, positions, or demands and
possible needs and interests;
vi. Generate options and assess their validity;
vii. Seek to influence each other to obtain advantage or satisfaction;
viii. Create procedures and ritual for gaining final approval for
agreements, and
ix. Develop ways to implement, monitor, and ensure compliance with
understandings that have been reached”.
3.3.4c Strategies of Negotiation Process
There are three basic strategies of negotiation process. These include the
following:
i. Competitive bargaining: This is also known as hard bargaining and

distributive, position, zero sum, or win – lose bargaining. Here, the
negotiation process or bargaining tends to be conducted through a
framework of competition. The bargainers see the diplomatic process
as competition, in which each of them strives to achieve victory. It
promotes victor, vanquished’ relationship, as immediate benefits, not
considering prominently the relevance of future relationships;
ii. Compromising (Cooperative) bargaining: This is also known as soft

bargaining, win some – lose some or give and take bargaining. Here,
a party strongly has a desire to maintaining a future relationship with
the opponent. His bargaining principle is integrative and interest
based, not minding to make concessions in order to hasten a mutual
agreement with the other party. But it is worth – noting that such as
41
v1
desperate bid to make quick agreement may be injurious to

bargainer. A good example is the conflict between Nigeria and
Cameroon over the ownership of Bakassi Peninsula. Gen. Gowon
Administration made a rash of concessions to the Ahidjo Cameroon,
in order to promote a mutual confidence through the Agreements
between the parties. After collapse of Gown regime, successive
administrations in Nigeria have refused to further honour these
agreements because of what they have considered as the excessive
nature of Gowon concessions, which reestablished the conflict
situation that had long bedeviled the bilateral relations between
Nigeria and Cameroon.
iii. Collaborative bargaining: This is also known as integrative or

problem solving bargaining or interest or positive – sum or – win
bargaining. Here, both parties creates avenues to explore possibilities
through their collaborative efforts to achieve a win – win situation
where both parties agree to give premium on their respective interests
without any unnecessary compromise.
3.5 Mediation
According to Schmid, mediation is a ‘form of conflict management

whereby a skilled and / or powerful third Party (State, International
organization, NGO) acts … to facilitate communication between conflict
parties that consent to the initiative to bring a partial solution (e.g)
exchange of prisoners) or a settlement. The initiative for mediation
usually comes from the outside or from the weaker of the conflicting
parties” (Schimid, 2000: 54).
Mediation is any voluntary, non-binding process, even informal,

conducted by a neutral third party with the aim of promoting the dispute
settlement between the disputing parties. According to Miller, Mediation
involves third party intervention, which must operate with considerable
neutrality,
“-------lacking the authority to coerce or impose judgments,

conditions, or resolutions, facilitators aim to transform the
dynamics of the conflict situation by introducing new relevant
knowledge or information, especially regarding the negotiation
process between the disputants, by revealing common interests
and suggesting possible directions toward settlements (Miller and
King 2004: 23 – 24).
Christopher Miller goes further to present the relevance of mediation ‘in

dispute resolution, particularly in acute situations’,
42
v1
(Ibid) where the mediator provides an opportunity to mend the

relationship of the disputing parties through the provision of valuable
communication means that may awaken the mutual consciousness of the
parties to consider the path of peace for mutual benefits and
development of effective bilateral or multilateral mechanisms for the
termination of every form of structural suspicion, for the possible
realization of positive peace, as the case may be. Thus, if mediation is
not well articulated, the process may only end up in peace that is
negative.
In mediation, the parties are expected to ‘maintain considerable control

over the process and the outcome’ (Ibid). The mediator offers mediating
services with the ultimate aim of bringing the contending parties
together, and to suggest modalities for the peaceful resolution of dispute.
The submissions of the mediator are of no binding substance on the
disputants. For instance, in Koreans hostilities, the United Nations
General Assembly backed a mediation process with the aim of
proposing means and methods for effecting the termination of the armed
conflicts, rather than bringing about negotiations between the disputing
parties.
Again, upon the Pope’s proposals, Cardinal Antonio Samore was
appointed as a mediator to facilitate the implementation of the Beagle
Channel Award in a case of dispute between Argentina and Chile (see
ILM 17, 1978: 632). At international level, mediation appears a difficult
task because the mediator’s ‘---- neutral stance is often not possible
without favoring one side or the other, especially in armed
conflict’ (Malanczuk, 1997: 276). Malanczuk goes further to argue that
Great Powers have greater opportunities in the area of mediation ‘due to
their resources and weight’, who of course, ’tend to pursue their own
interests’ and mediation can be said to be most effective ‘in the
settlement of smaller issues or local conflicts’ (Ibid).
3.5b Stages to Mediation Process.
i. Creation of forum or medium or bargaining avenue;

ii. Collection and sharing of data basically to implore the
communication problem between the disputants;
iii. Adoption of problem – solving bargaining approach within a
collaboration framework;
iv. Decision making process- Mind you, time is very vital element in
peace process, it is imperative for the mediator to draw a time frame
for his/her diplomatic assignment in order to achieve a quick dispute
settlement response from the parties.
3.6 Conciliation
43
v1
Conciliation is another form of ADR. It is defined as ‘----- a process of

formulating proposals of settlement after an investigation of facts and an
effort to reconcile opposing contentions, the parties to the dispute being
left free to accept or reject the proposals formulated’. (Hudson, 1994:
232). According to the US Institute of Peace, conciliation is:
The least structured of the four major conflict resolution techniques.

Unlike a negotiator, arbitrator, or mediator, a conciliator frequently
works in pre-negotiation situations to establish and maintain
communication among disputants and, if appropriate, to move them into
more formal bargaining formats. Conciliators may employ fact-finding
and observation techniques, and help disputes to be resolved informally.
In addition, conciliators may employ fact-finding and observation
techniques, and help disputes to be resolved informally. In addition,
conciliators play critical roles in helping agreements to be kept, and (in)
reconciliation efforts that prevent future conflicts after agreements are
reached. (The US Academy of Peace, 1981: 105).
Conciliation has been argued by some scholars of international law to be

a ‘combination of inquiry and mediation’ (Akehurst, 1970: 1).
Conciliation, on the issue of formality, is more formal than mediation
but less flexible because a conciliator can formulate a new set of
proposals where proposals made by a mediator are rejected by the
parties, and mediator can only have a single report’ (Ibid).
On the evolution of conciliation, this can be traced to the Bryan Treaties

of 1913/1914. Since World War II, the role of conciliation in bilateral
treaties has reduced drastically but it has not disappeared (Malanczuk,
1997: 278). Conciliation Commission usually examines the disputes and
makes non- binding recommendations for a possible settlement of
dispute. The basic relevance or importance of conciliation in
international law and relations, in practical terms, lies on the area of
study (EPIC 1, 1992: 726 – 728). Conciliation commission was
established pursuant to Article 83 of the Peace Treaty with Italy of 1947.
Some conciliation commission can also be established outside the
framework of specific treaties as evident in the United Nations. Instance
may include the Conciliation Commission for Palestine under the
General Assembly Resolution 194 (iii), 1948 as well as the Conciliation
Commission for the Congo under the Resolution 1474 (ES – IV) of the
1960 (Shaw, 1997: 728).
Conciliation is not regarded in some quarters, as sufficient instrument of

peaceful settlement of dispute. A great example was the ‘context, of
tragedy in Yugoslavia’ where conciliation out rightly failed to address
the conflict (Malanczuk, 1997: 281), but it (conciliation) is still a vital
mechanism for dispute resolution, as the successes, it has recorded
44
v1
recently, has attracted international renewal of interest in the approach.

We will discuss other forms of ADR and Court Adjudication in Peace
Processes II.
Discuss the principle of alternative dispute resolution(ADR).
4.0 CONCLUSION
The Unit explored some of the peace processes available in the field of
peace and conflict management. It described the term, Alternative to
Dispute Resolution as well as its relevance to the study and practice of
peace and conflict management.
5.0 SUMMARY
Some of the forms of ADR were also discussed in this Unit. The unit
also gave attention to advantages and shortcomings of the various forms
of ADR mentioned in the Unit. The unit covers definitions, stages,
relevance, demerits of ADR and some of its various forms like
Mediation, Conciliation, among others.
1. Briefly discuss any three forms of ADR that you came across in this
Unit.
Akehurst, Michael (1970), A Modern Introduction to International Law,

Harper Collins Academy.
Burgess, H. and Burgess, G.M. (1997), Encyclopedia of conflict

Resolution, Santa Barbara, ABC - CLIO.
Goldberg, Stephen: Sander, Frank E. A.; Rogers, Nancy H. (1992)

Dispute Resolution: Negotiation, Mediation and other processes,
Little, Brown and Co.
Henkins, Louis; Pugh, Richard etal (1982), International Law: Cases

and Materials, America Casebook Services, West Publishing
Company, June.
ICJ Reports, 1969
45
v1
ICJ Reports, 1996
International Alerts (1996), “Resources Pack for Conflict

Transformation”,(Parts I-V), London: IA
Malanczuk, Peter (1997), Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to

International Law, 7th Edition, Routledge.
Miller, Christopher A. (2004), A Glossary of Terms and Concepts and

Conflict Studies, University for Peace.
Raye, Barbara E. and Roberts, Ann W. (2004), “A Vision of Justice”,

AC Resolutions. Summer.
Schmid, Alex P. (2000), Thesaurus and Glossary of Early Warning

Conflict Prevention Terms, Forum on Early Warning and Early
Response.
Senger, Jeffrey M (2000), “Education of ADR in the United States

Attorney Cases”, United State Attorneys’ Bulletin. November .
Shaw, Michael (1997), International Law, 4th Edition, Cambridge.

Albert, I.O., (2004), “Concept, Principles and Practice of
Negotiation”, NCEMA organized Training Programme on
Legislative Budgeting and Negotiation. August 16-21
Beagle Channel Arbitration, ILM (1978).

EPIL 1, 1992. University Press.
Deutsch, M.A. (1973), The Resolution of Conflict, New Haven, Conn:

Yale
Freeman, Charles W. (ed.) (1995), Diplomat’s Dictionary, Washington

DC: National Defence University Press.
Fisher, R. and Ury, W. (1983) Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement

Without Giving In, New York : Pengum Books.
Hudson (Judge), Manly (1994), International Tribunals
Moore, C. (1986), The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for

Resolving Conflict, San Francisco, Califonia: Jossey-Bass.
Pruitt, D.G. (1981), Negotiation Behavior, New York: Academic Press.
46
v1
Rubin, J. (ed.) (1981), Dynamics of Third Party Intervention: Kissinger

in the Middle East, New York: Praeger.
The US Commission on Proposals for the National Academy of Peace

and Conflict Resolution (1981), United State Academy of Peace
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Peace Processes II

Unit 2 Communication
Unit 3 Ethnicity
47
v1
Unit 4 Factors for National Integration of Nigeria

Unit 5 Civil -Military Relation And The
Promotions of Peace In Democratic Nigeria
UNIT 1 PEACE PROCESSES II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Arbitration
3.2 Transformative Facilitation
3.3 Judicial Settlement/Court Adjudication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Unit is the continuation of the peace processes 1 where we paid

major attention on Alternative Dispute Resolution. I hope we have all
understood the concept of ADR as well as its various forms. We were
unable to complete this great task – forms of ADR in peace processes 1,
Therefore, we will discuss some other forms of ADR in this unit. We
will also pay attention on the traditional method of conflict resolution
within the framework of pacifism, which is discourse on the court
adjudication.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) Explain the meaning of arbitration and its relevance to conflict

management;
(ii) Differentiate between arbitration and adjudication;
(iii) Describe transformative facilitation and its relevance to conflict

resolution; and
(i) Define court adjudication, its importance to conflict management
as well as its shortcomings.
3.0 MAIN BODY
48
PCR 101 Introduction to Peace Studies
3.1 Arbitration
Arbitration is the most adopted form of ADR. According to International

Law Commission, arbitration is a “procedure for the settlement of
dispute between states by a binding award on the basis of law as a result
of an undertaking voluntarily accepted” (IIYBILC, 1953: 202).
Arbitration can also be defined as “a generic term for a voluntary

process in which people in conflict request the assistance of an impartial
and neutral third party to make decision for them regarding contested
issues” (Moore, 1996: 9). Albert adds his voice to this intellectual
discourse by describing arbitration as a process, which of course:
Is resorted to when past efforts to reach a common

ground by the disputants proved abortive though both
of them want the conflict to be resolved quickly, under
this process, the third party with formal mandate, and
upon the invitation of the disputing parties, hears the
issues in the conflict and discusses them with each side
in a formal, legal setting. The arbitrator conducts
himself, more or less, like a judge. His decisions have
legal backing and must be respected by the parties once
taken (Albert, 2001: 34 – 35).
Arbitration remains a pacific mechanism in the management of conflict

whereby the disputing parties their objects of disagreement, without any
iota of compulsion, seeking the neutral third party intervention, selecting
the majority of the members of the arbitration panel, who will take
decisions, which the parties should voluntarily accept in good faith. The
process of arbitration is informal, economical, private, and relatively
quick.
Coercive and non coercive third party intervention
Third Party
Party A Party B
Negotiation
Coercive Non Coercive

Enforcement Mediation Pure mediation 49
Non-forcible coercion Third Party Conciliation/
Mediation with muscle Problem solving
Good offices
Source Miall, Ramsbotham, Woodhouse 'Contemporary Conflict

Resolution', p. 11.
Quoted on http://www.netuni.nl/courses/conflict1/week1/1.10_week.html:
Arbitration is believed to have evolved in its ‘mature judicial process’

basically out of ‘relatively informal administrative and political
procedure’ (Brownlie, 1960: 709). Arbitral tribunal always consists of an
odd number. Arbitral tribunal is specifically set up to deal with a
particular dispute or class of disputes and arbitral tribunal is of ‘more
flexibility’ in the area of compulsory jurisdiction than a standing
court. Arbitration is so important as a ‘process’ where some technical
expertise is required’, and it is capable of ‘quietly’ setting all categories
of disputes as evident in the mixed tribunal set up after the World War 1
to settle territorial conflict or the Mexican Claims Commission, which
handled a number of claims against Mexico (Shaw, 1997: 742). There
has been a considerable increase in the number of international
arbitration as evident in the Rann of Kutch Case (Walter, 1971: 346).
The main motive of arbitration is to conduct a neutral third party

intervention, in such a way that the disputing parties will have their
dispute settled without any further exhibition of adversarial attitude
between the parties with the aim of achieving a win – win situation. On
the question of the differences between arbitration and court
adjudication, Akehurst, a professor of international law distinguished the
two as follows:
(a) In domestic law, the jurisdiction is conferred on Arbitrator by

agreement, which it is conferred on the judge by the general law
(although the jurisdiction of a court may also be extended by
agreement). But international law gives no jurisdiction to any
Arbitrator or Judge, unless the disputing parties agree on such
intervention;
(b) In domestic law, it is the disputants that usually appoint the
arbitrators or by someone nominated by the disputing parties,
while the Judges are not. The difference is more or less valid in
international law;
(c) In domestic law, the parties can agree with the arbitrators to
apply rules other than those of the ordinary law, as such
50
agreement cannot be found within the operation of the court in

the determination of a disputed case. In international law, the
parties have the utmost power and authority to request a court to
apply rules other than those of ordinary laws, and such requests
or authorizations are given to arbitrators more frequently than to
courts (Akehurst, 1970: 224).
On the final note, arbitration involves appointment of certain people

(Arbitrators) without compulsion by the disputants, who are charged
with utmost responsibility of making necessary arbitrating award, which
cannot be forcefully imposed on the disputants. On the appointment final
say. The composition of the arbitration should fulfill the odd number
requirement. The disputants may appoint one arbitrator each and these
arbitrator in consequential appoint an’ umpire’ (arbitrator that makes for
the odd number). In the conduct of arbitral interventional, the arbitrators
are expected to be ‘impartial dispensers of justice’, not ‘minding to rule
against the interest of the parties that appointed them for the true
dispensation of justice, though which we can have a true resolution of
conflict (ibid).
3.2 Transformative Facilitation
This is another form of ADR, which is aimed not at dispute settlement

but at the transformation of disputant relationship through
“empowerment and recognition” (Joseph and Bush, 2001: 192). This
concept is based on the idea that conflicts are not primarily the problems
to be solved but ‘a crisis on --- interaction’, in which parties need to be
supported in constructive rather than destructive ways of ‘doing conflict’
(ibid).
This approach also assumes that disputing parties do not need a highly
structured and staged mediation process engineered by the focus on
identifying and taking up moment by moment opportunities for party
empowerment and recognition.
3.3 Judicial Settlement / Court Adjudication
Court adjudication, both at local and international levels includes the

activities of making decision, by courts of competent jurisdiction, on
disputes according to the rules and principles of law. It is worth knowing
that the highest court at the global level is International Court of Justice,
while in Nigeria, the highest court is the Supreme Court.
International Court of Justice usually consists of 15 judges who are

normally elected in separate electronic by the General Assembly. These
judges serve a term of nine years in such a way that at least five out of
51
these fifteen members would be due for retirement every – three years,
but they can still seek for re-election. These judges, in customary terms,
are obliged not to see themselves as representatives of their various
governments. Thus, they should demonstrate a high degree of no
biasness in their dispensation of justice and conform to the ‘main forms
of civilization’, and regard themselves as representing the ‘---principal
legal systems of the world’ as contained in the Article 9 of its statute.
In the settlement of international dispute, the ICJ is charged with

responsibility of entertaining any case of dispute agreed by the
disputants to resolve through third party adjudication. But states or
nations are often reluctant to appear before the court due to the principle
of optimal clause. Optimal clause according to Jennings:
Remains an underused and less satisfactory method for augmenting the

competence of the court. It remains true, as it was when Waldock made
his famous study of the optimal clause, that despite the principle of
reciprocity, states may well decide that there is some political advantage
in remaining outside a system which permits states to join more or less
on their own terms at an opportune moment. It would be difficult if not
practically impossible to charge system, given the difficulties of the
amending the statute of the court (Jennings, 1999: 495)
If another party takes a party to the ICJ, that party taken to the ICJ may
decide not to appear because of the optimal clause contained in the
statute of the Court, but if it decides to defend itself at the world court,
the decision of the court stands binding on the parties. Students should
note that the world court (ICJ) is basically meant to decide and
determine the dispute cases involving the state actors, not individuals as
in domestic courts.
However, court adjudication is conflict resolution tool that affords the

disputants no opportunity to appoint the third party adjudicator. The
underlying element and principle of third party adjudication involves a
decision that is binding within a legal framework, which may create an
atmosphere of negative peace due to its philosophy of win – lose
outcome (Kleiboer, 1997: 9).
The traditional court system consumes so much financial resources

compared to ADR. At local level, people tend to resort to the use of
violence or resign t o fate because of the financial implications of
adopting a court system. Several people even on several occasions
resolve to abandon their cases in court due to the financial implications
the court process has on them and their individual economy. This action
only attracts conflicts freezing not resolution because the issue of
conflict has not been addressed. Sometimes, the disputants may decide
52
to explore ADR for the possible resolution of their conflict. The case is
even coarse, at international level, where state action incurs a lot of
financial burdens as a result of legal service bills. For instance in the
conflict between Nigeria and Cameroon, Nigeria incurred a bill of over
$300 million, at the time, the country was ranked as one of the poorest
nations in the world, where average citizen lives on less than $1 a
day. At last, the decision of the court was not favourable (Kasali, 2003:
112).
The court adjudication approach also takes a longer time. In spite of

routine domestic legal reforms, dispensation of justice in courts, takes a
very long time, even to the frustration of the parties, which has
necessitated the death of some cases of conflict in most courts. At
international level, the situation is even worse, for instance in the case
between Nigerian and Cameroon over the ownership of Bakassi, it took
the ICJ eight years before its ruling could be delivered. In the aftermath,
the parties have even resolved to negotiation, when both parties (Nigeria
and Cameroon) had seen the need for mutual understanding, which
would create an improvement in their communication for the peaceful
settlement of dispute within a win – win framework. This formula has
really helped them to some extent to resolve the conflict, rather than the
court pronouncement or decision.
Differentiate between arbitration and adjudication in peace processes.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have learnt some of the other ADR forms apart from
those we discussed in Peace Processes 1. Here, we discussed arbitration
and its relevance to peace making; and transformative facilitation. We
went further to discuss third party ad-judication, its relevance and
shortcomings were given a considerable attention.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discusses some of the ADR forms, which were not discussed in
Peace Processes 1. It goes further to present some differences between
the ADR and Adjudication. We should not fail to note that in the
adoption of ADP, the more you go, the tougher it becomes, knowing that
the process begins with negotiation to conciliation to facilitation to
53
mediation to arbitration, even to court – annexed hybrids. The reason is

their levels of formality.
(1) State and differentiate between any ADR and Traditional

Approaches to conflict Management.
Or
(2) I prefer arbitration to adjudication, discuss.
7.0 REFERENCESFURTHER READINGS
Akehurst, Michael (1970), Modern Introduction to International law,

Harper Collins Academy.

Ltd.
Brownlie, Tan (1960), principle of Public international Law, 4th Edition,

ELBS / Oxford University Press.
Jennings, R. (1999), “The international Court of Justice after 50 years”

AJU 89
Kasali, M.A (2003), “The Pacific Settlement of International Dispute in

International Law: Origin and Dynamics of Diplomatic – Legal
Manoeuvrings to Bakassi Question” (MSc Thesis – unpublished),

Political Science Dept., University of Ibadan.
Kleaboer, M.A. (1997) “International Mediation: The Multiple Realities

of Third Party Intervention”, Leiden, Dept of Pub. Admin (Ph.D.)
Thesis) (also published by Lynne Reinner).
Miall, Ramsbotham, Woodhouse 'Contemporary Conflict Resolution',

p.11 (Quoted on
http://www.netuni.nl/courses/conflict1/week1/1.10_week.html).
Welter, J.G. (1971), “The Rann of Kutch Arbitration”, AJIL 65.

Bilder, R.B. (1997) “Adjudication: International arbitral tribunals
and courts in I.W.
Folger, J.P. and Bush, R.A.B (2001), NY: The Institute for the Study of
Conflict Transformation.
54
Moore, C.N. (1996), The Mediation process: Practical Strategies for

Conflict, San Francisco, California: Jossey Bass Publishers.
Shaw, Malcolm (1997), International Law, 4th Edition, Cambridge.

Wehr, P (1979) Conflict Resolution Boulder, Co: West view
press.
Zartman and J.L. Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International

Conflicts, methods and Techniques, Washington DC: US Institute
of Peace press.
UNIT 2 COMMUNICATION
CONTENTS
1.0. Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
55
3.1 What is Communication?

3.2 Factors Affecting Communication
3.3 Road Blocks to Communication
3.4 Active Listening Techniques 1
3.5 Active Listening Techniques 1 and 11
3.6 Helpful Languages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Unit, communication, is about the important role that good

communication plays in managing conflict, and the dangers of poor
communication. Factors that affect communication and active listening
techniques will be discussed. The importance of good communication
skill in mediation will be emphasized and it is the main tool of
mediation.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. Describe the components of communication.

ii. Identify the factors for smooth communication.
iii. Identify roadblocks to communication.
iv. Explain the techniques of active listening
v. Describe the helpful languages for good communication
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 What is Communication?
Communication is the act of sending and receiving information and

giving feedback. This is also the process of encoding messages for
sending. When messages are wrongly coded, it will be very difficult to
make sense out of it. The contents of our messages include our thoughts,
feelings, what we see or perceive. The person sending the message is
called the speaker/sender. The listener who is also called the decoder
receives the message. The process of encoding and decoding a message
is very important, as wrongly decoded message have the ability to cause
conflicts. Communication is not complete, until there is a feedback from
the decoder. The importance of feedback is to confirm that message was
properly encoded and decoded.
56
3.2 Factors Affecting Communication
A lot of other reasons inform our encoding and decoding

approaches. The factors include:
Values: What we value in life tells who we are. Our value systems
define our identity and our identity can be expressed in our
communication. When our values are similar, our communications are
easier and smoother, but when we have different value structure, the
tendency to misunderstand isvery high. This is so, because
interpretation, which is the second phase of communication, is likely to
be wrong when the values are not understood. The most likely feedback
from wrong interpretation will be further wrong action and reactions.
Perception: Perception is our subjective understanding of situation or

persons. Because perception is personal and not necessarily the objective
view of things, it is very likely to influence how we communicate with
the other party. If you perceive a particular religion to be inferior to
yours, the possibility of your discussion of that other religion rudely will
be high, and this will be noticed in your choice of words and actions.
Assumptions: This is the pro-set idea we have about things. This is a

little similar to perceptions but a little stronger. Stereotype and
suspicious are products of assumptions. With this present condition, our
encoding and decoding of information will be highly
influenced. Suspicion is belief based on mistrust and they influence us
negatively. We need trust to build relationships, and communication is
one of the tools for relationship building.
Communication Style: The choice of verbal or non-verbal language also

affects our communication. When we speak, we communicate
differently, from when we don’t speak. We could be misunderstood
when we talk, and we can easily make corrections. But non-verbal
communication is subject to various interpretations and this will take a
while to get the true interpretations. Gift items like flowers don’t make
much sense to people who are not from the culture where flower giving
is a big issue.
So, these factors have tremendous effects on our communication and we
all should know it, as the knowledge will help the process of encoding,
decoding and feed backing and reduce the opportunities for
confrontations. When encoders and decoders know these factors, they
could make efforts to manage it. Openness, willingness and respect
could help to reduce the communication barriers.
However, it is also important that we refrain from certain behaviors that

make communication difficult. These are called:
57
3.3 Road Blocks to Communication
Ordering: You must… You have to.. You will..

Threatening: If you don’t, then.. You had better or else..
Preaching: It is your duty to.. You should… You ought…
Lecturing Here is why you are wrong… Do you realize?
Providing answers: What I would do is… It would be best for you…
Judging: You are bad…lazy! Your hair is too long…

Excusing: You’ll feel better… It’s not so bad…
Diagnosing: You’re just trying to get attention… I know what
you need…
Prying: Why? What? How? When?
(Adopted from Training and Facilitators Manual on Conflict

Management by CRESNET, USAID/OTI)
3.4 ACTIVE LISTENING TECHNIQUES 1
Statement Purpose To do this… Examples

Encouraging 1. To convey interest …don’t agree or “Can you tell
To encourage the other disagree me more..?
person to keep talking …use neutral words
voice intonations
Clarifying 1. To help you ..ask questions “When did
58
clarify what is …restate wrong this happen

said interpretation to
2. To get more force the speaker to explain
information further
3. To help the
speaker see
other point of
view
Restating 1. To show you are …restate basic What I hear

listening understanding ideas and facts you saying is
what that “So you
is being said want your
2. To check your parents to
meaning trust you
and interpretation more?
Summarizing 1. To review …restate major ideas “These seem
progress expressed including to the
2. Pull together feelings key ideas
important you’ve
3. ideas and facts expressed.”?
4. To eBsetiambplaisrthiala Do not tell you own

baDsoisnoftotrakfeusritdhees r story, problems, and
Think in the other feelings
person’s place to discussion
Vaulinddaertsitnangd 1. To acknowledge the …acknowledge value of
“I appreciate
worthiness of the other their issues and feelings …
your
person show appreciation for their
willingness
efforts and actions Show
to resolve
understanditnhgis
non-verbally
matter…?”
Op(eAndboopdtyed from Training and Facilitators Manual on Conflict
laM
Active
ngaunaaggeement by CRESNET, USAID/OTI)
Listening
to discover
the other person’s Restate,
3.5 ACTIVE LISTENpeIN
rsG
peTcE
tiC
veHNIQUES II paraphrase,
summarize facts
& feelings
Eye contact
Learn the
cultural
differences
Ask questions to
understand Use
Face the
Do not give open ended
speaker Learn
advice questions Clarify 59
the cultural
differences
Do not

3.6 Helpful Language
Anger Management
The “I FEEL” Message The “YOU ARE” Message

Example Somebody is frequently late.
Say: “I FEEL like I cannot depend on you Instead of saying: “YOU ARE
60
so unreliable”
The “I FEEL” message helps the otherA “YOU ARE” message attacks
person understand YOU. It opens and blames the other person, or
dialogue, offers explanations, or promptsmakes the other person feel like
an apology he or she has been attacked, even
if this was not your intent.
The Magic Formula
Express how you feel: “I feel annoyed…
Describe behaviour: …when you come late…
Explain consequence for you: …because I loose time
waiting…
Offer your preferred solution: I prefer you come on time?
PRACTICE: The “I FEEL” Message
1. A co-worker did not finish an important job in time.

“You never finish on time! you are…!”
Your “feel” message”
2. A partner is forgetful
“You always forget what I ask you to do”
Your “I feel” message:
3. A team-member is making negative comments.

“You are always such a pessimist!”
Your “I feel message:
61

What are the factors affecting communication as a tool for early warning
in conflict prevention?
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is quite convincing that good communication skill is an asset to

conflict management. At any stage in conflict mitigation, the ability to
talk and communicate clearly avoiding the roadblocks will go a long
way in making communication easy. The main tool a mediator needs to
prosecute any mediation process successfully is good communication
skill, which goes beyond just talking, to include listening with all parts
of your body. Effective communication is essential to building peace.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has discussed what communication is all about. It also examine
factors affecting Communication, road blocks to communication. It also
explains different active listening techniques and helpful languages.
1. How do you communicate to empower others and defuse anger?

Or
2. How do you speak to others that they will be able to listen
without raising their defenses?
CRESNET (2001) Conflict Management Training Manual. USAID/OTI

Training Manual for Women in Peace Building for Women in
Peace Building Network (WIPNET) West Africa Network for peace-

building (WANEP) (Unpublished)
62

Responsibility

Transformation Forum Intervention in Community
Conflicts. John Archers (Publisher) Limited
Joseph P. Folger, Marshall Scott Poole, K. Stutman (1997) Working

Through Conflict Strategies for Relationship Groups, and
Organization. Randall Addison Wesley Education Publisher.
UNIT 3 ETHNICITY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
63
3.1 What is Ethnicity?

3.2 The Relevance of Ethnicity
3.3 Conflict in Multi-Ethnic Society
3.4 Redefining Ethnic Conflict
3.5 How do we Resolve Ethnic Conflicts?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Unit deals with the idea of ethnicity, in terms of group formation
and identity. It will further define and describe ethnic conflict as it is
seen today in modern literature and the role of ethnicity is conflict. The
Africanist perspective of what is ethnic conflict or how to resolve them
based on the present of justice, fair play and recognition of what is
proper for human, not necessarily based on civilized or tribal cultures.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to
i. Describe ethnicity as a study of group of people who function in

particular way that works for them.
ii. Distinguish between the two schools of thoughts – the Africanist
and the Western.
iii. Describe the Africanist approach to resolving African ethnic conflicts.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 What is Ethnicity?
Many scholars have tried to define ethnicity, in a number of ways. Some

have defined it with reference to group, without thinking of ethnic. For
example, Nnoli (1980) defined ethnicity to be “a social phenomenon
associated with interactions among members of different ethnic groups”.
According to him, ethnic groups are “social formations distinguished by

the common character (language and culture) of their boundary”. Otite
(1999) defined ethnic group to be “categories of people characterized by
culture criteria of symbols including language, value systems and
normative behaviour, and whose members are anchored in a particular
part of the new state territory”. He defines ethic groups as “the
contextual discrimination, by members of one group against others on
the basis of differentiated systems of socio-culture symbols”.
64
Analysis of these definitions, especially that of Otite (1999), is that it

shows the understanding of ethnicity as it is been portrayed negatively in
Nigeria. But it is clear that in Nigeria, pp from different ethnic groups
live and mix freely, your ethnicity is not a problem. Ethnic diversity is
not a problem, if properly managed; it could be a source of strength.
3.2 The Relevance of Ethnicity
In politics, ethnicity, which is structurally primordial, possesses an

intrinsic absolute value, involving and demanding a level of loyalty,
which transcends that given to any other group or the state. This is a
relationship where a person is bound to one’s kinsman, one’s neighbor,
one’s fellow believer, not merely because of personal affection,
practical necessity, common interest, or incurred obligation, but at
least in great part by virtue of some unaccountable absolute import
attributable to the very tie itself. This is unlike civil ties which are
characterized by amorphous, routine allegiance to the civil state, mostly
sustained to a greater extent by governmental use of brutal, suffocating
force and hollow ideological rhetoric. The need to differentiate between
these two relationships is to show that they are important forces pulling
persons in different directions at the same time, seeking for his or her
loyalty. Even, with increasing homogenization through modernization
and education, ethnic relevance has not been undermined, as the ethnic
groups still provide a tangible source of self-identification and a basis
for political action, because values and norms of the incipient national
character have not grown at the expense of the values and norms of the
ethnic group.
In times of personal and political crises, ethnic ties are by far more
meaningful to most citizens than civil ties. The sense of security the
Africans derive from the ethnic group is vital and is based on "the
feeling of security that it gives him especially as many believe that in the
event of their getting into trouble, whether at home or abroad, ... only
members of their families and their ethnic group will rally round to their
rescue, and not the theoretical nation. Since the ethnic group is seen as
the guarantor of personal security, when the ethnic group is threatened,
the members are threatened in a personal sense. This is why they find
threat toward their ethnic group as a fundamental threat to their identity
and security.
They find ethnic affiliation as the primary source of satisfaction of

fundamental need of identity and security, and therefore, ethnicity
defines the individual’s perception of, and relationship to, political
issues. So crucial are ethnic identifications that they often override
loyalty to the state.
65
Thus, the introduction of electoral processes leads to the power defining

phenomenon of ethnicity that further embitters the relations among
various ethnic groups In the absence of widely-held and strongly-felt
ideologies, like the third term issue in Nigeria, ethnicity provides the
focus for "party" loyalty. Indeed, on the basis of the social patterns of
voting behaviour in Africa, we may submit that invariably parties and
ethnic groups overlap. Since ethnicity is close to the core of individual
identity, perceived slights or threats from "outsiders" tend to generate
powerful collective reactions. Such reactions are easily mobilized and
politicized by the group’s elite, motivated partly by genuine concern for
their people and partly to nurture their political ambitions by exploiting
the natural resource of collective identity. This use of ethnicity as a
political resource has led many observers of the African political
landscape to conclude that ethnicity is invented for political ends, and
this is not true, and it will be confusing to define an ethnic group in
terms of its political interests.
In competitive politics ethnicity creates a majority-minority problem

where elections more or less become a census of the adult population.
Ethnic parties develop and contest extremely divisive elections; the
ethnic group with the largest population takes power in the majoritarian
electoral system, this is why we often hear that politics is a game of
numbers. A feeling of permanent exclusion is produced on the part of
those (the minority) who are locked out of office by the accident of
birth. The sense of permanent exclusion generates a predisposition to
violent opposition and conflicts.
- the multi-ethnic African state is inherently conflictual;

stability therefore requires that "tribalism" be transcended
through modernisation
In conflict, the above quotation is the view of many western peace

scholars who believe that the multi-ethnic nature of Africa is responsible
for the myriad conflicts in the continent, but the question that come to
mind is ‘how do diverse peoples with distinct political cultures, and
often with negative, bitter memories and images, live amicably in a
polity of an alien political system, now without the alien Leviathan
which had coerced them together and imposed the system in the first
place? (Amoo 1997) he went further to provide answer by analyzing that
the theory of social compact and the need to recognize the identity issue
which ethnicity provides, which the governance does not. ‘The one vital
issue which confronted Africa at independence, and persists as the
principal source of conflicts, is the absence of a viable social compact to
govern the relations among the diverse units within the state, while
66
recognizing and ensuring each unit’s need for identity, security,

participation and, at least, some form of autonomy’.
When a system does not provide security, through the protection of

identity, we all know that there is going to be a conflict as this raises
doubts as to the legitimacy of the formal government in power and the
consequence is explosive. The unfortunate part of this government with
no ‘legitimacy of the people’ is that is the ownership of the state which
is perceived as the only guarantor of a group’s identity and security; and
what ensues, as Claude Ake (1981) observes, is "a desperate struggle to
win control of state power ... since this control means for all practical
purposes being all powerful and owning everything. Politics becomes
warfare, a matter of life and death." In order to sustain this power, the
perpetrators fall back on their ethnic relationship for recruitment of
‘soldiers’ who find it easy and appropriate to be there for their brother.
Therefore, the reverse is the case in Africa, where it is the fear of the
loss of power, which corrupts and corrupts inhumanely. So, it is clear
that ethnicity does not cause conflict, like the quotation above suggest,
but the normal causes of conflict in the other parts of the world.
3.3 Conflict in a Multi-Ethnic Society
Conflict is a product of discomfort, disharmony, scarcity of resources

and unjust approach to distribution of the scarce commodity. Also, a
clash of interests as a result of pursuing of incompatible goals all leads
to conflicts. It is also important to know that conflict is an inevitable part
of man who is in social interaction with others. Therefore conflict can
and will occur within a group and between groups too.
Another school of thought also believes that conflict is good as it bring
change in human society. This change John Burton (1987) believes is
necessary for growth and development, or else, the society will be
static.
So, if conflict is inevitable among humans, its occurrence in multi-ethnic

society like Nigeria is normal. This is not to say that, the diverse a
society is the main conflict it will have, no, what we are saying is that, if
close societies can have conflicts, then, pluralistic societies would have
conflict too. And then, mechanisms should be put in place to manage
them. This is very important, as no society can insulate itself from
conflict, be it mono-ethnic or multi-ethnic. No matter the society one
lives in, she/he will still struggle for survival will lead to conflict. For
examples, homogeneous societies also have problems. The case of
Somalia is very true that mono-ethnic societies do have problems. In
conclusion, it will be so dangerously misleading to say that multi-ethnic
society is sonorous with conflicts and mono-ethnic societies in peace.
67
3.4 Redefining Ethnic Conflicts
Ethnic conflicts are conflicts that are caused as a result of ethnic

difference ALONE. When people get into fighting just because they are
not from the same ethnic group, then, that is an ethnic conflict, but in
Nigeria today, many conflicts reformed to be ethnic conflicts have
nothing to do with ethnicity. Most of them are religious, economic or
political. But then, why do we easily call them ethnic conflicts? The
answers are simple: one, the people in these conflicts definitely will
belong to one ethnic group or the other, and the second reason is that, it
is easy for the politicians who unfortunately are the mediators do not
want to name the causes, which could put them in the picture as
perpetrators. They quickly say one ethnic group or the ethnic group in
power as marginalizing the other, when the actual problem is unhealthy
political and economic policies coming from the government.
This idea is captioned in the theory of Actor-based approach instead of

issue based. The issue is context-unjust laws, complains etc. are swept
under the carpet, so that the parties to the conflict are discussed no the
issues.
Another angle to the analysis of ethnic conflict is the need to ascertain

the salience of ethnicity “as an organizing concept in the process of
nation building “.
Any effort to underscore the relevance of ethnicity will naturally create

condition, which causes conflicts. Ethnicity is an identity issue,
therefore, any effort to control the projection of who you are will
inevitable lead to conflicts. Any threat to ethnicity is a threat to personal
self, and security and it will vehemently be rejected. Therefore conflicts
with ethnic color need to be addressed based on the themes that have
worked.
3.5 Resolving Ethnic Conflicts
Issue Based Approach:

This is a conflict management approach that focuses attention on the
issues causing the problem. When issues are focused, it is then possible
to say that this conflict is resource based, or religious. It helps to get to
the root of the problem and issues of human needs, concerns and fears
are addressed. This approach tackles the problem to resolve it and
therefore derives its name – problem solving technique. This approach is
the best, as at the end of the day, every party can go away satisfied, as
their fears and concerns are discussed. There is a win-win situation in
this process.
68
This approach, although the best in terms of outcome, it is a very long

process and strenuous as all the parties must have a chance to talk and be
part of the decision process.
Discuss the impact of conflict in a multi-ethnic society.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Ethnicity is an issue that cannot be swept away from pluralistic societies,

but the management of it needs a lot of carefulness and intelligent.
Mismanagement can be very catastrophic as the promotion of it can lead
to disregard for the other group, and the undermining of it can be
misleading, as it is a part of our society and us. It is also important to
know that, ethnicity on its own cannot cause conflict, but the
manipulation of it by individuals for selfish purposes can lead to
conflict. Also, it is necessary to know that, conflicts caused by ethnicity
in any way also need the standard approach, which calls for addressing
the issues, not the persons. ‘Religion and region are deep in the Nigerian
heart and cannot be swept away by fiat. The only way the military could
have done that was by making an application to God to get a completely
new consignment of Nigerians free from all evils’. Lateef Jakande,
former Lagos State Governor.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has attempted to define the term, ethnicity. It has discussed the
relevance of ethnicity, conflict in multi-ethnic Society and how to
resolve these ethnic conflicts.
Choose one of the following conflicts known to you in Nigeria and

discuss if it is an ethnic conflict or not.
1. Aguleri – Umuhani conflict of Anambra State.

2. The Ijaw – Itsekiri conflict of Edo/Delta States.
3. Ife – Modakeke conflict of Oyo/Osun States
4. The Idi Araba conflict of Lagos State.
5. The Zango – Kataf conflict of Kaduna State.
Ake C (1981) ‘Presidential Address to 1981 Conference of the Nigerian

Political Science Association’ West Africa (pp 1162-3)
69
Amoo Sam G. (1997) The Challenge Of Ethnicity And Conflicts In

Africa: The Need For A New Paradigm. Emergency Response
Division United Nations Development Programme. New York
Burton J. (1987). World Society. University Press of America. Lanham

Imobighe T. (ed) (2003) Civil Society and Ethnic Conflict
Management in Nigeria. Spectrum Books, Ibadan, Nigeria
Nnoli O. (1980). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Fourth Dimension, Enugu.

Nigeria
Otite O and Olawale I. (ed) (1999) Community Conflicts in Nigeria:

Management, Resolution, and Transformation. Ibadan Spectrum
Books, Nigeria
Ibeanu (2003), ‘Aguleri-Umuleri Conflict in Anambra State’ Civil

Society and ethnic Conflict Management in Nigeria. Spectrum
Books Ltd. Ibadan. Nigeria

Transformation ForumIntervention in Community Conflicts. John
Archers (Publisher) Limited
UNIT 4 FACTORS FOR NATIONAL INTEGRATION OF

NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
70
3.0 Main Body

3.1 Political History of Nigeria
3.2 Military Rule and Nations building in Nigeria
3.3 The Task of Nation Building
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
State creation in Africa with the exception of Somalia was the

amalgamation of autonomous large units, which was the case of Nigeria
in 1914. The amalgamation of the colony of Lagos, the protectorates of
Southern and Northern Nigeria gave birth to this day Nigeria. This act
brought together about 250 ethnic nationalities; although they have
various levels of conflict and inter-group relationship.
Although the amalgamation gave birth to the state called Nigeria, but it
is important to note that, the aim to build a nation was not the
motivation. This is very clear in the dichotomy seen between the north
and the south. The south was exposed to western educations and
Christianity. North was “protected” from the adulteration influences of
westernization. Sir Hugh Clifford introduced parliamentary politics into
the southern protectorate in 1922, which made Lagos and Calabar have
elective representatives, while Sir Arthur Richard constitution of 1947,
after 25 years introduced the same system in the north.
In 1939, Sir Benard Bourdillion later divided the south into western and
eastern regions, while the north was left untouched, even though it is
larger than the east and west put together. This structure imbalance
formed the Sir Richard constitution of 1947 and this has since led to the
dominance of the north. The aftermath of this regionalization “was the
development of separatist and ethnic consciousness”. (Onyekpe 2000).
This led to the “ours and theirs” syndrome, which has since been an
obstacle to the development of nationhood. It is difficult to build a
nation called Nigeria, as the north and the south do not see themselves to
belong to one country.
The regionalization was further compound with the western and eastern
regions created and only three ethnic groups were identified – Hausa-
Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo, which led to the neglect of the other ethnic
groups.
This structure created by the colonial masters was aimed at making

dominations possible for them as they identified leaders in the groups,
71
made chiefs out of them, so that they can control the whole country
easily. The problems generated from these distortions were not taken
care off by the colonial masters as it suited their plans. These problems
escalated with the independence politics of 1950s were played on
regional and ethnic lines, and the country “emerged from colonial rule
with unreasoned structure problems” (Onyekpe 2000). This explains the
statement of Chief Obafemi Awolowo (1947) says:
“Nigeria is not a nation…it is a mere geographical

_expression. There are no “Nigerians” in the same sense as
there are “Englishmen” or “welsh” or “French. The word
“Nigerian” is merely a distinctive appellation to distinguish
those who live within Nigeria from those who do not”.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. Explain what is meant as colonial rule

ii. Explain the implications of the regionalization of Nigeria by the
colonial masters
iii. Identify factors that can make nation building possible
iv. Describe the role of the military in nation building.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1Political History of Nigeria
An analysis of Nigeria’s political history and practice will reveal a

struggle between the hegemonies and the contenders. It is more of a
fight between the tripods – the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba versus the
minority. It is a struggle for power in the center between the three ethnic
groups. While the minorities struggle at the state levels and within the
old regions, created. Their struggle is more of self-determination within
the state than for federal power.
One characteristic of Nigeria political power struggle since after the

independence, which is the bane of our political struggle, is the winner
takes it all orientation. The ethnic group in power protects his ethnic
group and gets more opportunities for them. So, all the ethnic groups
compete to be there, as it means well being for the ethnic group, not for
the country; therefore, it is a do or die affair.
The later for most of the post colonial period in Nigeria has been
dominated by the Hausa-Fulani ethnic group and translate into better
appointments and other patronages.
72
Political parties are also structured along ethnic lines further dividing the
country. Although they try to wear a national outlook after the military
administration of 1966; but it is only in geographical spread. Even the
National Republican Convention (NRC) was nicknamed (Northern
Republican Convention) and the Social Democratic Party (SDP) was
called (Southern Democratic Party).
To confirm this views, the presidential candidate for SDP, Chief MKO
Abiola who worn the 1993 election in all parts of the country, was a
southern, was refused the opportunity to rule the country as the Hausa-
Fulani hegemony annulled the acclaimed fairest and free election of
1993. Chief Sonekan was invited to led the Interim National
Government was overthrow by General Sani Abacha, who arrested
Chief Abiola who declared himself the President and charged with
treason, detained for four years without trial, and he later died in
detention.
The south did not see and watch without taking action. They formed the
National Democratic Coalition (NADECO) to fight the Abacha
Government. However, the death of Abacha paved way for General
Abdulsalam who initiated a transition programme that led to the election
of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, as the President of Nigeria in 1999.
In summary, from 1960 – 1999 the old Sokoto caliphate has dominated
the center at the federal level with the South (Yoruba and Igbo)
providing Head of Government three times, and the north produced nine
times. This is to confirm that the change of baton of power is between
the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba.
The political landscape since May 1999, with Chief Obasanjo’s election
as the Head of State to 2005, has revealed another picture of convention
between the hegemony (Yoruba) – Hausa, Igbo and the minorities –
(South South) and calling for power shift to the south instead of the
north in 2007. In a country of about 250 ethnic groups, the political
power at the center is between the Hausa-Igbo and Yoruba. What about
the other groups if they have to be part of nation building?
3.2 The Military Rule and Nation Building in Nigeria
The military in government is an aberration because they are supposed

to be involved in politics in non-constitutional way. They are not
expected to participate in conventional civil politics. Their control of
power is done forcefully through a coup d’etat.
73
Nigeria since independence has witnessed two coup d’etats of elected

governments led by Major Chukwuma Nzeoga against Alhaji Balewa
government in January 1966 and the second led by Government
Muhammadu Buhari against Alhaji Shehu Shagari’s government in
1983. Although, Chief Earnest Shonekan resigned from office for
General Abacha to take over, it was believed that he was forced to go, so
General Abacha is classified to be in the same category of Buhari and
Nzeogu.
There have been two military coups against military government, which
led to the death of General Aguiyi-Ironsi, which led to the emergence of
General Yakubu Gowon in July 1966. The second led to the emergence
Gen. Babangida after the overthrow of General Buhari in August 1985.
Apart from these two successful coups, there have been many
unsuccessful ones. The major political problem today, is how do we
effectively integrate the three regions and the ethnic national too to be
are state.
Reasons of Military Intervention
The military intervention was aimed to arrest the drifting of the

politicians into violence. They argue that they want to ensure the
survival of the nation on a political entity. The control of corruption,
which has entrenched the political administration is another reason they
gave for intervention.
Reviewing the security and survival of Nigeria following the political

crises going on in the West between Chief Obafemi Awolowo (Action
Group) and Chief Akintola Nigeria National Democratic Party led to the
declaration of state of emergency in the Region.
The disagreement that arose from the result of the National Census of
1962 from the different parts of the country on political reforms further
compounded the insecurity in the country.
The break-up and re-allying of the political parties heightened the

intensification of the struggle for power over the distribution of offices
and patronage. The fall back on the use of thug and rigging by the
National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) during the 1965 Federal
elections in the West and the Tiv area of the Middle Belt resulted in
overbearing violence which earned the Western Region the name – “the
wild wild west”. These unsafe situations prompted the intervention of
the military in January 1966, which was a welcome development.
74
In similar fashion, the country was at its crossroads in 1983 after the re-
election of the Shagari led government after a “landside” victory. The
pro-democracy revolt in the West as they fear that the oppressive
government was going to go on for another four years prompted the
intervention in 1983. Although, some believe that the 1966 coup aimed
to arrest the drifting political insecurity of the time, others think that the
Buhari led coup was aimed at sustaining the Hausa control of the
government, but they argued that their intervention was to rescuer the
country from declining socio-economic condition of the country, as
there were problems of bankruptcy, growing external debt and the
collapse of social services.
As analysts try to justify the coup against civilians, they could not make
sense in the coup of the military against military and by the Northern
against the Northern. It was then concluded that the Army just see
political power as opportunities to advance their interest as individuals
and as a group.
The army had controlled the governance of this country longer than the
civilians and this has led to the politicization of the Armed Forces and
the struggle for power like politicians is noticed in the coups and center
coups.
Implications for the Involvement Of The Military In

Governance
The military employed the instruments of coercion and force in

controlling the states, agencies and resources without any recourse to
democratic principles. The civil society was ruled by force and this
rendered them intimidated and indifferent. This gave rise to the culture
of fear, opportunity and sycophancy in the society.
The most critical implication of the forceful control and dominance is

the entrenchment of dictatorship in the administration of the
country. Governance/administration was militarized and the
management of the economy was by unitarist principles, which
emphasized centralization and concentration of power, not devolution of
power and separation of responsibilities by the three arms of the
government. This unitary approach opposes federalism, and the
dictatorial approach made them loot the treasury for private enrichment,
and in return unleashed violence of all sorts into the system, which
destroyed the socio-economic base of the country.
Armed control of the military contributed to ethnic inequality. The

ethnic group that had more people in the military wielded these
uncontrolled powers, and had a sense of superiority over the others. In
75
Nigeria for example, the Hausa-Fulani had more numbers and people
even made statements indicating them the ruling class/ethnic group of
the progressives. This feeling of dominance, coupled with looting of the
treasury, followed by lopsided policies that destroyed the country’s
economy resulted into a lot of tensions. There were calls to end the
military rule, and a return to the civil rule. The marginalized ethnic
group accused the military of institutionalizing oppression, fraud and
evil through dictatorship.
3.3 The Task of Nation Building
Nation building is possible under democratic principles, and de-

prioritization of power politics. When a nation does not promote
democratic principles in the administration of that country, the chances
of building a nation is very small. A country that is pluralistic, like
Nigeria can function better in federal system of government, otherwise
there will be constant struggle of the elites of the dominated group. For
example in Nigeria, because military system ruled the administration,
and it is dominated by the Hausa-Fulani ethnic group, the rest ethnic
groups are fighting for recognition and control, and the main natural
question on power distribution among the zones. The main implication
for the power politics is that building a “united nations with one soul and
a common destiny” is overlooked, un-thought of and never pursued. The
second implication is the politicization of governance and
administration. When rights and responsibility are not distributed based
on justice, fair play and excellence, very little can be achieved. The
appointment of officers based on ethnicity and state acquisition, and not
on competence and availability, how much can we gain? The
privatization of power politics leads to the neglect of important areas of
nation building. For example, after the independence, it is most
appropriate that economic development plans and policies be developed
to give the country a direction, but that was not the case in Nigeria. We
were and are still pre-occupied with power politics. Our economic plans
have been hand down from the West – from Structural Adjustment
Program (SAP), to International Monetary Fund (IMF) conditionality
and the implications are terrible. Foreign multinationals come into the
country, make all the money, exploit our natural resources and leave
with bulk of the profit. Because we are not a united country, when the
south is exploited, the west shows no concern, and vis versa. The oil
exploitation is a very good example of the exploitation of our resources
without any natural policy to protect the victims of this exploitation. A
deep analysis goes down to ethnic affiliations between the rulers and the
victims.
76
The other problem is the abandonment of the other sectors of the

economy because of the wrong focus. Our agro-base and manufacturing
sectors need attention and development.
Nigeria needs to face the realities of nation building, and it is beyond

rhetoric. We have plenty to do to come out of our ethnic groups to be
first and foremost Nigerians, before our individual ethnic identities.
Factors for Nation Building
Monopoly of Power
The benefits of power control are enormous, especially the Nigerian

way, of winner keeps it all. When a section of the country holds power
and claim that it is her birthright, it is definitely going to cause
problem. Other sections will not have sense of belonging and cannot
work for the unity and development of Nigeria.
True Federalism – Politics and Fiscal
The principle of true federalism where every part of the country is

economically and politically powerful enough to be on their own is the best for
Nigeria. Nigeria needs to be restructured in relations to power distribution to
allow equity and justice. States should keep their economic resources and
make contribution to the central purse for the running of the federal
office. This will go a long way to reduce tension in the center of power and
reduce the prioritization of political powers.
Internally Grown Economic Ideas
Until we begin to develop economic and development ideas, that are

relevant to the cultural and social conditions of the country, we will only
be working to maintain the west. We need homegrown ideas that are
Nigerian in all peripheries that must be implemented to all as an identity
that we can be proud of.
Agricultural and manufacturing sectors of the economy must be

developed. We need to have food sustenance, create jobs and earn
foreign exchange in order to have pride in ourselves as Nigerians and
begin to defend Nigeria on all fronts.
Democratic Empowerment
The relevance of democratic empowerment for nation building cannot be

overemphasized. Democratic principles emphasize equity, justice, and
77
equality of all citizens. Also, it encourages the principle of separation of

powers, accountability and transparency. If most Nigerians are
empowered to the point that they internalized these values and practice
them, Nigeria can move forward towards nation building.
Provision of Social Services
When peoples’ needs of education, transportation, housing, and health

services are met, it is easy for them to identify with a country that can
provide them all these amenities. So, Nigerian leadership must make
effort to provide these social amenities.
Armed Forces
The Nigeria military have a history of having done more harm than good
to the country and her citizens. It is important that they be kept out of
civil power. They hold the record of experts in the destruction of
federalism and militarization of governance.
The role of military in nation building is going back to the traditional

role of defending the country against external and internal aggressions
and the maintenance of the oneness and territorial integrity of the
country. They must also be subordinate to the constitution, not to
intervene in changing the government. Sovereignty belongs to the
people. The army needs to include democratic education in their
training. The army generals who stole should be made to refund to deter
future looters.
What are factors necessary for nation building?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The task of nation building goes beyond just words, and documentations
like passports or national identity cards. The task of nation building
takes a multi-dimensional approach, which calls for various programs,
some ad hoc, some take a long period of time. It takes long-term
educational plan and inculcation of what a home is to a person. It calls
from the citizens what they can do for their country, and from the
country what the country can do for them. It takes a lifetime to build a
nation and it is everybody’s job.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has paid a primary attention political history of Nigeria. It also
focused on the general concept of military rule particularly as it affects
78
nation-building in Nigeria. The unit went further to discuss the task of

nation building
1. “How do we build a nation out of nations?” Or

2. “Am I first a Yoruba man before I am a Nigerian?”
Awolowo O. (1947). Path to Nigerian Freedom. London: Faber
Imobighe T. (2003) ‘Introduction: civil Society, Ethnic Nationalism and

Nation Building in Nigeria’ in Civil Society and Ethnic Conflict
Management in Nigeria . Spectrum Books Ltd. Ibadan, Nigeria.
Onyekpe J. G. (2000) ‘Nation-Building Tasks and the Armed Forces’

Thoughts in Demilitarization: Proceedings of a three-tier
Conference on Demilitarization. Center for Constitutionalism and
Demilitarization (CENCOD)

Responsibility
Samg Amoo. The Challenged of Ethnicity and Conflict in Africa: The

Need of a New Paradigm United Nations Development Program
UNIT 5 CIVIL -MILITARY RELATION AND THE

PROMOTIONS OF PEACE IN DEMOCRATIC
NIGERIA
79
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 History of Nigeria Civil Military Relations
3.2 Factors for Reforming the Civil Military Relations
3.3 Obasonjo Government’s Efforts to Improve on the Civil-
Military Relations
3.4 Effect of Reform Measure on the Civil Military Relations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Unit will focus on the need for improved civil military relations in
Nigeria. An improved or cordial civil relationship will promote peace
and democracy. Nigerian civil military relation is very unfriendly
because of the many years of military rule in the country. It is important
that the military accept that democracy has come to stay in Nigeria, and
therefore allow efforts to promote democracy to yield the expected
result. So, this Unit will deal with the history of military rule and the
characteristics of the military rule, which is different from civilian rule,
which explains for the hostile civil military relation.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

i. Explain the history or military transition;
ii. Describe the relationship between the CSOs and the military;
iii. Identify and describe the factors that will reform the civil military
relations between the CSOs and the military; and
iv. Identify the factors for peace promotion in the democratic
Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 History Of Nigeria Civil Military Relations
80
Before the hand over of government by General Abdulsalami Abubakar

to President Obasanjo in 1999, Nigeria had being ruled by the military
for 29 years of Nigeria 45 years of independence. Analyzing the
difficulty in the growth and sustenance of democracy show the military
do not want to leave power. The struggles between civilians and the
military in the ruler-ship of Nigeria were all plagued with unending coup
and counter coup plots. The Nigeria democracy after independence
lasted for a little over 5 years before the 1st coup of 1966 occurred and
since then there is coup after coup, but the height of it all was the
unending transition of the Babangida’s administration, which cumulated
in the annulment of the June 12 election of 1993. Analysis of the
annulment of the June 12 election claimed to be won by Chief M.K.O
Abiola, a Yoruba man, though a Muslim, people believe that, President
Babangida refused him his victory because he was a Yoruba man. Issues
of ethnicity were seen to play up in the annulment. But social critiques
and scholars of civil military studies believe that, it is more of the refusal
of the military to give up power to the civilian than the issue of ethnicity,
which is being alleged by many.
Reviewing the civil- military relations between the people and military
has been that of anti-military struggle. The pro-democracy and civil
society organization (CSOs) have not relented their efforts in fighting
for the restoration of democracy and the return of the military to the
barracks. The military argue for their involvement in rulership was as a
result of the poor job of the civilians at leading Nigeria, but reviewing
their actions and practices, it was clear that they were not able to
overcome the challenges that bedeviled Nigeria politic that prompted
their over throwing government. The challenges of elections, revenue
allocation, population census executive power sharing, military
recruitments and promotions were also present in their tenures.
3.2 Factors for Reforming the Civil Military Relations
The character of the civil military relations has being that of hostility.
But there is a need to change this character because we all live together,
and most find a way to live together in peace. The importance of a
reformed relationship between the civil society and the military cannot
be over emphasized especially in a democratic Nigeria, as an improved
relationship will promote peace in Nigeria. Reforming the civil military
relation in Nigeria, is very necessary as studies have shown that there is
a need to reform the character of states that have just move from military
to democracy, like Nigeria.
Subordination of the Military to Civil Authority
81
Bringing the military under civilian authority is one action that must be
taken to improve on the civil military relations. The military must accept
the elected civilian president as commander in chief of the armed forces
and the supremacy of elected official of the state over appointed officers
at all levels.
Constitutional Clause For Achieving Civilian Supremacy.

The other condition that must be accepted by the military is the
constitutional clause for achieving civilian supremacy. The constitution
of Nigeria already specified the supremacy of the civilian ruler-ship.
There are “anti-coup” clauses contained in section 1 (2), section 217 (1)
what the roles and forms of the armed forces are under a democratic
government. The constitution also vests the command and operational
use of the armed forces in the elected civilian president. Also, section
218 (1) also states the power of the president, as the commander in chief
of the Armed Forces shall include the power to determine the
operational use of the country’s armed forces. So, the constitution of
Nigeria is very clear on the subordination of the military under the
civilian leadership.
Legislature Oversight Functions in Defence and Security Matters

To ensure that the military is under the civilian leadership in democracy,
the policy is entrench and symbolized in the legislative arm of the
government. Because this arm of the government is comprised of elected
officers representing the electorate, as a whole, it is believed to be the
best unit to regulate and promote oversight function over the countries
armed forces. The significant functions assigned the National Assembly
regarding defence and security are specified in the constitution including
the role of the armed forces, their structure, strategic requirement and
defence priorities, regulations of power excisable by the president as the
commander in chief of armed forces, and in the appointment, promotion
and disciplinary control of the members (see section 218 and 219) power
and control over public funds, including budget approved, controlling
expenditure, raise audit of public accounts, and exercising power to
conduct investigation (see section 18,85 and 88) to help the National
Assembly in carrying out these functions, the House of Representative
have set up committees, especially, Defence, Finance Appropriation,
Police Affairs, Internal Security, Foreign Relation and Ethnics.
Re-professionalisation of the Military
82
Just like in a post conflict/war, era, the immediate concern on Nigeria

agenda in civil military reaction is “the five Ds of civil military though”,
which are (1) Democratization, (2) Demilitarization (3) Demobilization,
(4) National Defence and (5) Social Development. Although, Nigeria
may agree that the first two have been taken care of to a large extent, it
is very important that the last three be taken up very urgently, as these
three still pose a lot of concern. In Nigeria today, demobilization of
soldiers is still a critical issue. There are questions of policy not only
what force level and structure to maintain the number of soldiers to
demobilized with reference to what threat perception, and spanning
phases. What programs do we need to adopt for reintegration of ex-
combatants and what center’s measuring to prescribe for policy.
However, the Obasanjo’s defence and security policy does not indicate a
large scale demobilization, the new policy promised a “comprehensive
transformation of the armed forces into an institutions able to prove its
worth if called upon”. The policy’s four component points talked about.
i. ‘Continuation of rationalization, down-sizing, and rightsizing (an

euphemism for retirement and partial demobilization particularly at
the top echelons) to allow the military shed its “dead woods” as well
as discard obsolete equipment, and build a much leaner, more agile,
technologically sophisticated and professionally oriented military.
ii. Re-equipment of the services and upgrading of soldier’s welfare,
albeit within the limit of budgetary allocation.
iii. Reversing the harm inflicted in “military, civilian relation” because
of years of military rule, by measures to subordinate the military to
the democratically constituted authority.
iv. Building, rehabilitation and strengthening the relationship between
the Nigeria military and the rest of the world especially Africa
countries, damaged by years of diplomatic isolation and sanctions
attracted by the behaviour of previous regimes’. (Adekanye, 2005.
Page 16)
Re-Educating Military Officers for Democratic Rule
The returning of military men and women to the responsibilities and

demands of new order emphasizes professionalisation and service to
one’s country. This education program majors on the function for which
they are established which is stipulated section 217 (1) of 1999
constitution namely:
‘Defending Nigeria from external, namely:

Maintaining its territorial integrity and securing its borders from
violation on land, sea or air
83
Acting in aid of civil authorities to help keep public order and

internal security when called upon to do so by the president but
subject to such condition as may be prescribed by an act of the
National Assembly’ and
Performing such other functions as may from time and time be
prescribed by an Act of the National Assembly from time to time’
(Adekanye, 2005: 17)
The second principle of the re-educating program is ‘that the use of the
Armed Forces for internal security roles on a long and sustained
basis carries with it the danger of weakening the organisation’s
combat readiness, morale, and therefore capacity for effective
external mission whenever these become necessary’. (Adekanye,
2005:18). What this implies is that it is more implicating for armed of
Nigeria, to be used to suppress internal conflicts, as it provokes the
feeling of marginalization from the citizens. So, this principle argues
that internal instability which is a product of political in-equilibrium
should not be resolved with the use of military force.
The third principle is of a political – economic nature is ‘that resolution

of the external question about “how much of defence spending is
enough”, if is to be sustained, must hinge on striking an effective
and workable balance between the competing needs or priorities of
society through the budgetary process of pluralistic politics’
(Adekanye, 2005: pp.18). This principle calls for a fair distribution of
the scare resources. It is believed that when larger percentage of the
budget is placed on defence, other sections like health, education, social
development and human security suffer. If these area are not in the
expected condition, the possibility is that misappropriation of the budget
can lead to internal anarchy which under scores the whole security the
armed forces is out to provide; therefore, what is boils down to is to
recognize the need for “appropriate working balance between security
and welfare, that is between the requirement for defence and the need for
development’. (Adekanye,2005:19)
The fourth principle of military re-educations is “that military

professionalism thrives best under democratic rule”. (Adekanye,
2005:19) This is so because, the military when in power, want to create
the impression that, they are out to develop the country and will not take
care of their own. Also, for the fact that they are preoccupied with
responsibility other than theirs, they leave the military unattended to,
thereby forgetting to invest in their development. Research has it that the
Nigeria military lack professionalism because the forces ironically did
not get training and development under the prolonged military rule.
84
Military professionalism must go beyond the re-educating them to

dealing with other inter-related issues. Professionalizing the military
starts with the ensuring of civilian oversight and legislative control of
defence matters.
The second matter that must be taken care of is the issue of autonomy. It
is very important that the military be protected from politician and
politicking. The military must not be a tool in the hand of individuals
and groups to be used for intimidation and prosecution of personal
agenda. If this is not done, the principle of political neutrality and non-
partisan of the armed forces cannot be achieved.
Empowerment Of Civil Society

Empowering the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) with long-standing
practice and tradition of self governance and democratic values who can
resolve social conflicts in effective and efficient manner will help in the
democratic control of the armed forces. The continuing vigilance of the
CSOs as the protection of democratic principles will go a long way in
promoting democracy development in Nigeria.
The enlightment of the populace on democratic values and practice by

the CSOs groups will go a long way in educating the people on the role
of the military which is not governance. This will also empower the
people to protect democracy and guide against military incursion. These
efforts will help to improve on the civil military relationships.
Demilitarization Of The Society

Because of the long engagement of the military in governance, the
Nigerian society has been highly militarized. The demilitarization of the
Nigerian society is a major concern on civil military relations agenda,
although initially it was seen to mean disengagement of the military in
politic/governance and going back to the barracks or known as “return to
civil rule”.
As said earlier, the long military rule led to the militarization of the
polity, and therefore demilitarization of goes beyond just going back to
barrack, but include the sanitizations of attitudes, beliefs, orientations,
customs, interest actions and thought processes associated with military
rule in Nigeria.
The augment states that, the gross abuse of human right laws and the
“Abacha” style of rule need to be stopped, because if the human rights
of Nigerian are protected, the civil military relations will improve.
Policing for Democratic Governance
85
The withdrawal of the armed forces from the society to the barracks will
definitely create a security vacuum which must be filled quickly to avoid
instability, as the opening of the political space and democratic process
bring other process to fur, which we have notice in the country. There
are increased politically induced conflicts which show up in ethno
religious colors, and we need to police the community better.
Reviewing the Nigeria police, with reference to the militarization of the

society will reveal a militarized police, whose first tool for policing is
force, and I say excessive force. There must be an element of force to
instill the law, but the use of excessive force is definitely unacceptable,
especially in democratic setting.
Therefore it is important that the Nigerian police go through the process

identified above to improve on their civil-military relationships in the
country. They need retraining, subordination under the civil authority,
legislative oversight and community control.
3.3 Obasonjo Government’s Efforts to Improve on the Civil-

Military Relations
The principles identified above were supposed to be the guiding

principles in reforming the Nigeria military in the democratic setting to
reduce the tension between the civil societies and military, especially
after a long military rule. This section of the Unit aims to examine the
efforts of the Obasanjo administration to reform the military in order to
improve on the civil military relations.
Civilians Placed in Charge of Key Military Decision Making Organs

This is the major action taken up by the present day administration to
subordinate the military under civil authority. Most key, decision –
making positions are now headed by civilian. Even during the first
republic, it was civilians that headed Ministry of Defence (MOD), and
that was what led to the question of “bloody civilians”. It was in an
attempt to “wanting to keep things military purely military” that led to
the remove of civilian from key decision making position, and it under
mined the principle of subordination under civilian control. But this
organization has made some changes, in this direction. For example,
Mrs. Dupe Adelaja was appointed the Minister of State for Defence,
assisting a retired Army General
Retirement Of Long – Entrenched Political Generals

One of the fore most acts of the president on 10th June 1999 was to retire
all military officers who had held a political office from 1985 to date. A
total of 53 officers were retired, and if cut across all the services. The
aim of this act was to achieve the plan of re-professionalisation of the
86
armed forces as this group of officers, having enjoyed the political

power associated with military rule will not find the re-education
interesting, and therefore will pose a problem.
The second reason for the retirement of the “political” officers was that,
the political position they held, has improved on their economic statues,
thereby bringing in a class distinction between those who held political
office and those who did not. They tension was so high, that the best
thing to do was to retired them from the system, they can’t even function
properly any more. Their removal did reduce the chance of coup plotting
which could come up as a result of dissatisfaction.
3.4 Effect of Reform Measure on the Civil Military Relations
The reform initiated by President Obasanjo had so many impacts, some

positive and some negative, for example, the appointment of civilians as
oversight officers of the MOD, was warmly received in the civil society
sections, as they see it as a conscious effort to put the armed forces
under the civilian authority. But the military frowned at it very much.
For the first time, the civilian workers of the MOD embarked on a strike
action asking for the same entitlement their military counterparts have.
Even, in the oversight that the National Assembly and the House of
Representative were suppose to provide, in reality, they are not able to
do it for so many reasons. The members of the legislature have no
experience or authority on military processes, and even on defence and
security as a whole. But most importantly that, the legislature are not
committed to work. They see their position as opportunities for self-
enrichment and therefore are not ready to work.
The second negative impact of the reform involving the enforcement of

the political generals is that, they have re-organized themselves into
political blocks in the political parties. They have increased the number
of retired armed Officers who are vying for political positions, like we
have the “IBB boys”
Discuss the factors responsible for reforming the Civil Military

Relations.
4.0 CONCLUSION
87
There are a lot of arguments for and against Obasanjo’s presidential

elections; some say that his military background has/will influenced his
actions, and therefore, it is not a plus as it is a just change of dressing for
him, as he is still military in principle and practice. While others say that
his military background a plus, because this have helped him to put the
military in check as it will take somebody like him with his background
to effect the kind of strategic reforms he carried out in the military
specially being that the country is emerging from “military incursion”.
In conclusion, it is very clear that a country with long years of military

rule will have a strained civil military relationship as both principles
have different mandates. So, it is very clear that improved civil-military
relation will improve in the democratization of the Nigerian society and
the promotion of peace culture.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has been able to do justice to the discourse on Civil Military
relations.
It began by discussing the History of Nigeria Civil Military Relations. It

went further to examine the factors relevant for Reforming the Civil
Military relations and Obasonjo Government’s efforts to improve on the
Civil- Military relations in Nigeria as well as the effects of reform
measure on the Civil Military relations.
1. What is the interface between peace, democracy and improved

civil military relations in Nigeria?
2. The military reforms effected by President Obasanjo were
possible because he had a military background. Discuss
Adekanye B.J. (2005) Reforming the Character of the Civil-Military

Relations for Democratic Governance in Nigeria after 1999.
(Distinguished Lecture, Series No. 8. Faculty of Social Sciences,
University of Lagos, Nigeria
CENCOD (2000) Thoughts on Demilitarization: Proceedings of a three-

tier Conference on Demilitarization. Center for Constitutionalism
and Demilitarization. Panaf Press
MODULE 3
88
Unit 1 Religion, Peace And Conflicts In Nigeria

Unit 4 Small Arms, Children And Girls In Armed Conflicts
UNIT 1 RELIGION, PEACE AND CONFLICTS IN

NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Belief Systems in Nigeria.
3.2 History of Religious Conflicts
3.3 Causes of Religious Conflicts
3.4 Resolving Religious Conflicts
4.0 Conclusions
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nigeria is made up of a very complex multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi-

linguistic and multi-religious society. This, in itself, should have been an
advantage and a veritable factor for national unity, national integration
and national cohesion. Instead of the plurality of the Nigeria society
serving as a catalyst for rapid national development and integration, it is
now what is impeding and, therefore, responsible for backwardness and
slow developmental phase of the country. Unfortunately, this plurality in
culture, language, ethnicity and religion are the very source of conflicts
in Nigeria.
In all parts of Nigeria today, there are communal, ethnic, religious and
political conflicts that manifest in various forms and are accompanied by
ferociousness and destructiveness. These conflicts constitute a threat to
the nation’s fledging democracy, national stability and security. Of
recent, these conflicts have become more recurring and pervasive as a
result of repressed dissatisfaction, disillusionment and frustration of the
many years of military rule.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
89
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
i. Describe the different belief systems in Nigeria

ii. Explain the history of religious crisis in Nigeria
iii. Identify some resolution options.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Belief Systems in Nigeria
Nigeria is a heterogeneous society. This heterogeneity is also extended

to the area of religion. That means that Nigeria is a multi-religious
society. In spite of the multiplicity in religion, there are two dominant
groups, namely, Christians and Muslims. Along with these main groups,
exist those who are referred to as traditional worshippers. These
traditional worshippers exist both in the North and South of the country
and there are cases of members of the two dominant groups (Christians
and Muslims) identifying with and participating in one form of
traditional worship or the other. Examples of traditional worships that
attract and get the members of other faiths involved are: Eyo festival,
New yam festival, Ogun festival, Osun festival, Argungu fishing festival
etc. People of other faiths join in these festivals that belong to the
religion of traditional worshippers because they see it as helping them to
keep in touch with their cultural values. However, there are some other
faiths who would not join in these celebrations but are rather preaching
against and condemning them.
Suffice to say here that, it is an erroneous belief that the North of the
country is a homogeneous society particularly in the area of religion. It
is widely believed by many people who are outside the region that the
north is made up of the Hausa/Fulani and that Islam is the religion of all
the people in the region. However, the truth is that the north of Nigeria,
as other parts of the country, is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi-
religious society. As a matter of fact, there exist in the north, not only
Islam, but also Christianity and Traditional worship.
Before the spread of Islam into the north, there existed a variety of
traditional worship. Although, this traditional worship differ from one
community to the other, their beliefs revolved around a big distant god
referred to as Ubangiji, who is surrounded by intermediaries called
Iskoki who are directly in touch with men and control their everyday
lives. Till today, we still have these traditional worshippers who are
called ‘Magusawa’ in the north of Nigeria.
3.2 Religious Conflicts in Nigeria
90
Before the coming of the colonialists and after the independence of

Nigeria up to the early ‘70s, there was little or no religious conflict
aggravating to violence in any part of the country. People had always
lived together in harmony, the faith and religion you belong to
notwithstanding. In some parts of the country, there were cases where
within a family setting, you could find members of the same family
belonging to different faiths and living together harmoniously without
any conflict arising as a result of differences in their faiths and beliefs.
However, in the late 1970s, our religious climate started changing for the
worse with the violent conflict in October, 1977 between Christian and
Muslim students of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ever since then the
trend has been sustained but the tempo was increased in the early ‘80s
with the outbreak of Maitasine riots in Kano in 1980.
The situation was further aggravated by the controversial design of the

Federal Military government to join the Organization of Islamic
Conference (OIC) in January, 1986.
Both the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and the Jama’atu

Nasril Islam (JNI) began a vicious propaganda against and for Nigeria’s
membership of Islamic Organization.
While the Christian Association of Nigeria was calling on Christians to

rise up and resist what they termed as the Islamisation of Nigeria,
Jama’atu Nasril Islam and other powerful Islamic leaders on the other
hand, sponsored demonstrations in favor of joining the OIC and called
on Muslims to rise against what they perceived as the domination and
marginalization of the Muslim majority by the Christian minority. On
both sides, the conflict raged on in the media as well as among the elites
who were at each other’s throats. The ordinary people were not left out
in this crisis.
It was this crisis that culminated in the clash between Christian and
Muslim students at Kafanchan in Kaduna State on 6th March, 1987 over
what was considered a blasphemous remark. The religious clash
developed into an inter-ethnic war between the Hausa community and
other local ethnic groups. The crisis quickly spread to other towns and
villages within the state and scores of mosques, churches, hotels and
business centres were burnt and destroyed while several thousands of
lives were lost and property worth millions of Naira were also
destroyed. It was a crisis where miscreants had a field day. Since then,
this type of religious conflicts, particularly between the Muslims and the
Christians, has become a recurring decimal cutting across many of our
geo-political zones.
91
Since religion is value-based therefore, people are bound to be

emotionally attached and any little whipping up of their sentiment along
their religious belief will definitely result into catastrophe. However, it
must be stated here that not all conflicts that are classified as religious
actually began as one but are either turn into or are named as such
because of the religious inclinations of the people involved in the
conflict. Examples of conflicts that were regarded as religious conflicts
but whose causes are beyond religion are: Fulani-Sayawa in Tafawa
Balewa in Bauchi State conflict of 1991; Zango-Kataf crisis of 1992; Jos
conflict of April 12, 1994; and the Kaduna crises of 2000 among others.
Conclusively, therefore, religious conflicts are disagreements arising as a

result of differences in faith and belief. Many times these conflicts are
inter-religions but some times they are intra-religion. An example of an
intra-religion conflict was the Maitasine riots, which was between a
particular self of Muslims and others who did not belong to this sect.
3.3 Causes of Religious Conflict
Identifying the cause of the conflict between the Christian and the
Muslims in Kaduna share that the conflicts were not caused because of
the contradiction in the Bible or the Koran. A Muslim cleric identified
the cause to be:
“Lack of trust between various ethnic and religious group

as a result of deep rooted misconception and stereotyping.
Lack of tolerance, poverty and fear of socio-cultural domination,
media reporting, government failure to take action in
previous happening, lack of infrastructure , excruciating poverty
and manipulation of the people by retired military officers to achieve
their ambitions.”
While a Christian cleric had a similar opinion and he said the following
were the causes of conflict:
“The first is the structural imbalance that disfavors the

Southern part of the state in term of elections. The basis
of this is what he called the “fictitious” census exercise
in the state which under counted the southern part
and exaggerated the figures of the Northern parts (Fwa 2003)
The analysis confirm the position of some scholar that, ‘failure to

resolve the natural question in an inclusive manner is evident in the
varied responses across the country to conflicts over identify,
nationality, self-determination and autonomy” (Fwa 2003).
92
Therefore, we don’t really have a religious conflict, but conflict as a

result of socio- economic and political issues that is play up in religious
tones weeping up emotions to seek sympathy, knowing that people get
existed over religious issues.
3.4 Resolving the “Religious Conflicts in Nigeria
Just like any other conflict, effort to resolve these conflicts have always
taken a multi-dimensional approach. Preventions come from both
government and non-governmental organization. But the government
has always adopted the establishment of Judicial Commissions of
Inquiry. One major methodology adopted by he government in an
attempt to resolve the conflict is to set up panel of inquiry. The
government gives the mandate for each commission, including finding
the cause of the conflict. They are advice to make recommendations on
bring lasting peace to the conflict. The general consensus is that, the
government always lack the political will to implement the
recommendation because of some individuals involve.
State Creation Instrument: This is one tool used by successive

governments to give a sense of belonging to the people, although this
instrument has been a source of conflict too. The choice of the capital of
the state or the Local Government headquarters and sometimes the
division it brings into the ethnic groups, as one ethnic group could be
divided into two states, all these has been sources of conflict.
The Use of Military Force: Federal Government has always resorted to

military solutions to stop violence and internal aggression. Although the
military government had found this method very helpful, it is very
embarrassing to notice it is the civilian regime. There is a great deal of
the use of force to stop violence many times, and it has not helped in the
restoration of peace and reconciliation.
Peace and Reconciliatory Meetings: This is another method of
resolving conflict employed by both the government and the non-
governmental organizations. These meeting help to promote peace and
reconcile the disputing parties. This strategy tries to appeal to the
conscience of the parties to initiate dialogue in resolving their
differences.
Briefly explain the history of religious conflicts in Nigeria.
4.0 CONCLUSION
93
Reviewing the causes of these conflicts and the responses to resolving

them, it will show clearly that they are not entirely religious conflicts as
the bone of contention is not religious, neither are they as a result of
religious interpretations, so, they are not religious conflicts, but socio-
economic and political conflicts that are presented as religious conflicts.
Many of the perpetrators of the conflicts are people from different
religious background engaging in socio – political and economic crises.
There are no textual or contextual interpretations of the religious books
leading to any form of conflict. This conclusion they bring us to the
question of “are all the conflicts called religious conflict, really religious
conflicts or are they socio-economic and political conflicts.
5.0 SUMMARY
This has been able to discuss the belief systems in Nigeria. It also
discussed the history of religious conflicts in Nigeria. It went further to
examine various causes of religious conflicts I Nigeria and ways of
resolving religious conflicts.
6.0. TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
Identify and describe two religious conflicts in Nigeria, if there are any.
Fwa, K.L (2003) “Ethno Religious Conflict in Kaduna State” in Civil

Society and Ethnic Conflict Management in Nigeria . Spectrum
Books, Ibadan, Nigeria
Chester Crocker, Fen Hampson and Pamela Aall (eds) (2003) Turbulent
Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict.
United States Institute for Peace Press. Washington DC
UNIT 2 PEACE EDUCATION
94
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Why Teach Peace?
3.2 How do you teach peace?
3.3 The concept of Peace Education
3.4 A Peace Promoting Culture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
“In 1945, the United Nations was established to “save succeeding

generations from the scourge of war”, “to reaffirm faith in the …dignity
and worth of the human person [and] in the equal rights of men and
women”, “to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the
obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law
can be maintained”, and “to promote social progress and better standards
of life in larger freedom…”. (Preamble to the UN Charter)”
“Peace education has developed as a means to achieve these goals. It is

education that is “directed to the full development of the human
personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms”. It promotes “understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups” and furthers
“the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of
peace.” (Article 26, Universal Declaration of Human Rights”)
http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/peace/frame2.htm
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. Explain the importance of Peace Education;

ii. Identify the different teaching contexts;
iii. Describe the concept of Peace Education; and
iv. Differentiate between the culture of peace and the culture of
violence.
3.0 MAIN BODY
95
3.1 Why teach peace?
Peace Education includes information that give the students a full range
of opportunities to make the best choices and students need to learn
about the tools to constructively deal with the problems they encounter
on both a personal and global level, and it helps them understand their
responsibility for elevating the collective human experience. The main
goal of teaching peace is to unlock in students the ability to be
autodidactic, and to have a powerful understanding of their role in
promoting peace in the world.
3.2 How do you teach Peace?
Teaching peace is not restricted to a particular school or context using a

specific methodology, style or practice. A culture of teaching peace
recognizes the varied and diverse learning environments where students
encounter opportunities to refine their notions of peace, and this could
be indoor or out door. Themes of peace and justice can be infused in
every content subject so that peace is pervasive in the curriculum. For
example, science teachers can teach peace by promoting environmental
awareness and ecological thinking. Foreign language teachers can read
and/or translate primary-source texts from the target language which
detail experiences in personal, local, national and global peacemaking
efforts. Physics classes can learn about the subatomic exchange of
matter and energy which binds all humans to one another. A culture of
teaching peace can also begin in unconventional places. In prisons and
juvenile detention facilities in the United States, a curriculum called
Solutions to Violence is impacting the incarcerated youths and adults in
a positive way.
3.3 The concept of Peace Education
The of Peace Education is multifaceted as it is a outcome of different

educational approaches that are linked together in the culture of peace.
Peace Education is related to the idea of promoting knowledge, values,
attitudes and skills promote peace and non-violence, active commitment
to the development and sustenance of co-operation and democracy. The
concept of Peace Education covers:
Peace as a Topic: Peace is very elusive but connotes more than a mere
absence of war or hostilities, but the presence of justice. Derived from
the Latin pax, peace in the Western world is generally considered a
contractual relationship that implies mutual recognition and agreement.
Understandings of peace throughout the world often disclose a much
deeper comprehension of peace in relation to the human condition,
which also includes inner peace.
96
Gender Education: This form of education emphasizes that gender

analysis is nothing, but social, historical, and cultural constructions and
arrangements, which indicate acceptable and preferable forms of
behaviour and attitudes for men and women. They are not permanent
and not biological, so are determined by the society. Gender studies
requires that focus be given to feminist analyses as well as to the
emerging field of masculinities, both of which are sub-fields of gender
studies. Gender is not ‘sex’ as it is strictly biological determinations and
chromosomes. The study of masculinities concerns itself with social
constructions of what it means to be a man, with the understanding that
there is no single form of masculinity. Gender and the building of peace
is a rapidly growing interdisciplinary subject that straddles gender
studies and peace and conflict studies. It is important to see the linkage
between them as social institutionalization of gender is central to politics
and, therefore, to peace.
Intercultural, Inter-racial and Anti-prejudice Education: This education

emphasizes instruction and learning that socially determine activities,
like social feelings, cultural sentiments, prejudice and stereotyping,
interpersonal relations and expectations, as well as the reflection of
social realities. The effective "multicultural" education is concerned
about each individual student, and is sensitive to the group and cultural
affiliations of every student. Intercultural relations in the classroom may
be a source of knowledge and mutual enrichment between culturally
diverse learners if managed proactively by teachers. Frustration,
misapprehensions and intercultural conflict are a more likely outcome if
teachers do not deal with diversity in a sensitive manner.
Global Education – Education for Developmental and Social Justice:

Social justice is an advanced stage of human right. Justice is defined by
Thomas Aquinas as “the constant and perpetual will to render to
everyone what is due him” He further says: “the principle of justice is to
give each person or group, whether weak or strong, what is his or her
dues and to demand the contribution of each on the basis of equal
consideration”. So, education for social justice emphasizes “social
contract”, which pursues for a social conduct based on just, impartiality,
legitimacy, equity and fairness in awarding what is due.
Environmental Education: Environmental education is at the very heart

of education for the 21st century because it is the form of education
today that is very good not only at recognizing the social connections
between people, but also well at recognizing the connections between
people and the planet that sustains them. It is education for sustainability
which goes way beyond the old-style Nature Studies, in which the
environment was the ‘green bit’ tacked on to other subjects.
97
Environmental education becomes integrated into the whole of peace

education and into all levels of learning, as it also examines the physical
surroundings, curriculum, and teaching of life skills.
Civic Education – Education For Democratic Citizenship: Civics and

citizenship education promotes citizens participation in the country’s
democracy by equipping them with the knowledge, skills, values and
dispositions of active and informed citizenship. It entails knowledge and
understanding of country's democratic heritage and traditions, its
political and legal institutions and the shared values of freedom,
tolerance, respect, responsibility and inclusion.
Human Rights Education – Education For Human Dignity: Human

rights education is based on the quality of all-human alone, and no other
living thing has. There is a dignity that goes with being human not an
animal, and it is not government given, it is God/nature given. It must be
respected and protected. So, Human Rights promotion and protection is
not based on any other condition than human conditions. According to
Declaration on Human Rights, Article 1: “All human beings are born
free and equal in dignity and right. They are endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood.
Education For Non-Violent Conflict Transformation: Non-violent

transformation of conflict and the weaponry of non-violent struggle are
desirable for those who seek non-lethal means of conflict engagement,
which can improve the odds for reconciliation. This include changes in
all, any, or some combination of the following matters regarding a
conflict: the general context or framing of the situation, the contending
parties, the issues at stake, the processes or procedures governing the
predicament, or the structures affecting any of the aforementioned.
Conflict transformation may occur through the unintended consequences
of actions taken by parties internal or external to the conflict, yet
deliberate attempts at transformation may also be made.
98
3.4 A Peace Promoting Culture
A Peace promoting Culture
From To
Cultures of militarism Cultures of Peace
Authoritarian education Democratic education
Military training Disarmament education
Propagation of prejudiced Contracting prejudices
enemy images
Militaristic concepts, myths Alternative concepts, myths and images
and images
Neglecting fatherhood Promoting fatherhood
Supporting sexism Supporting equality between men and
women
Obedience, uniformity Supporting self-reliance, independence and
critical thinking
Neglecting equality, justice and Respecting equality, justice and human
human rights rights
Racism and nationalism Tolerance and global responsibility
Adopted from the EURED Curriculum of a European Peace Education
Course
Explain the concept of peace education.
4.0 CONCLUSION
A culture of peace is always achieved when citizens of the world

understand global problems, developing the skills and strategies to
resolve conflicts and struggle for justice non-violently, live by
international standards of human rights and equity, appreciate cultural
diversity, and respect the Earth and each other. Such learning can only
be achieved through systematic peace education.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit highlights various ways to teach and promote peace. It began
asking the question on why peace is taught. It further explained how one
learns to teach peace. It also elaborated on a number of concepts in
peace education. It finally examines the issue of peace promoting
culture.
99
6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
1. Explain the importance of Peace education? Or

2. In 500 words, describe two concepts of Peace Education
Cushner, K. (1998) International Perspectives on Intercultural

Communication Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, Inc.
Publishers, NJ. USA
Miller, C. and King, M. (2003) Glossary of Terms and Concepts in

Peace and conflict Studies. University of Peace Costa Rica
www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/peace/frame2.htm
UNIT 3 AFRICAN ENDOGENOUS PEACE

INSTITUTIONS
100
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Traditional Society
3.2 Institutions for Peace and Conflict Resolution in Africa
3.3 Conflict Sources among Indigenous Africans
3.4 Traditional Approaches to Conflict Prevention,
Management & Resolution in Africa
3.5 Causes of Weakness and Erosion of Indigenous Peace
Institutions in Africa
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Peace and conflict research has been exported to other regions of the
world, unfortunately, largely underpinned by the western hegemonic
discourse, unfortunately. Scholars from that region have crafted the
fields of peace studies and conflict resolution in Euro-American
institutions, largely. According to Tamara Duffy (2000) this discipline
reflected Western intellectual traditions, worldviews, expectations,
values and rationality embedded in Western culture.1The discipline has
assumed that the theories and methods derived from a particularistic
Western worldview are universally applicable and this can be
dangerously misleading.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. Describe the traditional society;

ii. Explain various conflict sources among indigenous Africans;
iii. Discuss relevant traditional institutions and approaches to conflict
prevention, management & resolution in Africa; and
iv. Examine various causes of weakness and erosion of indigenous
peace institutions in Africa.
3.0 MAIN BODY
101
3.1 Traditional Society
Before the advent of slave trade and colonialism, African societies had
well-established mechanisms for peace education, confidence building,
peace making, peace building, conflict monitoring, conflict prevention,
conflict management, and conflict resolution. These institutions and
methods were effective and highly respected and their decisions binding
on all the parties concerned.
However, the beginning of slave trade and eventually colonialism

truncated the indigenous institutional mechanisms for peace in
Africa. Slave trading particularly encouraged not only intra-ethnic
conflicts but also inter-ethnic conflicts as people were scrambling for
slaves to sell. Colonialism, on the other hand, portrayed everything that
is African to be barbaric and incapable of serving any useful
purpose. The result of all these is that African indigenous peace
institutions were destroyed or where they could not be destroyed became
weakened to a state of ineffectiveness. Courts were created by the
colonialists to adjudicate cases based on their legal system while the
police force was also raised up to take cases that used to be taken before
the African indigenous peace institutions for amicable settlement were
now taken to the courts of the colonialists, which, most times, are not
properly resolved.
Indeed, before the coming of the Europeans, Africa had one of the most
advanced legal institutions. The administration of justice in Africa was
aimed at resolving conflicts rather than pronouncing
judgments. Emphasis was placed on reconciliation and restoration of
social harmony than on punishment of the conflicting parties. The
administration of justice was made an open affair where all adults freely
participated. There were no in-camera trials as court sessions as the
processes were held in the open with the parties in conflict being freely
cross-examined. Truth was the object of the delivery of justice.
3.2 Conflict Sources among Indigenous Africans
The indigenous Africans are subject to the influence of all natural and
generally accepted theories on the causes of conflict such as differences
in perception, needs, values, power, desires, goals, opinions, and many
other components of human interactions.
While this is true for most human beings, the sources of conflict in
Africa are mostly land, chieftaincy position, sex matters (in relation to
wife or daughter), family property, honour, murder or positioning,
matrimonial fall-outs (maltreatment of wife). These are the main sources
of conflicts in Africa.
102
3.3 Institutions for Peace and Conflict Resolution in Africa
Any human society that wants to advance needs peace and security to do
so, therefore, in Africa, before the arrival of the white man with all his
institutions, there had been in existence elaborate and effective methods
and institutions for the prevention, management and resolution of
conflict. These institutions and methods were established by Africans
because great emphasis were placed on peaceful resolution of disputes
so as to restore social harmony to the conflicting parties while the
principles of equity and justice entrenched in their customs and
traditions are maintained. Among many African societies, it was
strongly upheld that disputes should be settled amicable by persuasion
rather than the resort of force or coercion. This system did not condone
killings and violence in resolving conflict.
Among the Arusha people of Tanzania, there was instituted the Golib
Festival, which was a period for the prohibition of all feuds and
hostilities between and within families, clans and villages as the
emphasis was laid on abundant food, harmony, fecundity, and the
common interest of all the people in the community. The Gikuyu elders
of Kenya had it impressed on them that their primary responsibility to
their people was the prevention of conflict between members of their
community and the prevention of violent and deadly conflicts that would
involve the use of supernatural powers, open hostilities bloodshed, and
destruction of property.
In the communities of many African countries, the concept of “African

Palaver” is widely used to settle conflicts. However various
communities in Africa call it various names. Among the Kpelle people
of Liberia, it is called “House of Palaver” or “moot”. Here, it is an ad
hoc committee or council made up of the kinsmen and neighbours of the
parties to a conflict. Every claim from both parties to the conflict was
investigated with honesty, transparency and at the end of it all, judgment
was delivered and all parties involved shared a drink. In Chad, especially
among the Toubou society, the assembly in which conflicts are resolved
was called “Cofono”. This is a gathering in which not only the
traditional rulers were involved but customary council members from
the surroundings, all interested men (both young and old), as well as
women groups of all ages. This is because when there is an outbreak of
violent conflict, the whole clan was involved. So often a hot and exciting
debate about the pros and cons of the conflict, a verdict would be given
which was binding on the parties to the conflict.
In the Beti society located in the capital region of Cameroon, the concept
is known as “adzo” which means “to say or “to talk”. It means the act of
103
talking things over or the use of dialogue for the settlement of conflict. It
usually involves the entire community. All those who feel concerned are
invited to participate in the search for an amicable settlement of the
conflict. It involves three stages: the first stage is the stage for
persuading parties to a conflict to bring their case to the “Palaver.” The
second stage has to do with the speech or hearing stage where parties to
the conflict confront each other. It is also the stage when the elders will
be given the opportunity to hear the full history of the conflict, known as
the fear and concerns of the parties and the fundamental issues involved
in the conflict. The last stage is one in which the elders, after hearing the
facts of the conflict from both sides, retire to a secluded place to take a
decision and come back later to drop their verdict. The guilty party is
made to compensate the other party in a proportional manner that is
made to be symbol, rather than as punishment.
The Palaver system is also used in Mali as a conflict management

technique. In Mali society, conflicts are resolved by those that are
regarded as the “keepers of the word of authority”. These people render
justice in the name of their ancestors. When any conflict is brought
before them, they first listen to the parties, call witnesses and from there,
go to question session where questions are asked, beginning from the
eldest of these local judges, to clarify issues and get the true picture
about the conflict. After this, they go into their own proceedings to
arrive at a verdict which when given is without appeal and the guilty
submits himself to the decision taken. It must be noted, however that the
use of “Palaver” is the emphasis on the restoration of harmony within
the community rather than the emphasis on who is right or wrong.
Among the Oromo people of East Africa, there was the “Gada”
system. Institutions were set up to prevent violent conflicts but where
there is an outbreak of violence, they were quickly checked before
escalation. Conflicts were resolved through the establishment of truth, a
just and honourable verdict given for the restoration of social harmony
in the community.
Coming to Nigeria, the indigenous institutions for peace could be

summed up as follows: family, elders (within a lineage), clan, females
born in a family or village, council of elders, village or town assembly,
king-in-council, masquerade system, age grades, hunters association,
oracles and deities etc. All these serve as institutions for the maintenance
of peace and the resolution of conflict.
3.4 Traditional Approaches to Conflict Prevention,

Management & Resolution in Africa
104
The following were some of the ways through which conflicts were
prevented, managed and resolved in Africa before the coming of the
colonialists.
Socialization
The indigenous African see human existence as unified, interlinked, and

integrated in a web. In most communities of the South of Africa, there
existed the concept “Ubuntu” which means “collective personhood” or
“member of the human family” This concept is contained in the Nguni
proverb that states, “I am because we are”. From childhood, people were
taught to live in harmony with others and avoid a situation of trying to
win at all cost in the case of conflict and dispute settlement. Indigenous
Africans impart in their offspring that quarrel and fight with others are to
be seen as quarrel between blood relations.
Inculcation of Myths
The use of proverbs, idioms, folktales and songs to describe the nature
of the world and how to live in it was another way of preventing,
managing and resolving conflicts in Africa. The need to live
harmoniously with others and avoid violent conflict because of the
dangers inherent in it was one of the reasons for inculcating these myths
through the use of proverbs, idioms etc. on the children at tender age.
Use of Traditional Institutions in Conflict Monitoring
The institutions of family, council of elders, clan, female born of a

village etc. were used in the task of conflict monitoring and
prevention. Each family head is employed and mobilized to prevent
conflict through peace education, conflict monitoring and mediation and
reconciliation.
Ritual Treaties and Blood Covenant
Rituals treaties and blood covenant were used to remove fear, and
engender trust, blind families and villages and to avoid war. Such
treaties and covenants involve powerful deities, which makes it not easy
to violate as violation would bring dire consequences.
Institution and Celebration of Festivals
105
There were instituted celebrations of festivals during which the virtues

of peace, harmonious living, honesty etc. were extolled in songs. Rituals
and scarifies were performed to the village deities and ancestors foe
peace, protection, good works, fertility etc.
Use of Sanctions
Sanctions were imposed on families and individuals who were seen to

have contradicted the customs and traditions of the people in order to
deter others from engaging in behaviours that would engender
conflict. Sanctions were meted on such misbehaviour as stealing, willful
murder, incest, abuse of elders, willful damage to property, lying,
bearing false witness, poisoning, rape etc. Such sanctions included those
that were imposed by the deities such as accidents, sickness, death,
famine, poverty, misery, barrenness and loss of children etc. to the ones
imposed by the society in such as exile, ostracism, fines, compensation,
restitution, rendering apology etc.
Use of Marriages
Marriage is one of the means to the prevention, management and

resolution of conflict before slave trader, colonialism and religion
changed the societal life of the indigenous Africans. Marriages reduced
inter-group wars as children who possessed mixed blood were used to
prevent, manage and resolve conflict. Most of those marriages were not
just intra-tribal but inter-tribal and most times involve the royalty such
as the one between Adaeze, the daughter of Obi Ossa; of Aboh and
Amain, the king boy of Brass and that between King Ajaja’s daughter
and Alafin of Oyo and Alafin of Oyo’s daughter and King Ajaja in 1730.
Oath Taking
One of the approaches used in the pre-colonial days to prevent, manage

and resolve conflict was oath taking. This was a practice to establish
truth and guilt and discourage dishonest attitude and evil actions in
society. Most times this was done at the shrine of a very powerful deity
over something that could be an avenue for contacting such
deity. People are always warned before taking oath on the consequence
of doing so on falsehood in order to avoid shame.
Diplomacy
In the ages past, diplomacy, which was a tool for foreign relations, was
also employed in conflict prevention, management and resolution in
Africa. This is attested to by the diplomatic exchanges between the
empire rulers of Shangai and Mali etc.
106
3.5 Causes of Weakness and Erosion of Indigenous Peace

Institutions in Africa
The arrival of the slave masters as well as colonial masters contributed

in no small measure to the ineffectiveness and sometimes, complete
erosion of peace institutions in Africa. Slave trade encouraged conflicts
within and among tribes while colonialism brought along with it its own
system of justice, administration etc. that were alien to that of the
Africans. Colonialism denigrated everything that was African and
labeled it barbaric.
Secondly, the arrival of Christian religion further weakened and

rendered ineffective peace institutions in Africa that had hitherto existed
before the coming of this religion. The traditional religion of the people
which was the basis of law was weakened and ritual sanctions, treaties
and festivals which were based upon the people’s religion collapsed and
gave way to the new religion which preached forgiveness of sin and
purging from unrighteousness through the blood of Jesus.
European commerce and colonialism which promotes crass materialism

and individualism was another factor that destroyed family solidarity
and corporate integrity and which was responsible for the weakening
and eroding of indigenous peace institution in Africa.
Institutions for Peace and Conflict Resolution in Africa are essential.

Discuss
4.0 CONCLUSION
Application of theories and methodologies of peace research and conflict

resolution in Africa has largely neglected the simple fact that Africa has
well-developed and tested indigenous approaches and methods of
conflict management, resolution, pacific settlement of disputes and
peace building. Some scholars have argued that to develop universal
models and techniques on peace research and conflict resolution
applicable across all social and cultural contexts is simply problematic
because, it neglects the specificity of cultural and the diverse cultural
milieus that conflict is embedded and critical to its resolution. John Paul
Lederach (1998) has therefore proposed an ‘elicitive’ process of conflict
resolution as an alternative to the traditional and dominant ‘prescriptive’
process. The elicitive process of conflict resolution is based on building
and creating appropriate models from the cultural resources and implicit
knowledge available in a given setting. The prescriptive process on the
other hand, is based on transferring conflict resolution techniques from
107
one setting to another, in particular, the transfer of Western methods to

non-Western conflict environment.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has discussed various issues that would stimulate our
knowledge of the customary alternative to conflict resolution and
prevention. It began with the description of traditional society. It went
further to discuss various conflict sources among indigenous Africans,
relevant traditional institutions and approaches to conflict prevention,
management and resolution in Africa and various causes of weakness
and erosion of indigenous peace institutions in Africa.
1. Should African Approaches to conflict resolution be adopted in

resolving conflicts in Post Colonial Africa? Or
2. What are the problems that will make the adoption of African
approaches difficult and what are your suggestions on
overcoming these problems?
Duffy, T. (2000) ‘Cultural Issues in Contemporary Peacekeeping: A

Conflict Resolution Perspective’ International Peacekeeping
Lederach, J.P. (1997) Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in

Divided Societies, Washington DC, United States Institute of
Peace
Otite, O and Albert, I.O. (1999) [eds], Community Conflicts in Nigeria:

Management, Resolution and Transformation, Ibadan: Spectrum
Books.
Nwolisa, B.C. (2004) ‘Traditional Approaches to Conflict Resolution

Among the Igbo People of Nigeria: Reinforcing the Need for
Africa to Rediscover its Roots’ in Amani: Journal of
African Peace, Vol. 1/ No. 1/ 2/2004
Zartman, W. (ed) (2000) Traditional Cures for Modern Conflicts:

African Conflict ‘Medicine’. SAIS. Lynne Renner, London
UNIT 4 SMALL ARMS, CHILDREN AND GIRLS IN

ARMED CONFLICTS.
108
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Small Arms Proliferation
3.2 ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms
3.3 Child Soldiers in West Africa
3.4 Why Children?
3.5 Solutions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The use of arms whether small, light, improvised or weapons of mass

destruction in conflict, is not new; and this explains why the right of
self-defence and self determination are part of the international law.
What is rather new is that access to these weapons is easy and cheap.
Records have it that you can exchange an AK47 for as little as a bag of
grain, and studies have it that, there are more arms with the militias than
in the National armies of most African countries. And what is most
unacceptable is the indiscriminate use of these weapons, against those
that the humanitarian laws are out to protect. The proliferation of these
weapons in the hands of undisciplined actors has outpaced the efforts to
ensure compliance with the basic rules of warfare. The aftermath is
levels of wanton violence and streams of horrific images.
The end of the cold war and the collapse of Soviet Union led to the
significant change in the dynamics of conflicts and international transfer
of arms. These changes also have led to a very high level of civilian
casualties and making delivery of humanitarian assistance extremely
difficult. Although it is true that arms increase facilitated aggression
against civilians, it is also important to know that there are other factors
that contribute to the heavy toll paid by the civilians.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
109
i. Describe small Arms and light weapons

ii. Explain the reasons / factors for its proliferation
iii. Describe the efforts of ECOWAS in the control of small Arms
and light weapons proliferation
iv. Describe the process of recruitment and activities of child soldiers
v. Explain the role of girls in armed conflicts and
vi. Identify some solutions to child soldier and the use of children in
armed conflicts.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Small Arms and Light Weapons Proliferation
Small Arms and light Weapons are distinguished weapons of war that
are very simple to use, small in size, and easy to carry, but have the
capacity to do grave damage in especially intrastate conflicts. Small
Arms, because of their simplicity and durability, their proliferation is
made very easy. These weapons require very little upkeep and logistical
support as they have very few moving parts. They are also very durable.
Even uneducated combatants and children can easily manipulate them as
they need very little training and can be easily effectively handled. The
qualities of small arms include:
Portability and Conceal-ability
Small Arms and Light weapons can be moved about by individuals or

small and light vehicles. Because of their size, concealing them is very
easy. They can be hidden in legitimate goods and be smuggled across
borders into conflict zones.
Military / Police and Civilian Uses
These weapons are used by the military and the police, and even can be
acquired legally by individuals. Because they are not exclusively
procured by the national military, it is then vulnerable to abuse by illegal
users.
Low Cost and Wide Availability
For the fact that there are various legal users like the military, police and
civilians, the number of manufacturers is large and this makes its
availability very high. For example, in Uganda, weapons could be
purchased, as cheaply as buying a chicken, and in Mozambique and
Angola, they are as cheap as 15 USD.
Lethality
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These weapons are also as dangerous as the big weapons. Some of these
small Arms have the capacity to fire up to 700 rounds a minute, and can
cause great damage. So, having a small group of people armed with
these arms, they can pose a real challenge to any military.
So, the above reasons and more explains why Small Arms and Light
Weapons proliferation will continue to be a challenge in managing
intrastate/ethnic conflicts.
3.2 ECOWAS Conventions on Small Arms
Economic Communities of West African States (ECOWAS), in 1998,

adopted a Moratorium on Small Arms and Light Weapons, which aimed
to combat the proliferation of these weapons. It was a product of both
the government and the civil society organizations. In 2002, there was a
follow up meeting in Dakar Senegal, which aimed to strengthen the
moratorium, so that it can become more effective. The West African
region is a very volatile part of African because of the armed conflicts in
this region coupled with cross border crime and destabilizing factor due
to the heavy presence of illegal arms trafficking and usage. In March
2005, in Bamako, Mali, there was another workshop to transform the
ECOWAS moratorium on importation, exportation and manufacture of
Small Arms and Light Weapons in West Africa. The ”ECOWAS
Protocol on the fight against the proliferation of small arms and light
weapons, their munitions and other related material” is structured with a
preamble and eight chapters that have been broken down into31
Articles:
Chapter 1 concentrates on definitions, objectives and basic principles.

It aims to offer a framework for the draft protocol.
Chapter 2 sets out the legal regime accompanied by the criteria and
procedures for exemption.
Chapter 3 focuses on the measures and ways of promoting

transparency as an efficient means of fighting the proliferation of small
arms and light weapons.
Chapter 4 underlines the necessity of translating the sub-regional

undertaking into adequate and effective legislative and regulatory
framework.
Chapter 5 defines the activities that must be carried out to guarantee

the implementation of the protocol pilot study.
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Chapter 6, regarding the institutional arrangements, underlines the

respective roles of the national commissions and the ECOWAS
Executive Secretariat.
Chapter 7 establishes a mechanism for evaluation and monitoring

through a group of independent experts. Finally
Chapter 8 sets out the final measures. (Adopted from Couilbaly 2005,
‘ECOWAS Convention: A Response to the implementation of the
UNPoA’ Focus on Small Arms in Africa)
ECOWAS Moratorium and its code of conduct

recommendations:
States
Proceed to the adoption of the protocol pilot study by the end of

December 2005.
Compile a register of the local arms manufacturers and encourage
them to mark the weapons they produce.
Submit national reports to the United Nations Programme of Action
to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and
Light Weapons in All its Aspect.
Civilsocietyorganization
Carry out awareness and advocacy campaigns towards West African

Governments to first adopt the protocol project and then to apply it;
Carry out this advocacy based on the strategy defined and adopted
during the workshop;
Participate in the diffusion of the protocol once it has been officially
adopted by the ECOWAS Heads of State and Government;
Collaborate closely with the national commissions in the conception,

development and implementation of the national action plans for the
fight against the proliferation of small arms and light weapons. (Adopted
from Couilbaly 2005, ‘ECOWAS Convention: A Response to the
implementation of the UNPoA’ Focus on Small Arms in Africa)
3.3 Child Soldering in West Africa
West Africa got the unenviable tag of the most volatile sub-region with
the armed insurgences in Liberia and Sierra Leone in 1989 and 1991
respectively. The other terrible consequence of the war is the great
number of child soldiers these wars produced. Records have it that the
Liberian war produced estimated 20,000 and Sierra Leone, 10,000 child
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soldiers. These vulnerable young children were either forced into the
army through kidnapping, conscription, raids, press-ganging.
Unaccompanied and unguarded children fall prey to these actions. While
some children volunteering join the army; although it is reported that
girls are forced to join “because of gender based sexual services”. (Sesay
and Ismail 2003)
Tracing the cases of child soldiers, scholars argue that the poor socio-
political conditions, compounded by economic poverty “produced an
inherent disposition to child soldiering”. The victimization of the Gios
and Manos by Samuel Doe and the rebel activities of the AFL
contributed immensely to the volunteering of the children from the Gios
and Manos ethnic group “either as a survival strategy, to avenge the
killing of parents, family members, friends and the surrogate parents or
to protect themselves and their families from further harassment”. (Sesay
and Ismail 2003)
Although some others believe that plenty of children join the war
because of socio-economic or political gains like looting, raping, access
to power through the use of guns, etc. ‘The gun particularly was very
attractive because it gave them access to food and new social status of
responsibility in unpredictable environments’. (Sesay and Ismail 2003)
The presence of Small Arms and Light inexpensive Weapons made
recruitment attractive.
Conflict and Postwar Trauma Among Child Soldiers in Liberia and

Sierra Leone.
One pathetic effect of the Liberian and Sierra Leone wars was the
problem of postwar trauma stress disorder. Symptoms of anxiety,
depression, hyperactivity; aggressive behaviour, withdrawal, bed-
wetting and recurrent nightmares are part of the lives of the children who
participate in the wars. The unfortunate part of the problem is that, the
government has no capacity to help these victims, although the
governments make statements in this regard. The Lome Peace Accord of
1999 between the government and the RUF recognized the importance
of children, and their place in the rehabilitation and reintegration
program. In Liberia, efforts are made by NGOs to rehabilitate and
reintegrate these ex-combatants, as much as there were no mentions of
them in the Peace Agreement. Various methods are adopted in the
postwar trauma. There were cases where these young people are sent to
centers for six months and they undergo psychotherapy treatments. But
there are others who believe that the African traditional method should
be adopted which calls for rituals, ceremonies and destruction of war
instruments and clothes in the fire, indicating a break away from the evil
past.
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3.4 Why children?
This is one question that baffles many scholars. Why children? Why
recruit the vulnerable that cannot think things through? Many people
here proffered answers based on the socio-cultural, socio-biological and
others think of answers on the basis ‘of dirty war terror tactics against
civilians in an effort to control population through intimidation and fear’
(Nordstorm,1997:9-34). They believe that to be able to control terror
means that that country’s population can be controlled too.
The second reason is that of humiliation of “the enemy”; this war is

fought on the bodies of the weak and unable to defend themselves. The
aim is to tell the state that it is not only a failed state; it is unworthy of
her people, as she cannot even protect her “innocent” children. But then
if the children are made to hurt others including adults, they loose their
innocence and deserve no pity and protection.
And the last argument is that children are maimed, killed and violated
during wars because they are not strong enough to fight back. The
holders of this view say violence against the weak by the strong is not
only in the war field, but also in the domestic arena. This is to say, “the
unarmed and the undefended are largely the targets of the armed”.
(Nordstorm,1997:29-34)
3.5 The Solution
Most of the predicaments that are befalling the children are preventable.
According to the “study on the impact of Armed Conflict on
Children” (Nordstorm 1997: 35-46) the most helpful solution is
unveiling the silence surrounding the wars children and girls are
subjected to. This silence is about politics and power implicated in form
of human rights abuse. Very little can be done if data on these abuses are
not made known. How many girls are targeted in war, sold into forced
labour, harmed in their homes and communities and why, must be
known, otherwise viable interventions cannot be planned. Speaking out
is also dangerous as it means speaking against trusted leaders, powerful
industries, government/military officials etc. So many people just decide
to keep quiet and invariably hurt the children through their silence. The
study identified four major levels of solutions.
Questions. Clarifications of series of questions will go a long way

to controlling the harm done to children during conflict. The
following questions must be clarified and answered. When the word
“human” is used in cases of human rights violation, does it include
children? When the word “child” is used, does it include “girls” as
“child” in often used is often for boys, as in child soldering. The big
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problem for girl child is that she is only considered in sexual abuses
and violations and there is no reference to economic potential,
political awareness or moral conscience. The girl child is only seen
as a “victim”, and the implication for them is that they are
vulnerable, weak, lack confidence and cannot make any input in
decision processes. Another problem that needs to be clarified in the
issue of child is “what age are we talking about here? 12–15 years
old or 5–8 years old. Most times the torture of the children before
the child soldier ages are never examined. Many children though
young suffer tremendous hurtful experiences.
Knowledge. A problem known is a problem half solved. This is to

emphasize the importance of knowledge, of the problem. We need to
ask questions to know what percentage of casualties are girls? How
the act of torture was carried out? What impact has the war
experience on them? Etc. We have to let them tell their stories. We
need to hear them proffer solutions, because “it is woefully easy to
silence children’s own words and realities’ (Nordstorm 1997 pp
35-46). The questions will be followed through to the centre of the
society and solutions rest on our (society) ability to recognize ‘the
realities of justice and abuse around the world, not as abstract
categories, but as very human realities taking place in the lives of
very real people’. (Nordstorm, 1997: 29-34)
Action. The third level of solutions is taking actions. It is very

surprising to note that the convention on the right of the child is
widely accepted and as far back as 1995, 168 countries have signed
the treaty, but then, it is within these countries and period that the
worst child/human rights violations have taken place. It is then more
important to implement the protocol than to just sign the papers. It is
important that the voice of children be heard from the mouths of
children not adults. Realistic actions that will make impact on how
wars are fought, and how the target audience, the unarmed children
should be brought to the centre stage in order to begin to give it
publicity, attention and governments can begin to do something
concrete.
Giving Girls Agency. In an attempt to proffer solutions on the

problem of children in armed conflict, it is important to give the
children a platform on which to operate. This platform will have to
wear a gender lens, giving more attention to the girl child. The
biggest problem girl child has in conflict situations is that; they are
seen as just victims of sexual assault. Their political, economic and
social potentials are never considered. The way a child is seen during
war, determines what role that will be assigned her after conflict. The
beauty of en-gendering these issues is that it provides models for
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children across divisions of war and peace. This process pushes for
justice for all at times. Children can tell their own stories of war and
peace, it is then important that a structured voice be created for them
through the establishment of an agency.
Discuss the ECOWAS Convention on small arms.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The role of Small Arms and Light Weapons on intra-state conflict is

very strategic and impactful. The recruitment of children to perpetuate
conflict through the dehumanization of human worth; is not only against
traditional African values, it is a human right violation. These dangerous
situations can be highly controlled if people in positions of authority
give it the necessary attention and give the children the right to speak out
their mind.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has discussed various issues concerning small arms

proliferation as well as the response of ECOWAS to arrest the ugly
trend. It began with a discourse on Small Arms Proliferation. It also
talked on ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms and generation of Child
Soldiers in West Africa. It also discussed on the solutions to these ugly
trends of small arms proliferation and generation of child soldiers in
Africa as a whole and West Africa in particular.
1. Why are Small Arms and Light Weapons so important in prosecuting

conflict in West African region? Or
2. Which is the best approach in transforming post war trauma in the
children – traditional African or Modern Western approach?
Arms Availability and the situation of Civilians in Armed Conflict. “A

study by the International Committee of the Red Cross Geneva,
June, 1999
Focus on Arms in Africa Vol. 4 No1 this newsletter is a joint initiative
of ISS and the African Union
Mcintyre Angela (2005) Invisible stakeholder: children and war in

Africa. The Institute for security studies, Pretoria, South Africa.
116
Nordstrom C. (2004) Girls and Warzones: Troubling Question. Life and

Peace Institute, Uppsala.
Osman Gbla (2003) ‘Conflict and Postwar Trauma Among Child

Soliders in Liberia and sierra Leone’ Civil Wars, Child soldiers
and Post
Conflict Peace Building in West Africa. AFSTRAG. College Press and

Publishers
Sesay and Ismail (2003) ‘Introduction’ Civil Wars, Child soldiers and
Post Conflict Peace Building in West Africa. AFSTRAG.
College Press and Publishers
The Rights of the Child (1995) UNICEF office Lagos Thomas

Jaye (2002) War Endings, the Building of Secure Post conflict
societies: The case of Liberia. Foundation for Security and
Development in Africa.
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UNIT 5 POST CONFLICT RECONSTRUCTION
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The Post Conflict Environment
3.2 Stages and Phases of the Peace Process.
3.3 Peace Agreement
3.4 Post Conflict Priorities in the Security Sector
3.5 Priority Peace Building Tasks
3.6 The Roles and Responsibilities of Donors in Post conflict
Reconstruction
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
According to Ball (2003) in the past 50years, nearly 1 million people are
killed each year as a result of armed conflict. The cost of these wars in
terms of human loss and missed developmental opportunities cannot be
measured. Although, there will still be skeletal Socio -economic
activities, but what is common these days is the fall back of the warring
parties on the natural resources to sustain their wars is further making it
difficult for some countries to explore their potentials for long term
development. Armed conflicts retard developing process and erode
development foundation, as people are turned into refugees and
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). Fundamentals required for
development, to tackle poverty, suffering, and provide public goods,
protection of people and properties, equitable legal system for
investment are always beyond the capacity of post conflict government.
Even beyond the physical destruction, is the problem of internal power
imbalance, which further complicates the efforts to create enabling
community for sustainable development. All these factors posses a lot of
challenge for post conflict reconstruction and many countries are calling
the international community to help in rebuilding post conflict societies.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

i. Describe post conflict environment;
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ii. Describe the stages of peace processes; and

iii. Identify the peace-building tasks.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 The Post Conflict Environment
According to Ball (2003) below are the characteristics of post conflict

environment
Institutional Economic and Social Security Characteristics
Characteristics Characteristics
Weak political Extensive damage to or Bloated security
administrative decay of economic and forces
institutions social infrastructure. Armed opposition,
Non-participatory High levels of paramilitary force
political system indebtedness Overabundance of
Vigorous Unsustainably high small arms
competition for defense budgets * Need to reassess
power at expense of Significant contraction security environment
attention to of legal economy and and restructure security
governing expansion of illegal forces accordingly
Limited legitimacy economy * Lack of
of political leaders. Reversion to substance transparency in
activities security affairs and
Lack of consensus Destruction or exile of accountability to
on direction country human resources evil authority and to
should follow Conflicts over population
ownership of and access * Political role of
to land security forces.
Gender imbalance History of human
Environmental rights abuses
degradation perpetrated by
Weakened social fabric security
Poor social indicators forces.
Source: ‘The Challenges of rebuilding War-Torn Societies’ in Turbulent

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3.2 Stages and Phases of the Peace Process.
When conflicts are negotiated peace processes are in stages.

The Peace Process in Negotiated Peace Settlement
STAGES Cessation of Peace building
conflict
PHASES Negotiations Cessation of Transition Consolidation
Hostilities
MAIN Agreeing on Signing peace Establishing a Continuing
OBJECTIVES key issues toaccords government and deepening
enable with adequate reform process
fighting to Establishing legitimacy to
stop cease fire enable it to Continuing
rule economic and
Separating effectively social
forces recovery
Implementing efforts
reforms to
build political Continuing
institutions promotion of
and establish social
security reconciliation
Inaugurating
economic and
social
revitalization
Promoting
social
reconciliation
3.3 Peace Agreement
It is important we describe the Peace Agreement reached as working

paper. Peace Agreements have the responsibility of decreeing the
institutional changes that require a lot of time. Most times, the Peace
Agreements allow one to two years for the transition government and
give the timetable for the implementation of the activities. Most Peace
Agreements do not address the root causes of the conflict, but the
compromise necessary for all the stakeholders. This could be because
they are desperate to get an agreement and if they try to get to the root
120
causes of the conflict, they might not get agreement signed. If these root
causes are not addressed, they serve as stumbling blocks to the mediator
who is faced with a flawed agreement or continuation of the violence.
Whatever is the augment against Pence Agreement, it is important, to
know that they may institute necessary steps towards consolidating
peace. Peace Agreements are flawed and must be used with plenty of
caution, and necessary changes must be made whether they are in the
Peace Agreement or not.
3.4 Post Conflict Priorities In The Security Sector
International communities have realized that, the responsibility to peace

goes beyond achieving peace agreement, but continues to the
consolidation of the peace process.
The security sector is made up of the military, police, paramilitary,

gendarmerie, and other organizations that support the police for quick
delivery of justice. The process of developing a security sector reform
starts with the identification of the needs and key objectives of the whole
sector and secondly, map the resource framework for the central
government. The completion of these tasks will make it possible to
identify the priorities and allocation of available resource.
Post Conflict priorities in Security Sector:
Assess the environment, redefine the doctrine and mission of the

security forces, and task the security forces based on this
assessment and on the principle of evil management and
oversight of the security forces.
Restructure the security forces based on the post conflict

doctrines, missions, and budget realities.
Increase transparency and accountability on security-related

issues within the security forces, the executive branch,
and the legislature, as well to the public.
Enhance the capacity of the civil authorities to manage and

oversee the activities of the security forces.
Pursue parallel development of the criminal justice system
Train civilian security analysts, in both the public sector and civil
society
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Pursue professional development of the security forces that imbues

their members with an understanding of democratic accountability
and strengthens their internal management capacity to implement
and sustain reforms.
Terminate extralegal forms of recruitment to the security sector.
Disband and disarm opposition forces and informal paramilitary

forces, demobilize government troops

3.5 Priority Peace Building Tasks
Provide sufficient level of security to civilians to enable economic

activity to recover, to encourage refugees and the Internal
Displaced Persons (IDPs) to re-establish themselves and to
business community to invest.
Strengthen the government’s capacity to carry out key tasks. Assist
the return of refugees and internally displaced persons. Support the
rejuvenation of household economics, especially by

strengthening the smallholder agricultural sector.
Assist community recovery in part through projects that rehabilitate

the social and economic infrastructure.
Rehabilitate infrastructure crucial to economic revival, such as major

roads, bridges, marketplaces, and power generation facilities.
Remove land mines from major transport arteries, fields in heavily

populated areas and other critical sites
Stabilize the national currency and rehabilitates financial
institutions.
Promote national reconciliation.
Give priority to social groups and geographic area most affected by

the conflict.
Source: Chester Crocker, Fen Hampson and Pamela Aall (eds) (2003)
Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International
Conflict, Washington DC: United States Institute for Peace Press,
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3.6 The Roles and Responsibilities of Donors in Post conflict

Reconstruction
The donor organizations have important roles and responsibilities in

rebuilding war torn societies, and it is therefore very crucial that the
assistance from the donors be appropriate and relevant to make the
needed impact. Although, they have been making much important
donations in term of quality and quantity of assistance, there is still
much to be done, at different sectors. There are 4 major areas that will be
considered in the assistance given to make a change in peace building
process.
Creating Sustained Partnerships among External Actors.
With time peace builders have to learn one important lesson, which is to
sustain assistance, because experience has shown that, when
development actors are involved earlier before the Peace Agreement
(PA) is sighed they advise the warring parties better on how to go about
post conflict rebuilding, which otherwise could be political or ignored
once the PA is sighed.
Enhancing the Effectiveness of Peace building Assistance.
Funding of peace building efforts should be flexible and properly

channeled to the activities that are for post conflict reconstruction. In the
past, there were difficulties in disbursing of fund, some were slow, some
donors were not properly targeted. There is a need to have donor
coordination for effective assistance. The donors have developed a
network which has begun a compilation of the Compendium of
Operational Framework for Peace building and Donor Coordination. The
important lesion learnt is that no two post conflict environments are the
same, therefore, it will be ineffective, to develop a ‘wholesale
application of approaches’. And the last thing that must be done to
improve on the donors effectiveness, is the practice to share information
on best practices, although, this depend on the quality of staff, which
must be adequately taken care off.
Effecting Donor Coordination
The need to have an effective donor coordination that can take

advantage of the short peace period after the war to effect a well-
coordinated plan of action, is very important. The political situation in
these countries coming out of war is so fragile that, everything is
exaggerated, and they can hinder donor actions, so it is very important
that donors be ready with a plan they can put to work immediately.
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Restarting Government
One important area that must be given high priority is strengthening the
government of the day. At the end of wars, governments are normally
over extended because of the urge to please everybody; more than
enough people are part of the government. The capacity of the staff is
weak, and cannot perform the required task. It is very important that
donor organization begin to begin to acknowledge the government in
power and make the civil society organizations recognize them and work
with them, not against them, as the opposition is working hard to
discredit them. It will be dangerous to wait until the elected government
is power. The transitional government should be supported.
Give an overview of a post-conflict environment.
4.0 CONCLUSION
A post war society reveal a destroyed infrastructure, economically,

undervalued currency, commerce is at a stand still, diverted agro base,
unemployment at its peak, which means no job for the former soldiers,
no investment opportunities for foreign firms, no exports of whatever
kind, mutual dislike between wrong parties, small arm proliferation,
lawlessness towards the government and the traditional institution. There
is need to demolish and disarm two separate arms quickly and the
problem of child soldiers. No sign of legitimate government and lot
resentment for the opposition. Democracy tradition and institutions are
under mind the policies and the judiciary is seen as part of the problem,
instead of solution. Therefore, the job of post conflict reconstruction,
calls for an overhaul and a rebuild of the society.
5.0 SUMMARY
In summary, no two-post conflict environments are similar; therefore all

the suggestions can be adjusted to meet up with the context of the
conflict. But, it is important to know that as much as there are these
differences, there are still general characteristics of war form societies
were engender isolations. The first victim of isolation are the
soldiers/ex-combatants who are isolated, as they are “ill equipped for
civilian life, and have unrealistic expectations after discharge’. (Ball,
2003)
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6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
i. Describe the tasks of Post conflict reconstruction on Security

Sector. Or
ii. What are the roles of the donors in rebuilding a war-torn society?
7.0 REFERENCE /FURTHER READINGS
Ball Nicole (2003) ‘The Challenges of rebuilding War-Torn Societies’ in

Chester Crocker, Fen Hampson and Pamela Aall (eds) Turbulent
Washington DC: United States Institute for Peace Press,
See the full text Chester Crocker, Fen Hampson and Pamela Aall (eds)
(2003) Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing
International Conflict. United States Institute for Peace Press.
Washington DC
Lederach, J.P. (1997). Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in

Divided Societies. Washington DC: USIP Press.
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MODULE 4
Unit 1 Religion, Peace And Conflicts In Nigeria

Unit 4 Small Arms, Children And Girls In Armed Conflicts
UNIT 1 PEACE BUILDING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The Concept of Peace Building
3.2 Map of Peace Building Activities
3.3 Principles of Peace Building
3.4 The Challenges of Peace building
3.5 The Criticisms and Questions of Peace-building Theory
and Practice
3.6 ‘Military’ Peace Building
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the early 90s when international community began to show significant

interest in reshaping countries recovering from wars, peace-building
became a global vocabulary in peace discourse. Here, we are discussing
the concept of peace-building through the adoption of analytical
framework. So, fasten your seat belt and let us fly.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
i. Explain the concept of peace building.

ii. Describe the map of peace building activities.
iii. Identify the principles of peace building.
iv. Identify the challenges of peace building.
126
v. Explain the criticisms and questions of peace-building.

vi. ‘Military’ Peace Building.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 The concept of Peace Building
The concept of peace building by the UN in Namibian Operations in

1978 was then understood primarily as a form of post-conflict
reconstruction. It has since expanded, as can be seen in the 1992 and
1995 editions of former UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali’s
An Agenda for Peace, in relation to post-conflict situations, he identifies
peace-building programs to include ‘co-operative projects ... that not
only contribute to economic and social development but also enhance
the confidence that is so fundamental to peace’. This explains why
scholars today say that peace building includes:
‘Policies, programs, and associated efforts to restore stability and the

effectiveness of social, political, and economic institutions and
structures in the wake of a war or some other debilitating or catastrophic
event’. Peace building generally aims to create and ensure the conditions
for ‘negative peace’, the mere absence of violent conflict engagement,
and for ‘positive peace’, a more comprehensive understanding related to
the institutionalization of justice and freedom’ (Miller and King, 2004)
The UN systems have initiated so many ideas of the content of peace

building which small selection of them is:
• Assisting an end to military or violent exchanges through the

decommissioning of arms, the demobilization of combatants, and
rehabilitation and reintegration programs
• Providing humanitarian relief to victims
• Protecting human rights
• Ensuring security and related services
• Generating an environment of trust in order for social relations to
function properly
• Establishing non-violent modes of resolving present and future
conflicts
• Fostering reconciliation among the various parties to a conflict
• Providing psycho-social or trauma healing services to victims of
severe atrocities
• Repatriating refugees and resettling internally displaced persons
• Aiding in economic reconstruction
• Building and maintaining the operation of institutions to provide
such services, and
127
• Co-coordinating the roles of numerous internal and external

parties involved in such interrelated efforts. (Adopted from the A
Glossary of Terms and Concepts in Peace and Conflict Studies,
by Miller and King 2004)
3.2 Map of Peace building Activities
Peace building requires a range of approaches. While many actors

engage in multiple categories of peace building, the map highlights the
unique goals of different approaches to peace building.
Waging Conflict Nonviolently
Advocates and activists seek to gain support for change by increasing a

group’s power to address these issues, and ripen the conditions needed
to transform relations.
Reducing Direct Violence
Efforts to reduce direct violence aim to restrain perpetrators of violence,

prevent and relieve the immediate suffering of victims of violence, and
create a safe space for peace building activities in other categories that
address the root causes of the violence.
Transforming Relationships
Efforts that aim to transform people and their relationships use an array
of processes that address trauma, transform conflict and do justice.
These processes give people opportunities to create long-term,
sustainable solutions to address their needs.
Capacity Building
Long-term peace building efforts enhance existing capacities to meet

needs and rights and prevent violence through education and training,
development, military conversion and transformation, research and
evaluation. These activities aim to build just structures that support a
sustainable culture of peace.
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Table: 2.2: Cycle of Peace Building
Weighting Conflicting Building Capacity

Nonviolently * Training & education
* Monitoring and * Developing
advocacy * Military Conversion
* Direct action * Research and
* Civilian-based evaluation
defense
Circle of
Peace building
Reducing Direct Violence Transformation

* Legal and justice Relationships
system * Trauma healing
* Humanitarian * Conflict transformation
assistance * Restoration justice
* Peacekeeping * Transitional justice
* Military intervention * Transitional
justice
* Ceasefire agreements * Governance and
* Peace zones Policymaking
3.3 Principles of Peace Building
1. Reflect on Values: Peace-building requires ongoing personal and

organizational reflection on how peace-building programs
connect withier values.
2. Address Basic Needs and rights: Peace-building helps people to
meet their own basic needs and rights while acknowledging the
needs and rights of others.
3. Analyze conflict and violence: Peace-building requires ongoing
analysis of the causes and dynamics of conflict and violence, and
the resources for peace.
129
4. Plan Long-term: Peace-building moves beyond a short-term,

crisis orientation toward designing social change over years and
decades.
5. Transform Whole Systems: Peace-building changes the personal,
relational, cultural, and structural levels.
6. Coordinate Approaches and Actors: Peace-building requires
coordinated approaches that reflect responsibility, accountability,
and participation by many different actors.
7. Identify and Create Power: Power exists in all relationships.
Peace-building requires all people to be aware of their power and
create nonviolent forms of power to meet their needs in
collaboration with others.
8. Empower Others: Peace-building strengthens and builds upon
local efforts and empowers other to act. Peace-building is based
on participatory democracy and self-determination.
9. See Culture as a Resource: Cultural values, traditions, and ritual
can be resources for peace-building.
10. Innovate and use Creativity: Peace-building uses multiple ways of
communicating and learning, rather than relying only on words or
dialogue to develop creative solutions to complex problems.
Source: Training Manual for Women in Peace-building, WANEP
(16-18 Feb. 2006) (unpublished)
3.4 The Challenges of Peace Building
• Failures to address the underlying or root causes of the conflict

• Lack of legitimacy in the eyes of recipients and target groups,
particularly in relation to newly formed institutions
• Lack of agreement over the acceptance of roles and
implementation of responsibilities by all parties to the conflict
• Limits on leadership in times of political transition or extreme
crisis
• Over-reliance on external parties
• Aspirations to build a society that, functions generally better than
it did prior to the conflict (Millar and King 2004)
3.5 The Criticisms and Questions of Peace-building Theory

and Practice
First, the activities of relief and development have usually been

conducted and studied separately, and their intersections are not well
defined. Peace building bridges this traditional divide, but a
reformulation is needed for integrating the theory and practice of these
interconnected disciplines.
130
Second, peace building seems to suggest long-term, extensive effort and

commitment by parties to the conflict and external partners.
Conceptualizing a timeframe for such efforts has generated considerable
debate.
Third, peace building is often understood as the final phase of a conflict,

yet some argue that such processes can begin in the midst of a violent
conflict.
Fourth, the importance of gender in relation to conflict and peace

building continues to be overlooked, often completely. The sufferings
resulting from conflict affect men and women differently and their
subsequent roles in peace building differ as well.
3.6 ‘Military’ Peace Building
Peace enforcement
‘Operations undertaken to end military or violent exchanges or acts of
aggression, with or without the consent of one or more parties to the
conflict, to create a permanent and viable environment and guarantees
for such conditions’. (Millar and King 2004)
Peace enforcement is a military operation with minimal force that aims

to generate ‘negative peace’, or the absence of violent conflict
engagement. Although peace enforcement is generally understood in
terms of military interventions, it is getting broader in interpretation to
include the use of a wide range of sanctions by any party to a given
conflict in order to end the violent hostilities.
The objectives include:
• Forcible compliance of cease fires

• Separation of belligerents
• Isolation of a particular party or parties to the conflict
• Establishment of buffer zones or safe havens
• Decommissioning of arms and demobilization of combatants
• Protection of human rights
• Assistance with humanitarian aid
Peacekeeping
Chapter VI of the UN Charter outlines the objectives of peacekeeping

and serves as the international mandate. Based on the UN mandate,
Peacekeeping could be described as:
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‘The maintenance of public security, civil services, and cease-fire

agreements in war and conflict zones by UN or regional military, police,
and civilian forces with the consent of the nation-state on whose territory
these forces are deployed. Peacekeeping involves co-ordinated efforts to
ensure stability and relative normalcy in the aftermath of otherwise
extremely volatile and chaotic situations’. (Miller and King 2004)
The activities of peacekeepers usually referred to as ‘types’.
The first, or type I, involves observance where a ceasefire has been

brokered. Such symbolic missions are often sent to act as deterrents
against renewed violent conflict, as troops are lightly armed and not
mandated to retaliate in the event of attack against them or civilians.
Type II operations are conducted to aid or ensure political transitions.

Such missions are most successful when the troops are deemed
legitimate by the citizens of the society in which they are deployed and
when they are provided adequate resources and scope of action. Where
some form of military intervention is considered necessary,
Type III peacekeeping operations are performed; these are more

commonly categorized as ‘peace enforcement’.
Type IV operations are generally associated with ‘peace building’, or ‘post-

conflict reconstruction’. (Adopted from A Glossary of Terms and Concepts in
Peace and Conflict Studies).
Discuss the challenges of peace building in a post conflict environment.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Peace building is an important aspect of conflict

management that can take place before and after a conflict situation. The
tasks involved are many and it has gotten more complex.
5.0 SUMMARY
A well-coordinated Peace building program is a prerequisite for

sustainable peace in every society. Peace building activities goes beyond
physical provision of services to include psychological transformation of
victims of conflicts.
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1 Describe the cycle of peace building activities

Or
2 Describe the principles of peace building
Christopher Miller and Mary King (2005). A Glossary of Terms and

Concepts in Peace and Conflict Studies. University for Peace
Taisier M. Ali and Robert O. Matthews (eds.), Durable Peace:

Challenges for Peacebuilding in Africa (Toronto, University of
Toronto Press, 2004).
Ecoma Alaga and Thelma A. Ekiyori (2004) Women in Peace Building.

West African Network for Peace Building
Joan Mbagwu (2002) ‘Campaign for Women in Peace Building’ Ife

Psychologia. Ife Center for Psychological Studies, University of
Ife
Tsjeard Bout and Georg Frerks (2002) Women’s Roles in Conflict

Prevent, Conflict Resolution and Conflict Reconstruction:
Literature Review and Institutional Analysis. Conflict Research
Unit of the Netherlands Institute of International relations,
Clingendael.
Women in peacebuilding Network (WIPNET) West Africa Network for

peacebuilding (WANEP) (A monograph).
133
UNIT 2 GENDER AND PEACE BUILDING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definitions and Understanding of Gender
3.2 Gender Roles and Peace Building
3.3 Why include women in Peace Building
3.4 Assumptions in Peace Building
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The UN Security Council on 31st Oct. 2000 adopted The Resolution

1325, which deals with women, peace and security. This Resolution
highlighted the importance of bringing gender perspectives to the center
of the UN conflict prevention and resolution, peace building,
peacekeeping, rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts. This Resolution
was initiated after the UN Secretary General was invited to do a study on
the impact of conflicts on women, girls, the role of women in peace
building and the gender dimensions of peace processes and conflict
resolution.
The study revealed that there is an increase in the cases of armed

conflicts in the world, but over the quarter of the 53 countries in Africa,
was embroiled in intra-state armed conflicts in the late 1990s. The
repercussions are both grave and sub-regional and most victims are
civilians. An estimate of 3.2 million deaths occurred from 1990-1995,
and there were mass displacement of people, and many of them are
women and children.
Records have it that “while entire communities suffer the consequences

of armed conflicts and terrorism, women and girls are particularly
affected because of their status in society and their sex” (Beijing
Platform for Action).
134
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. Identify the term of Reference, (UN Resolution 1325)

ii. Describe the peculiar roles of women in armed conflict and peace
building
iii. define gender and why there is a need to do a gender analysis in
planning peace building activities Describe the skills for women
in peace building
iv. Explain the need to deconstruct the irrelevant assumptions in
peace building
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definitions and Understanding of Gender
Sex: The biological differences between males and females are defined
as “sex”. Women, for example, can give can give birth and nurse babies
because of their biology.
Gender: Boys and girls are encouraged by families, schools, religious

organizations, and communities to be different. These differences
between expectations of males and females are known as “gender”. Boys
are socialized to have “masculine” gender characteristics. Girls are
socialized to have “feminine” gender characteristics. Boys who have
“feminine” characteristics and girls who have “masculine”
characteristics are often punished or sanctioned by their community.
Gender Roles: The different behaviours, tasks, and beliefs a group

considers appropriate for males and females.
Patriarchy: Many societies operate with a system of male authority

that oppresses women through political, social, cultural, religious and
economic institutions. Patriarchy denies women positions of decision-
making and power.
Matriarchy: A system of social organization in which descent and

inheritance are traced through the female line.
Gender Gap: The gender gap is the difference in the level of

participation, qualifications, economic status or other indicators between
males and females.
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Gender Discrimination: Gender discrimination is any pattern of

preferential treatment of males in education, employment, and leadership
roles, for example.
Gender Oppression: The discrimination of females in political,

educational, economic, religious, cultural, and social systems.
Gender Analysis: An analysis of how policies and projects affect

males and females differently.
Gender Sensitization: An effort to raise awareness about the different

needs of males and females and to increase the capacity of organizations
to address these needs.
Gender Equity and Equality: An approach to ensure that men and

women are valued equally for the roles they play and benefit equally
from policies and projects such as education and compensation for work
according to their needs. Gender equity takes into consideration that
women have been historically disadvantaged and may need special
programs to overcome this discrimination.
Gender Mainstreaming: The inclusion of the goal of gender equity,

the use of a gender lens, and the active inclusion of women and
women’s groups into all institutional choices and practices.
Women’s Empowerment: The ability of women to have resources,

access, skills, and self esteem to participate fully in the decisions that
control and affect their lives.
Feminism: The global struggle to address the oppression of women and

create gender equality. (Adopted from ‘Training manual for Women in
Peace-building, by West Africa Network for Peace Building,
WANEP)‘Gender’ is different from ‘sex’. Sex determines the male or
female biology of a person but gender is culture – socio
constructions. This is the values system as allowed by the
structure. Gender is shaped by culture, which is dynamic and not
permanent. Cultural norms for men and women define expectations of
what is masculine or feminine. When men and women accept a
particular physiology, and structure their beliefs based on these
assumptions, they do nothing to change it, and with time, they begin to
believe that it is natural, inevitable and therefore desirable sex is
permanent, natural, but gender is changeable and man construed,
therefore not permanent.
The world systems are structured to maintain man control. The gender
hierarchy aims to value men and muscularly more than women and
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feminity; through direct violence like rape, domestic violence,

psychological violence – sexist humor, internalization of oppression,
structural violence – feminization of poverty, glass ceiling, unequal pay
and social life like important, assigning different culture to men and
women.
3.2 Gender Roles and Peace Building
This session aims to explore how gender (social expectations) affects

man and woman’s role in peace building. Because of the different
expectations, for example, men could be expected to use violence and
women non-violence strategies. Women are seen as life nurturers in the
society, it is expected that they show more concern when children are
used to perpetuate violence. It is easier for the women to intervene and
seek peace with the opposite party because, they see themselves as
mothers, not minding what sides the perpetrators came from.
It will be dangerously misleading to say that women are “naturally”

peaceful. It is not so, both men and women have the ability to make
peace. But women could be more creative and effective in waging peace,
may be because of their emotional strength.
It is traditionally believed that conflict is man dominated, but during

inter-state wars, even women played noticeable roles. Also, in
traditional homes, men are expected to provide for the family, while
women take care of the home but during conflicts, there are roles
reversals which put women in the position to provide for the family. The
implications are many as studies show, but it also shows the sense that
advocate for women involvement is peace building. Conflict encourage
change of role, therefore, it is important that peace-building should
allow role change and involvement of women in peace making.
3.3 Why Include Women In Peace Building
People for many years have frowned at the idea of having women in
decision making and leadership position, but it is changing now, because
women included have proven relevant and useful. Some of the reasons
identified include:
1. Women make up 50% of the population of most communities and the

task of peace building is so great that leaving out half of the
population for no good reason is not helpful.
2. Women are the main focus in taking care of the family, before and
during conflicts. If women are oppressed, victimized and excluded in
the peace making process, the process will be incomplete as the
central figure is absent.
137
3. For the fact that women have both the capacity to make violence and
peace, it is important that they be included in the process, so that this
peace gift could be exploited.
4. Both men and women experience conflict differently, it is important
that all the experiences which will account for relevant intervention
in peace building be included in the plan. Therefore, the women need
to be included in the peace building process.
5. The UN Resolution 1325 specified women involvement and
therefore women should be included.
6. Women have proven successful peace building ideas, basing their
strategies on inclusion and collaboration, producing outcomes that
are broad-based and sustainable, it is then important that their efforts
be acknowledged and expanded.
7. Developing a gender sensitive peace building program require a
deconstruction of a few assumptions that we have about the roles of
men and women in conflict and post conflict situations, and women
need to be part of this reconstruction..
3.4 Assumptions in Peace Building
The main assumption of peace building is that the society should return
to the situation the communities were before the conflict. This
assumption is not only impossible, it is misleading. The situation before
conflict was an environment defined based on muscularity with strict
divisions of labour that excluded women from public life and leadership
position.
But we know that the war period changed women’s roles to assume
men’s roles as their men were not present to play their
roles. Unfortunately, these experiences are not taken into account and
considered as social gains for women in “redefinitions of gender roles
that would be non-oppressive for women and girls in a post-conflict
society”. This is well captured in the report of Chinkin (2004) when she
writes “Concepts of reconstructions and rehabilitation may be
misnomers in the case of women. Both concepts assume an element of
going back, restoring to a position or capacity that previously
existed. But this, as not necessarily what women seek.”
So, to plan a viable peace building program in post conflict situation, it

is important to understand the changes that have taken place in the
socio-economic life of these women. It is important to see a gender
analysis.
Another wrong assumption is that these changes are temporary and

things will return to status quo. The truth is that women are pressurized
into the pat system, and they will want to maintain the present status as
138
their confidence will be increased after taking over men’s

responsibility. It is important to know that this plan to return to the
traditional roles is not easy. Most times women are confused, not to sure
to exact their new fond positions or do they return to the old tradition. It
is important that post conflict reconstruction remember to see the
women side of the intervention.
The other problem that must be considered is developing a post conflict

intervention in the issue of women participations in the peace making
process. The same male was lords, are also peace negotiation, same men
just wearing different clothes. It is important to consider the role of
women during the war, in order to determine their role in post
conflict. For example, if women played the role as “heroic mothers”
during the war, at the end of the war, they are expected to play the role
of the productive agents to replenish the nation with sins who did in the
war.
Also, if they were seen as “victims of war” they are not expected to have
confidence to contribute to the pence process. Thy are seen as weak,
vulnerable and unable to articulate their needs, and may not be able to
notice the change in gender roles, and understand them as
empower. This is captured by Meintyes, Pillay and Turshen write “It
seems likely that many (women) do not consciously internalize or
conceptualize the changes in their roles, without a conscious translation,
there can be no concerted efforts to defend women’s opportunities and
gains in peace time”.
Finally, if women are seen as “trouble makers” during the conflict time
because they organized themselves and mobilize for peace, they must be
part of the peace time, although they will not be taken seriously as they
will be seen as acting in their capacity as domestic agents. If their efforts
will lead to change of status and role, the men will not take them
seriously.
The last assumption is that, women who come to peace tables are not
really part of the poor group, but a representative of the elite. This
argument aims to marginalize the women and justify the men
peacemakers to work without the men.
Explain gender roles in peace building.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it is important to know that peace building must be gender

based to be able to do a good job of 50% of the people. The contribution
of women to the peace building process is not important that they cannot
be excluded and still a viable intervention will be planned. But the
dangers that must be guided against is the understanding of who women
are and what roles they played during conflict.
5.0 SUMMARY
So, to enhance the participation of women in the peace process, national

and international actions must discontinue describing women as victims
of war belonging to the vulnerable group. The danger associated with
this definition is that, they are never considered unstructured to the war,
and therefore too weak and confused to make relevant input or impact in
the peace process. This makes it easy for the men to claim to be the
voice of the women. This is not true and can never help improve on the
security of women as they cannot understand the female experience. As
long as only men’s experiences are expressed at the peace table, without
the participation of women, there can’t be sustainable peace building in
the society.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMA)
1. Why should peace-building process include the participation of

women?
2. The peace-building process require a deconstruction of a few
assumptions, why should there be a deconstruction of this
assumption
Christopher Miller and Mary King (2005). A Glossary of Terms and

Concepts in Peace and Conflict Studies. University for Peace
Dina Rodriguez and Edith Natukunda-Togboa (eds) (2005) Gender and

Peace Building in Africa. University for Peace
Ecoma Alaga and Thelma A. Ekiyori (2004) Women in Peace Building.

West African Network for Peace Building
Joan Mbagwu (2002) ‘Campaign for Women in Peace Building’ Ife

Psychologia. Ife Center for Psychological Studies, University of
Ife
140
Tsjeard Bout and Georg Frerks (2002) Women’s Roles in Conflict

Prevent, Conflict Resolution and Conflict Reconstruction:
Literature Review and Institutional Analysis. Conflict Research
Unit of the Netherlands Institute of International relations,
Clingendael.
Women in Peacebuilding Network (WIPNET) West Africa Network for

peacebuilding (WANEP)
141
UNIT 3 HUMAN RIGHTS AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Concepts of Human Rights and Social Justice
3.2 Origin of Human Rights
3.3 Classification of Fundamental Human Rights, Freedom &
Duties
3.4 Organ & Agencies involved in the promotion and
protection of Human Rights
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Unit will deal with the Human and Social Rights, which, you have
just because you are a human being. A review of the history of man has
shown that man is in a continuous struggle for personal survival,
economic and political emancipation, struggle for equality and social
justice against racial/gender bigotry, and against every form of man
inhumanity to man.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. Describe/define Human Rights

ii. Describe/define Social Justice
iii. Explain the importance of the promotion and protection of human
rights
iv. Explain the interface of justice, peace and the promotion of
Human Rights
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 The Concept of Human Rights and Social Justice

Human Rights
The idea of Human Rights arises from the fact that man is human, and
nothing else. This is based on the fact that man is man, not an
animal. No other living thing has this right. There is a dignity that goes
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with being human not an animal. It is not government given, it is

God/nature given. It must be respected and protected. So, Human Rights
promotion and protection is not based on any other condition other than
human condition. So, it is towards providing a minimum standard of
decent living worthy of man as a human being, never as an animal.
When these rights are denied man, she/he has a right to complain. It is
not an appeal to benevolence. Human rights are her/his property. They
are so sacred that the state must ensure that they are seriously respected,
observed, expanded, protected and advanced. According to Oruche
(1967) ‘For a right to be called human, it must be possessed by all
human beings, as well as only by human beings. Again, because it is the
same right that all human beings possess, it must be possessed equally
by all human beings’.
According to Declaration on Human Rights, Article 1: “All human

beings are born free and equal in dignity and right. They are endowed
with reason and conscience and showed act towards one another in a
spirit of brotherhood.
Social Justice
Social justice is an advanced stage of human right. Having understood

that man has a fundamental right, just because she is a man, and has a
right to order her life anyway comfortable, it is impatient to quickly
remind man that you have to live your life as you like as long as you do
not infringe on other people’s rights. So, this is the basis of social justice
– “social contract”. Social justice pursues a social conduct based on just,
impartiality, legitimacy, equity and fairness in awarding what is due.
Justice is defined by Thomas Aquinas as “the constant and perpetual will

to render to everyone what is due him” He further says: “the principle of
justice is to give each person or group, whether weak or strong, what is
his or her dues and to demand the contribution of each on the basis of
equal consideration”.
According to Iwe (1986), ‘Justice is a moral virtue which inclines the

will constantly and perpetually to render to others, their due in time and
place and in a given set of circumstance’.
So, Social Justice emphasizes justice in all human interactions,

relationships and responsibilities. It is important to note that protection
of social justice also demand social responsibilities. If a person has a
right to get something, others have a right to respect that claim on the
balance of equal protection and reciprocity.
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On the other hand, according to Onwuaniba (1983) “Social injustice

arises when the principle of equal opportunity is not observed, where
there is discrimination between classes and groups with little or no social
mobility, where the natural resources which nature provides for the
benefit of all is placed in the hands of a few who exploit the labour of
the rest or a great majority of the population who live on the level of
paupers or almost so”.
3.2 Origin of Human Rights
The growth and development of Human Right, has continued to be on

the increase. Many great theories and schools based on their background
have continued to shape the concept of human rights. Some schools of
thought will be maintained in writing this historical background. Nature
Law (Naturalist School of thoughts).
The students of this philosophy believe that human rights can be traced
back to nature. To them, for the fact that it is a right that is man based
only, and no other creature can lay claims to it, it is then a natural
right. For example, man’s right to life. These scholars believe that “it is
natural that man should exist, and nobody should arbitrarily take away
this life from him”. They believe that man/woman should preserve
his/her life; otherwise, he/she ceases to be a human being. It is a right
uniformly possessed by all men equally, and it should be respected by
all, including institutions, the world over.
Theological Root/Divine Origin of Human Rights
This school of thought believe in the natural law theory which is

extended to God who created man and demand that man treat fellow
equally and fairly. They went further to argue that all religions of the
world demand equity, justice and fairness; therefore, God is the greatest
human right promoter or protector.
Contributions of Philosophers and Great Theorists
Another group of contributors to the development of human rights

studies is the Greek Philosophers. They argued for freedom, democracy,
justice and the purpose of the society as “the good and perfection of
man” (Aristotle). These philosophers articulated that man is responsible
for his destiny, and “the eternal sets of laws based on the dignity of the
individual human being”. The stoics developed the Natural law, which
were eternal, unchangeable and universal, set out in the Ten
Commandments. While the man-made laws deals with man in relation to
man, how man governs man. They went further to divide the rights into
“rights of man” and “rights of the citizen”. The right of man is equal to
144
Human Rights, while “the rights of the citizen” can be said to be social
rights/justice.
Contributions from World Great Revolutions, Declarations

and Agencies
Human rights can be traced to the historical struggle for self

determination, independence, equality among human. With the growth
of civilization and enlightenment, natural law took a new meaning as
attention was directed towards the individual. This enlightenment
struggle gave birth to the “Theory of rights”.
The issuance of the Magna Carta in England in 1215, the bill of Rights
enacted in England after the 1689 revolution, the American Bill of
Rights of 1776, the French Declaration of the rights of man and the
citizen in 1799, the Communist Manifesto of 1847 and the Russian
Revolution of 1917 all influenced all subsequent major declarations
affirming the human rights value and principles. Many other
conventions are also out to promote and protect human right values
including that of United Nations (UN), International Labour
Organization (ILO) etc.
3.3 Classification of Fundamental Human Rights, Freedom

and Duties
The Fundamental Right of Life (Right to physical existence and

mental integrity and sanctity of life)
Right to life is the most fundamental of all rights. It is so, because, it is

the foundation on which other rights are built upon. Every man is
entitled to be alive and have all that support it; and that of others. Man’s
right to physical existence and mental integrity, liberty, and freedom
from torture, cruelty, or inhuman treatment slavery, servitude and forced
labour are inseparable to man. These rights are also extended to children
and even unborn children.
Economic Right
It is the primary right of all men without discriminations to own, use

material goods and services of the world and for a decent
livelihood. Also, labour is the only legitimate mean of achieving
material and economic power and privileges. Economic right ensures
that suitable employment is adequately provided and the workers receive
remuneration according to the work done. So, economic right include
right to earn a living through gainful employment, right to condition of
145
work, just remuneration, equal pay for job done, humane and safe
condition of work, adequate facilities for health, safety and welfare etc.
Civil – Political Right
Every citizen of every country has a right to participate in governance

and politics. Every citizen has the right to contribute to the progress of
the nation, by taking up national assignment, as well as constructive
criticism, publication of opinions and is allowed to benefit from the
fruits of political and civil association. You can vote and be voted
for. You have a right to be respected and to respect others in thoughts,
words and deeds.
Moral – Cultural Rights
Man has a right to take part in one’s cultural norms, beliefs, and values,
and these should be respected by all. No culture is superior to the other,
and it is important that people have the opportunity to participate in
cultural life and to enjoy the benefits of scientific discoveries, progress,
research and human creativity. People should have rights to their own
cultural development within the context of the cultural resources of their
own community. They should also have rights to education without any
discrimination, irrespective of their race, tribe, religion, nationality and
ethnic origin, etc.
Group/Minorities Rights
Group/minorities rights deals with recognition and respect for the

minorities, and indigenes natives. It is also important that labour groups
be respected, as the state arranges their institutions and structures,
defines its rights and responsibilities, be it political or social.
Rights to Development
The UN General Assembly in December 1986 proclaimed this right. The

Assembly argued that nations and individuals must consciously create
progress to improve on the socio-cultural, political and economic
environment to gain both scientific and technological progress, greater
productivity, efficiency and higher standard of living and develop
political community to be stable and friendly where everyone can
develop his/her full potentials. This right center on: (1) Individual, (2)
National and (3) International Human Community.
Right of Women and Children (Female Gender Rights)
UN General Assembly on December 18, 1979 adopted Resolution

34/180 on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
146
Women. This Resolution brought women and children issues, especially

the girl child to the fore. This Resolution was as a result of the
observation that women and children share a heavy burden of human
deprivation, discrimination and degradation, especially during war and
adverse economic and political conflicts.
Another lead mark event to bring these problems to a stop was the 1995
Beijing Conference in China, where women further argued against all
forms of discrimination against women.
There is today, a debate on the defence of “Reproduction Rights and
Reproductive Health” to guarantee the demand improvement on the well
being of women.
Although these efforts to protect women sound well, it is also in part to

note the obstacles on the way to the realization of these plans especially
with regard to culture of where she lives. The children’s rights also aim
to promote the survival, development and participation of the child. The
Human Rights values also apply to the children but more consideration
is given to the child because of her vulnerability.
Fundamental Freedoms
President F. Roosevelt of the United States in the face of the Second

World War argued for Human rights protection to promote peace in the
world. He identified 4 major freedoms;
Freedom of _expression everywhere in the world.

Freedom to worship God in his own way.
Freedom from want, which will secure every nation a healthy and
peaceful life for its citizens
Freedom from fear
Since after that speech, more recognition has been given and today more
efforts are made to expand them and make them into laws.
Fundamental Duties
Many philosophers have argued in the need to match freedom/rights

with responsibilities. They argued that there is no right without
responsibility, and if both are not emphasized, it will be
misleading. Mahatma – Gandhi designed a list he termed the “Seven
Blunders of the World”. They are:
Wealth without work

Pleasure without conscience
Knowledge without character
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Commence without morality

Science without humanity
Worship without sacrifice
Politics without principle
His grandson, Arun Gandhi made an eight
Rights without responsibilities
Omoregbe (1993) mention that:
To talk of rights is of course to talk of duties, since they are correlative

terms; the one implies the other. One man’s right imposes a duty on
another man i.e. the duty to respect it and not to violate it. Moreover, the
individual who has a right also has a duty not to use that right in such a
way as to infringe on the rights of others. Duty therefore always goes
with right; there are no such things as rights without duties”.
He further argues that everyone has a duty as a citizen of country. These

are moral and legal obligations, which he must do as a marker of
necessity and reverently, as it is a mark of moral maturity. Thus:
‘Everybody has certain duties towards himself, his family, his
neighbours, to the socio or organization, to which he belongs, and
towards the state/nation. The government in turn has certain duties
towards the citizen, such as the duty to cater for their general well-being,
to defend them against any attack, to provide them with education,
health services, means of transportation, good roads, food and shelter
and jobs etc’. Some of these duties are also mapped out in Articles 27-29
of the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights.
3.4 Organ and Agencies involved in the promotion and

safeguards of Human Rights
Organizations at national, regional, sub-regional, constitutional and

international levels are working tirelessly to protect and promote human
rights law. The organs and agencies that are involved in the protection of
human rights are:
The Separation of Power and Independence of the Judiciary
This is one of the efforts by countries to protect and promote human

rights value. It is believed that enshrining the laws in the constitution is
not enough, if the interpreting organs of the government are not
independent of the executive and legislature, so, the practice of
separation of powers is an effort to promote human rights laws.
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The practice of democracy is an important safeguard of

human rights and social justice
The military government, which does not only suspend the constitution,
but use force to get their work done, cannot promote human rights. But
democracy, which is the government of the people, by the people and for
the people is more likely to protect human rights and social justices.
Constitution/Constitutionalism
The constitution is one agent that safeguards human rights values and
laws. The constitution specifically contains laws that protect the rights
and responsibilities of the people. The constitution contains the laws and
the operation of the different organs of the government, so, the
constitution protects human rights laws.
Organs and Specialized Agencies
International organizations, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs),

associations of different interest also fight to protect the rights of their
members, therefore, safeguarding the human rights laws. African Union
(AU) United Nations (UN), Civil Liberty Organization etc. For example,
the struggles for women and children’s rights are spearheaded by CSOs
and it has led to the creation of International Women Society by the UN
and the safeguard of women’s rights is progressive.
Explain the Concept of Human Rights and Social Justice
4.0 CONCLUSION
Human Rights and Social Justice are issues of great concern to the world
today. Efforts are made at local and international levels, inside and
outside of the legal systems. Advocacy groups and CSOs are pushing for
the protection
5.0 SUMMARY
In summary, human right is a doctrine based on the equality of all

men. Nobody’s life is worth more than the others. This also means that
every man is free to live and order her life anyway convenient as long as
it does not infringe on the right of others. Its belief is that rights
uniformly belong to every man as man. The protection of social justice
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is so important for harmonious co-existence that a country that violates

them is a “pathetic agglomeration of villains, cheat, reprobate and
disorderly people” Chukwudozie (2000).
1. Discuss the interface between Human rights, Social Justice and

Peace
2. Why must Human Rights and Social Justice be promoted?
7.0 REFERENCES
Chukwudozie Charles M.N. (2000) Introduction to Human Rights

Ochumba Printing and Publishing
Iwe. N (1986). The History and Content of Human Rights: A Study of

the History and Interpretation of Human Rights. New York: Peter
Lang Publishing Inc.
Oruche (1967). Basic Issues on Human Rights Protection. Onitsha

Etukokwu Publishers Ltd, Nigeria
Omoregbe J. (1993). Ethnics: A Systematic and Historical Study. Lagos

Nigeria. JOJA Educational Research and Publishing Ltd
Onwuaniba (1983). A Critique on Revolutionary Humanism Fronts.

Fanory St. Louis: Narrent Gree Inc
Thomas Aquinas. (1969) Summa Theologian. New York: Image Book.
Declaration on Human Rights, Article 1
Magna Carta in England in 1215, the bill of Rights

Articles 27-29 of the African Charter on Human and People’s
Rights. UN Resolution 34/180
Abdullahi Ahmed Hnnaim (1999) Universal Right Local

Remedies inter-rights Implementing Human Right in the Legal
System of Africa Lancaster House
Human Rights Reference Handbook (2004) University for Peace
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UNIT 4 INTERNATIONAL PEACE INSTITUTIONS IN

AFRICA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 West Africa - Peace Institution and Roles in Peace Making
3.2 Southern Africa
3.3 East and Central Africa
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The escalation of conflicts in Africa, has led to the expansion of action

in the field of peace making. In West Africa, we have conflicts or wars
in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea. There are wars in the Horn of
Africa, Burundi, Rwanda and DR Congo in the Greek Lakes, and
Angola and in Southern Africa, and Lesotho boils. These conflicts range
from intra to inter state, they are all complex, have regional dynamics
and security implications in the region, creating transnational linkages,
thus making them more difficult to resolve.
These conflicts under pinned by economic agenda have militarized the

civilian populace, recruitment of children, abuse of human rights and
humanitarian laws and massive displacement of people with women and
children making the highest numbers. The implications of these wars
pose a lot of security questions for the continent, and many
organizations have come up to play roles of various kinds to bring in
peace
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. Identify different parts of the continent where wars were fought in

the immediate past and ongoing wars;
ii. Describe the role of the UN in peace making in Africa; and
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iii. List the sub-regional organizations in Africa and describe their

role in mediating conflicts in their region.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 West Africa
This is the most politically violent region in Africa. Between 1960 and
1990, seventy-two successful coups have taken in Africa and thirty-five
of them occurred in this sub-region. Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS) is made up fifteen countries and one third of
them have been involved in one-armed conflict or the other. Liberia,
Sierra Leone and Guinea Bissau were embroiled in protracted conflicts
that went on for years, and Senegal confronted a separatist war in
Casamance, Nigeria and Cote’ d’Ivoire are not left out, as Nigeria was
involved in internal conflict in the 60’s, and Cote d’Ivoire is currently
fighting within the country.
Analyzing the conflicts in the region can be traced to four factors – the
Charles Taylor factor, the Franco-Nigerian Rivalry, Exploitation of
Natural Resources and conflicts and the fourth, the proliferation of Small
Arms and light weapons in the region.
Peace Institution and Roles in Peace Making

Internal and Continental Organizations
The Organizations of African Unity (OAU/AU)
In 1990, OAU Heads of State and Governors made a Declaration

recognizing the hindering of conflicts in the economic development of
the continent. They resolved to work together to resolve the conflicts
and move the continent forward towards peace and development.
During the OAU/AU summit held in Cairo in 1993, they established a
Mechanism for Conflict Preventions, Management and Resolution
(MCPMR). With the establishment of this mechanism, they have
accepted the fact that peace and stability are necessary preconditions for
social and economic development.
The OAU Conflict Management Center has 3 Units – the Early Warning
System Unit, Regional Desk Offices Unit and the Field Operations Unit,
ran by four professional staff and seventeen consultants. The operational
arm of the OAU Conflict Management Center is the Early Warning
System Unit, which is supposed to have a database of information on the
member states. This information on the history, politics, society,
economic and potential sources of conflicts will guide the organization
on intervention plans to prevent conflicts in the continent.
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Although, OAU have the potential to co-ordinate the Early Warning

System, its capacity to perform is very limited.
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) was originally conceived to be a coalition of

nations that came together to fight the Germen and Japanese
wars. Although the organisation has gone through many transformations,
she still made some land mark achievements; like the pressure to end
colonization, and apartheid. She also pushed for economic reforms to
reduce poverty in third world countries, raised awareness on the need to
protect the environment; and the end of the cold war era, which was
noticed when the UN Security Council with United States teamed up to
defeat Iraq and liberated Kuwait.
It is the Security Council that provides the legal foundation, which is the
mandate for crises management or peace keeping operations; otherwise,
there will be serious implication for security of smaller countries and
international peace, security and stability in general.
Sometimes, there is an overriding of the Security Council when cases of

humanitarian intervention are crucial, and the Council is taking too long
to give the authorization for intervention, although, this is a situation that
is highly guided against.
Preventive diplomacy is another tool for the UN Security

Council. Although this is very difficult, but it is the premise on which
the UN was established – to prevent conflict. The UN Charter in Article
1 states that the purpose of the organization is to “take effective
collective measures for the prevention and removal of threat to
peace”. But unfortunately, the UN has been preoccupied with fighting
wars, and has not been able to apply diplomacy to prevent outburst of
war and conflict. The Council is mainly known for conflict management,
not prevention.
Another preventive effort of the UN Security Council is the plan to

disarm countries of weapons of Mass Destruction. But as we all know,
the UN could not do anything when India and Pakistan declared their
status when they tested their nuclear weapons in 1998. But the UN has
the “responsibility to enhance security against the threats posed by such
weapons by implementing and if necessary, enforcing obligations under
the relevant treaties”.
ECOWAS
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Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) formed in the

1970s was conceived with the aim of promoting economic development,
when the region had real peace. But when it began to get volatile, and
with increase in insecurity, with the outbreak of the Liberian war in
1989, with the protocol on Mutual Assistance on Defense of 1981,
ECOWAS was required to send peace keeping force to Liberia to end
war that has left many killed, wounded and displaced.
The ECOMOG peace keeping force was sent into Liberia, Sierra Leone
and Guinea Bissau. The wars in the countries went on for decades and
Charles Taylor is the main aggressor who was accused of invading
Sierra Leone and destabilized the region. Hundreds of Nigerian,
Ghanaian and Guinean tropes were drafted to defend the countries
invaded by Liberia. Nigeria is known to play a leading role in ECOMOG
and the Liberian President, Ellen Johnson has appealed to Nigerian
Government to help rebuild the Liberian Army, and Nigerian Mayor,
General Yusuf is appointed the Chief of Armed Forces to head the
Liberian Armed forces in March 2006.
ECOWAS also adopted non-military approach in managing conflicts in

the region. They also have the ECOWAS Conflict Management and
Resolution Protocol which is very active in meditation and diplomatic
negotiation. They have the “Council of Wise men” made up of retired
Heads of States and respectable statesmen. They are sent to negotiate
peace before, during and after conflicts. One success story is the
Liberian story where General Abdulsalami mediated in Ghana in
2003/4. This led to the removal of Charles Taylor form Liberia. He was
granted political asylum in Nigeria and Liberia, had to reorganize, had
election in October of 2005 and President Ellen Johnson emerged as the
President of Liberian, who was sworn in January 2006.
3.2 Southern Africa
The political and security situation of Southern Africa remains

precarious, years after apartheid in South Africa, with twenty-five years
of civil wars in Angola, which ended with the killing of UNITA leader,
Jonas Savimbi by government army in February 2002. The instabilities
in Zimbabwe and Lesotho, and the unending war of Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC), and the spread of HIV/AIDS has emerged a
security threat in this region.
Although, many states in the region are democratic and the Southern
African Development Country (SADC) seeks to seek economic
development of the region, but there is the fear of South Africans
dominance in view of the historical apartheid legacy of aggressive,
destabilizing military roles in the SADC region in the 1980s. Tension
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between South African and her neighbours revolve around market

liberation based on how much Rand Pretoria is ready to drop, but then
more critically, are the problems of democracy and peace building.
Southern African Development Community
Effort to understand the role of SADC in conflict management in the

region will be impossible without first recognizing the key security
feature of the region, which is the overwhelming military and financial
strength of South Africa. SADC predecessor – South African
Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) established in 1980
specifically to counter the South African military and economic might,
and political dominance. But it also aimed to create a free trade area,
establish frame work to ensure macro economic stability, facilitate
financial and capital markets, encouraging public-private partnership and
building regional infrastructures. But much of all, these plans are
rhetoric. The organization is short staffed and only 5% is dedicated to
security work. Since the creation of SADC in 1996, little is done to
achieve regional collective security, because of the political rivalry
between South Africa and Zimbabwe who have opposing views of the
functions of the political organ.
Unlike the ECOMOG of West Africa, the SADC Security organ

established in the mid 1980, refused to establish a study force to which
member states can contribute soldiers. Until the organs get
operationalised, and strengthened, SADC cannot play effective role in
conflict management in the region.
3.3 East and Central Africa
The Great Lake, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda and Eastern Congo region
has experienced complex, multiplicity of interlocking regale and
international forces that are either escalating the conflicts, or mitigating
them; therefore, making peace making complicated. Conflicts in this
sub-region keep moving from one country to the other.
In 1993, over 200,000 died in Burundi, in 1994, there was genocide in

Rwanda claiming about one million people, in 1996, it went back to
Burundi and DRC, where about 2.5 million people are reported killed
since August of 1998. The DRC war has created about 600,000 refuges
and two million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). And the insecurity
in Congo-Brazzaville continued to affect security of DRC. In 1997, the
former Congolese leader, General Denis Sassou-Nguesso overlooked the
government of Pascal Lissouba ending a four- month old elected
government. Surprisingly, France and Angola supported the
undemocratic government by providing him military and logistical
support from 1979-1992. This war left 40,000 refugees and 500,000
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IDPs. There has been wars and counter wars that had led to many deaths,
refugees and IDPs in the DRC. The military clash between Uganda and
Rwanda in the DRC has not only damaged their alliances, but aim to
spark off wider arms competition and regional instability.
The security dynamics in this region must be understood within the

context of four main factors – (1) ethnicity and political governance (2)
the economic factor fueling the conflicts (3) the geographical interest of
various actors and (4) regional responses of conflict.
Ethnicity and Political Governance
Just like in different parts of the world and Africa in particular, ethnicity
manipulation affiliation and claim has been a source of conflict in
Rwanda and Burundi. The ethnic difference between the Tutsi and Hutu
was translated into inclusion or exclusion in governance.
The scramble for resources in the DRC is the major source of conflict in
that country. These minerals include diamonds, gold, silver, iron, zinc,
copper, cobalt etc. Countries in this region are involved in the Congo
war because they were extracting resources found in the area. For
example, Uganda and Rwanda became greater exporters of diamond,
and copper even though, they don’t have it in their countries.
The DRC conflict has a regional character where countries outside DRC
have a geographical regional reason to get involved. Some of them argue
that, their involvement is important because they need to protect their
own countries and border. For example, DRC has a 55,000 army and
62,000 soldiers from 6 other African countries.
There is no institutionalized mechanism for responding to conflicts in

the region. It is easy for one country to spearhead peace process, as all of
them are involved in the conflict.
Peace Institutions in Eastern and Southern Africa
Central African Customs and Economic Union of 1981 and the

Economic Community of the Great Lake States was merged to
established the Economic Country of Central Africa States (ECCAS) in
1983 made up of eleven countries aimed to pursue economic
development, regional cooperation and establish a Central African
Common Market.
In an attempt to address the conflict in the region, Early Warning

Mechanism was created in 1996. In 1997, there was a proposal for
interstate security cooperation mechanism for the sub-region, with the
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aim to develop a legal and institutional framework to promote and

strengthen peace and security.
Then, the Conseil de Paix et de Securite de l’ Afrique Centrale

(COPAX) was created to (1) prevent, manage and resolve conflicts in
Central Africa and (2) to undertake any necessary action to deal
effectively with political conflicts and (3) to promote, preserve and
consolidate peace and security in the sub-region.
All these institutes are mere rhetoric because they are not effective due
to narrow national interest. For examples, members of the sub-region do
not agree on the relationship between ECCA and COPAX.
Another institution established is for peace and sustainable development

is the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) in
1994. Although, the economic development of the region motivated the
establishment, but it has acknowledged the importance of peace for
development take place. The 2000 summit discussed the resources. They
even looked into other sub-regional organizations in Africa to shop for
ideas and strategy.
The International Authority on Development (IGAD)
The International Authority on Draught and Desertification (IGADD)

made up of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda was
established in 1986 and Eritrea joined after its independence in
1993. The aim was to serve as an early warning mechanism for
humanitarian emergencies and coordinating responses to crisis on the
Horn of Africa. Although, the initial plan was for draught, desertification
and food security, it has to expand to include conflict management
prevention and resolution in 1996 and changed the name to IGAD
because issues of conflict were undermining the effort for food security.
IGAD had a 2 track approach as the one based in Nairobi deals with
peculiar issues like Sudan peace process and the other is based in
Djibouti addresses issues which member states have formed a consensus
on such as the establishment of a Conflict Early Warning and Response
Mechanism (CEWARN) with emphasis on campaign against Small
Arms and humanitarian issues.
The East African Community (EAC)
The Heads of States of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania met in November

1999 and signed a treaty establishing The East African Community,
which entered into force in July 2000. The aim of this treaty is to
“improve the standard of living of the population by facilitating an
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adequate and economically, social and ecologically sustainable

development process that allows an optimal utilization of the available
resources” (IPA 2002). Also, like other organization, EAC also realized
that security and political stability are a prerequisite for sustainable
development and they did not hesitate to include conflict management in
EAC concentration. The general belief in the pursuit of economic
growth is ‘that economic prosperity and regional integrations will have
the multiplier effect of reducing the possibility of conflict and enhancing
security’.
Also, like other organizations, EAC also realized that security and
political stability are a prerequisite for sustainable development and they
did not hesitate to include conflict management in EAC concentration.
The Horn of Africa
The region of the Horn of Africa comprises Djibouti, Sudan, Eritrea,

Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Somalia. A careful analysis of the also
reveal that they also form the members of the East and Central
Africa. Herberson (2001) in “State Formation and Political Identities on
the Horn of Africa” observes that “the region is in the process of
redefining the fundamentals that relate to the social contract and who
should govern the region reveals an overlap of differing the
interdependence of the security system as well as posing critical
challenges to regional peace”. They are embroiled in intra-inter state
conflicts and do not have the capacity to deal with them.
Except for Sudan that has plenty of oil; the other countries have very
little natural resources and are threatened by famine and drought. There
is no consideration for the wishes of the ethnic communities who are
arbitrarily split or lump together under the pressure for national unity,
centralization of government has chosen at the abandonment of
federalism. The people see the government as a different entity or refer
to them in past tense. The dynamics of the conflicts in the region
revolves around these three factors – the legacy of the super power
rivalry, the proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons and the
forced migration of population.
Regional and sub-regional peace institutions are necessities. Discuss
4.0 CONCLUSION
The African conflict has taken a regional angle and this explains why
there are regional peace efforts in managing the conflicts. The regional
158
organizations, which started of as an economic plan, end up including

peace plans because they realized the need for peace, as a pre-requisite
for meaningful development.
5.0 SUMMARY
In summary, there are institutions, at national, regional and international

levels that are dedicated to peace making in African, although, they have
very limited capacity to do an effective job. There is a need to strengthen
the capacities of these organizations to effectively mitigate conflicts in
Africa. For the fact that the continent has been realized the need to have
a peace mechanism, but then need to improve its capacity, it is then
important to invest in these organizations and make relevant.
1. Identify one conflict in each of four regions and describe the

functions/roles of any of these institutions in the management
of these conflicts.
2. Why do regions form organizations to tackle economic

development, end up expanding to conflict management and
how did they structure the functionality of the process?
Herberson (2001) in “State Formation and Political Identities on the

Horn of Africa” in International Peace Academy,
Regionalization of Conflict and Intervention New York.
IPA (2002) Infrastructure of peace in Africa: Assessing the peace building

capacity of Africa Institutions. International Peace
Academy. New York The United Nations and Regional
Security: Europe and Beyond. IPA New York
Security and Development in Sierra Leone. IPA New York
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UNIT 5 CONFLICT PREVENTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definitions and conflict critique prevention
3.2 Stages of conflict
3.3 Methods of conflict prevention
3.4 Conflict prevention task
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Conflict prevention is often criticized not to be possible or realistic

because the conflict will happen anyway. Many theories have been
propounded by different authors, which could be put to four. The
‘delusion theory’ belief that conflict prevention is unrealistic and will
not work; therefore, it is a waste time. The ‘perversion theory’, argue
that the act of preventing conflict, is not only unrealistic, but that it has
the tendency to become a “self –fulfilling prophesy. These theorists
believe that, the process of warning against the conflict, as a party could
listen to the implication of the conflict, and therefore plan to go into it
just because the analysis of the warning increased the awareness of the
lather conflict. The third group is called the coercion theorists, who
argue that the resources used for this “unrealistic task” should be, divert
to some other task realistic. Then the last is the ‘believers theorists’,
they believe that conflict could be prevented if the right tasks are carried
out. They argue that different tasks will be carried out for the different
stages; if good results are to be achieved.
2.0 OBJECTIVE

i. Describe the different theories of conflict prevention;
ii. Define conflict prevention;
iii. Identify the different stages of conflict; and
iv. Describe the tasks involved in conflict prevention.
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3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definitions and Critiques of Conflict Prevention.
Four definitions of conflict prevention will be discussed to see the

different emphases. The essence of these different emphases is to also
show that, the different stages of the conflict will also determine the
action that will be suggested for intervention. This also shows that is not
possible to do one particular thing to prevent conflict, but various task
could be employed:
1. Conflict Prevention ‘Actions, policies, procedures or institutions

undertaken in particular vulnerable places and times in order to
avoid the threat or use of armed force and related forms of
coercion by states or groups, as the way to settle the political
disputes that can arise from the destabilizing effects of economic,
social, political and international change’. Conflict prevention can
also include action taken after a violet conflict to avoid its
recurrence. (…) Conflict prevention strives to intervene before
threats to use force or coercion are made or before [either party]
resort to significant armed force or coercion. This means that
conflict prevention can occur at two points in a typical conflict’s
life history:
a). When there has not been a violet conflict in recent years, and
before significant signals of violence [make] possible [the]
escalation to sustained violet conflict, conflict prevention aims to
keep a conflict from escalation; and
b). When there has been a recent violet conflict but peace is being
restored, conflict prevention aims to avoid a relapse or re-igniting
of violence” (Lund, 1997:3-2 3).
2. Conflict prevention “Measures which contribute to the prevention

of undesirable conflict behaviour once some situation involving
goal incompatibility has risen. (…) [The concept] refers to two
types of effort: those which prevent behaviour defined within the
relevant international system as undesirable, and those which
attempt to confine conflict behaviour within clearly defined limits
of permissible activity. The concept is not new. Older terms such
as preventive diplomacy, crisis-prevention or deterrent diplomacy
all refer to similar efforts” (Reychler, 1994:4)
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3. Conflict prevention “An approach to conflict prevention should

not only rely on removing causes of wars, but also on introducing
appropriate preventers… If we accept this view, conflict
prevention may be viewed not so much as the interposition of a
single preventer in a complex situation.
4. Conflict “Activities normally conducted under Chapter VI of the

UN Charter, ranging from diplomatic initiative to preventative
deployments of forces intended to prevent disputes from
escalating into armed conflicts or from spreading. Conflict
prevention can include fact finding missions; conflict prevention
is the deployment of operational forces possessing sufficient
deterrence capabilities to avoid a conflict.” (British Army,
1997:2).
3.2 Stages of Conflict.
According to Bloomfield (MS) “All conflict goes through a preliminary

dispute phase and may also go through one or more hostilities and post
hostilities phases. In each phase, identifiable factors generate pressures
that may influence the course of the case toward the next threshold and
transition into another phase. These factors may be offset by other
influential factors that tend toward the prevention of that transition”.
He further asserted that: “Change in the relationship among factors will

alter the likelihood of a conflict undergoing transition from are phase to
another; and “The cause of conflict can be significantly altered by policy
measures aimed at reinforcing violence – minimizing factors and
offsetting violence – generating factors as appropriate for the phase in
question.
All these try to say is that conflict is in phases and the actions required
have to be relevant to it, depending in what you want to achieve. There
are 3 basic stages of conflict: the latent conflict and the post-conflict or
de-escalation stages.
The Latent stage:
This is the period which could be described as a period of false peace”.

It is the stage before the eruption of conflict. At this stage, conflict has
not acutely manifested, and the groups have not been mobilized. A
conflict can remain latent for years, due to repressions and poor
articulation of political demands.
162
At this period, factors that must be looked at are structural conditions in

the society. Structures like the judiciary social institution, the economic
environments are the issues that may or may not lead to conflicts.
Two things must be measured in this period to determine what is likely

to happen. The willingness and the opportunities. No matter how bad
the situation is, if the people do not have the willingness to fight for
example, they will not fight. So having the willingness to carry out a
particular action is a pre-requisite for action. The second, which is the
opportunity, which some authors refer to as resources, which could be
material, time, or personnel. No matter the willingness to prosecute a
conflict, if you don’t have the resources to carry out your desired will,
there will be no conflict.
The Conflict Stage
This is the period of full-blown conflict. There is fighting between

organized armed units, the existence or initiation of active hostility and
destructive violence used by the party on either side is a carefully
planned manned, and these fighting lead to loss of lives and or
destruction of properties. This stage last for months or years and there
are other smaller phases of escalation, de-escalation, cease fire and
relapse of cease fires etc.
At this stage, the wish of the parties should be to develop a management

strategy, and the proximate causes must be dealt with to stop the
hostility. The root causes of the conflict cannot be addressed at this
stage. The proximate causes and these problems can be easily changed
or corrected to bring temporary peace. Problem like ethnic bashing and
propagandizing can be easily stopped. Cultural discrimination and
marginalization of some ethnic group in political appointment can be
connected easily, to reduce tensions.
The Post Conflict Stage
This stage of conflict has different names depending on the author and
her experience, but the most important characteristic of this stage is that,
violent hostility has stopped: there is a cease fire, and killings have
stopped. All efforts are made to avoid a re-escalation of conflict. Plans
for reconstruction and repairs at all levels are beginning to emerge and
what we have is fragile peace which can go either way.
3.3 Methods of Conflict Prevention per Conflict Stage.
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The tasks of conflict prevention vary from stage to stage. Although

different authors have various stages of conflict, for the purpose of this
topic, we shall divide conflict phases into 3.
The Latent Stage – It is the primary prevention tasks that take place
here, which aims to reduce to minimum the chances of a violent conflict
occurring. Proactive measures are taken to prevent the emergence of
formation of positions or parties to prevent the likely outbreak of
conflict between the parties. There are diplomatic activities to contain or
control conflicts. This is the stage where early warning is of great use.
This activity calls for accurate analysis of any latent or minor disputes,
and hopes to develop strategies to resolve it. This system varies in
complexity and approach. Early warning activities include fact-finding
missions, consultations, inspections, report mechanism and monitoring.
Although, many critics have queried early warning and said that early
warning is not the problem, but easily response.
The Second / Crisis Stage - The crisis stage deals with secondary
prevention tasks, which is about the containment and mitigations of on
going crises. The whole effort made here aim to prevent vertical
escalation of existing conflict. Vertical escalate means intensification of
hostile behaviour which is very dangerous. Also, efforts are made to
reduce horizontal escalation which deals with the spreading of the
conflicts to other areas of the country. And finally, effort to mitigate the
conflict will be put in place. All they aim is to confine the conflict and
reduce the chances of escalation or expansion.
The Post Conflict Stage – This is the stage call for Tertiary Prevention,
which aims to prevent the reoccurrence of armed conflict. Measures aim
to make sure that there is no breakdown of cease fire agreements in the
post conflict stage.
3.4 Conflict Prevention Task
Prevention of conflicts has been seen to be the job of international

communities. This view or understanding has led to the inactions of
other parties and preventable genocides have taken place. For example,
the 1961 Ruwandan government of Gregiore Kayibanda showed the
traces of intimidation and injustice that the League of Nations recorded
that the government in power is showing traces of racial dictatorship
which should be curtailed, to avoid any future problems. They observed
that an oppressive government is been replaced by another. So, the
genocide of 1994, was seen coming since 1961, but nothing was done to
prevent it. This brings us to the first task of conflict prevention.
164
1. Early Warning: This is a mechanism that aims to identify the

threats of an outbreak of violence. Early Warning could with time
allow various preventive measures like preventive diplomacy,
humanitarian and military actions to be put is place. Early
Warning must address a particular issue. This is why scholars ask
this question: Early Warning, about what? There could be Early
Warning about: refugee explosion, genocide, state fracture etc.
The most important issue is to control conflict escalation, already
showing signs of violence.
Another important concept of Early Warning is time, which ask the

question that is very difficult to answer; because of the cares of triggers.
It is not easy to determine when a conflict will erupt; because there are
cases of protracted latent conflicts which could not result into full blown
conflicts because of so many internal and external factors. But triggers –
impromptu/immediate events that accelerate the outbreak of a conflict
could lead to conflict. These events could be, a natural disaster, death of
a prominent politician or leader or one misfortune or other. No one has
control over these events.
Then the last question is Early Warning for whom? This is because the
most crucial part of warning is getting the relevant persons to heed to the
warning. If the users of the warning cannot be reached because of so
many other factors then, it becomes a problem. But generally warning
could be for:
i. The prospective victims and group at risk;

ii. The perpetrators (in order to deter them);
iii. Intergovernmental agencies such as UNCR, UNDP, WEP,
UNICEF;
iv. Regional governments willing and able to provide their good
offices and other instruments to prevent the outbreak of the
disaster;
v. The secretary general of the United Nations;
vi. Members of the security council of the United Nations;
vii. Other members of the international community;
viii. Non-governmental organizations concerned with relief;
ix. The mass media;
x. The public;
xi. Eminent persons who can lend credence to the warning.
(Adopted from Schmid, 2000)
2. Surveillance: Surveillance is keeping a watch over an area to

the knowledge of the opponent. It is in an operation area that will
help to deter enemies from hurting the people. Surveillance can
165
make the enemy know that they are being watched, and the
message of ‘be careful’ is sent and an effective surveillance, is
therefore, a major conflict prevention technique.
3. Stabilizing Measures: Stabilizing and confidence building

measures help to reduce tension in an area. These kinds of
measures, sometimes represent the first step towards the
restoration of law and order; and negotiations for a political
settlement. They may take several forms:
The establishment of an effective liaison and communication

network between all parties;
Mutual and balanced reductions in personnel and military equipment;
The separation of forces;
Zonal restrictions on the deployment of weapons and manpower;
Advance reporting of military activities or exercises; and
Joint inspections of disputed areas. (Adopted from Schmid, 2000)
4. The Restoration of Law and Order: Before handing over the
government administration to Civilian Police (CivPol) or the nation’s
forces, the restoration of law and order may be the principal task for
a military force. The activities may range from counter-insurgency
and counter-terrorist tasks to the specific protection of human rights.
Highlight and discuss the stages of conflict and how they can be
prevented?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Conflict prevention is a multi faceted program that can go a long way in

reducing violent conflict. Conflict prevention varies depending on the
stage of the conflict and what one wants to prevent. Early Warning,
which is one of the task of conflict prevention is been highly criticized,
because people think that what is important is Early Response, not
warning.
5.0 SUMMARY
In summary, conflict prevention is an aspect of conflict management that

is very technical, but at the same time, very important. Even with the
criticisms about how realistic the operation conflict prevention can be,
reports have shown that, some conflicts can be prevented, if efforts are
put in place to stop the conflict. What is mostly needed, is the political
will to make things happen.
166
1. Conflict prevention is unrealistic, therefore, not necessary.

Discuss
2. Describe the different theories of conflict prevention.
British Army, (1997:2) Peace Support Operations. (London: Joint

Warfare Publications 3-01, January
Bloomfield L. Anatomy of Conflict: Toward a Theory of conflict

Prevention, Manuscript. n.d.n.p
Lund, Michael S. (1997:4) Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Revised

Guide for (Washington, D.C.: Creative International.
Reychler, Luc. (1994) “The Art of Conflict Prevention: Theory and

Practice; in Werner Bauwens & Luc Reychler (eds). The Art of
Conflict Prevention, (London: Brassey’s
Schmid A.P. (2000). Thesaurus and Glossary of Early Warning and

Conflict Prevention Terms. FEWER London El 6QN United
Kingdom
Mbanda L. (1997) Committed to Conflict: The Destruction of the

Church in Rwanda
167
Appendix
UNITED NATIONS
SECURITY COUNCIL Distr:
General, 31 October 2000
RESOLUTION 1325 (2000)

Adopted by the Security Council at 4213th meeting, on 31 October
2000
THE SECURITY COUNCIL
Recalling its resolutions 1261 (1999) of 25 August 1999, 1265 (1999) of

17 as well as relevant statements of its president and recalling also the
statement of its president to the press on the occasion of the united
Nation Day for women’s Rights and international Peace (international
women’s Day) of March 2000 (SC6816)
RECALLING ALSO THE COMMUNICATIONS OF THE

BEIJING DECLARATION AND PLATFORM FOR ACTION
(A/52/23) as well as those contained in the outcome document of the

twenty-third Special Session of the United Nation General Assemble
entitled “Women 2000 Gender Equality, Development and peace for the
Twenty-first Century” (A/S-23/10/Rev, in particular those concerning
women and armed conflict,
BEARING IN MIND THE PURPOSES AND PRINCIPLE OF THE

CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATION and the primary
responsibility of the Security Council under the Charter for the
maintenance of international peace and security,
EXPRESSING CONCERN THAT CIVILIANS PARTICULAR

WOMEN AND CHILDREN ACCOUNT
For the vast majority of those adversely affected by med conflict,

including as refugees and internally displaced persons, and increasingly
are targeted by combatants and armed elements, and recognizing the
consequent impact this has on durable peace and reconciliation.
168
REAFFIRMING THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE

PREVENTION AND RESOLUTION OF CONFLICT
And in peace building and stressing the importance of their equal

participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and
promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in
decision making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution,
REAFIRMING also the need to implement fully international
humanitarian and human rights law protects the rights of women and
girls during and after. Emphasizing the need for all parties to ensure that
mine clearance and mine awareness programmes take into account the
special needs of women and girls.
RECOGNIZING THE URGENT NEED TO MAINSTREAM A

GENDER PERSPECTIVE INTO PEACEKEEPER OPERATION,
and in this regard noting the Windhoek Declaration and the Namibia
plan of Action on mainstream a Gender perspective in Multidimensional
peace Support operations (S/2000/693),
RECOGNIZING ALSO THE IMPORTANCE OF THE

RECOMMENDATION CONTAINED IN THE STATEMENT
Of its president to the press of 8 March 2000 for specialized training for
all peacekeeping personnel on the protection, special needs and human
rights of women and children in conflict situations.
RECOGNIZING THAT AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE

IMPACT OF ARMED CONFLICT ON WOMEN
And girls, effective institutional arrangements to guarantee
their protection and full participation in the peace process can
significantly contribute to the maintenance and promotion of
international peace and security.
Noting the need to consolidate data on the impact of armed conflict on
women and girls,
1. Urges Member states to ensure increased representation of

women at all decision – making levels in national, regional and
international institutions and mechanism for the prevention,
management, and resolution of conflict;
2. Encourages the Secretary – General to implement his strategic

plan of action (A/49/587) calling for an increase in the
participation of women at decision – making levels in conflict
resolution and peace processes;
169
3. Urges the Secretary General to appoint more women as special

representative and envoys to pursue good offices on his behalf,
and in this regard calls on member states to provide candidates to
the Secretary General for inclusion in a regularly updated
centralized roster;
4. Further urges the Secretary General to seek to expand the role and
contribution of women in United Nation field-based operations
and especially among military observers, civilian police, human
rights and humanitarian personnel;
5. Expresses its willingness to incorporate a gender perspective into

peacekeeper operations, and urges the sectary General to ensure
that, where appropriate, field operations include a gender
component;
6. Requests the Secretary-General to provide to member states

training guidelines and material on the protection, rights and the
particular needs of women, as well as on the importance of
involving women in all peacekeeping and peace building
measures, invites member states to incorporate these element as
well as HIV/AIDS awareness training into their national training
programmes for military and civilian police personnel in
preparation for deployment, and further requests the secretary
General to ensure that civilian personnel of peacekeeping
operations receive similar training
7. Urges Member states to increase their voluntary financial,

technical and logical support for gender-sensitive training efforts,
including those undertaken.
8. Calls on all actors involved when negotiating and implementing

peace agreements, to adopt a gender perspective, including inter
alia
a. The special needs of women and girls during repatriation and

resettlement and for rehabilitation, reintegration and post
conflict reconstruction;
b. Measures that support local women’s peace initiatives and
indigenous implementation mechanisms of the agreements;
c. Measures that ensure the protection of the respect for human
rights of women and girls particularly as they relate to the
constitution, the electoral system, the police and the Judiciary;
9. Calls upon all parties to armed conflict to respect fully

international law applicable to the rights and protection of women
and girls, especially as civilians, in particular the obligations
170
applicable to them under the Geneva Convention of 1949 and the

Additional protocol thereto of 1977, the Refugee Convention of
1951 and the protocol thereto of 1969, the Convention on the
Elimination of All form of Discrimination against women of 1979
and the optional protocol thereto of 1999 optional protocol
thereto of 25 may 2000 and to bear in mine the relevant
provisions of the Rome statute of the international Criminal
Court;
10. Calls on all parties to armed conflict to take special measure to

protect women and girls from gender-based violence, particularly
rape and other forms of sexual abuse, and all other forms of
violence in situations of armed conflict;
11. Emphasizes the responsibility of every one states to put an end to

impunity and to prosecute those responsible for genocide, crimes
against humanity, and war crime including those relating to
sexual and other violence against women and girls, and in his
regard stresses the need to exclude these crimes, where feasible
from amnesty provisions;
12. Calls upon all parties to armed conflict to respect the civilian and
humanitarian character of refugee camps and settlements and to
take into account the particular needs of women and girls,
including the their design, and recalls its resolutions 1208 (1998)
of 19 November 1998 and 1296 (2000) of 19 April 2000.
13. Encourages all those involved in the planning for disarmament,

demobilization and reintegration to consider the different needs of
female and male ex-combatants and to take into account the needs
of their dependants;
14. Reaffirms its readiness, whenever measures are adopted under

Article 41 of the Charter of the United Nations, to give
consideration to their potential impact on the civilian population,
bearing in mind the special needs of women and girls in order to
consider appropriate humanitarian exemptions;
15. Expresses its willingness to ensure that security Council missions

take into account gender consideration and the rights of women
including through consultation with local and international
women’s group;
16. Invites the secretary General to carry out a study on the impact of
armed submit a report to the security Council on the results of this
171
study and to make this available to all member state of the United
Nations;
17. Requests the Secretary General, where appropriate ,to include in

his reporting to the security council progress on
gender mainstreaming throughout peacekeeping missions and all
other aspects relating to women and girls;
18. Decides to remain active seized of the matter
172

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: PCR 111

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PEACE STUDIES

Course Title Introduction to Peace Studies

Course Developer Dr. Osita Agbu

Course Writer Joshua Olusegun Bolarinwa

Course Editor Joan Mbagwu