Math 475-Complex Analysis Topic 1

MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS
Lecturer Notes
THE COMPLEX NUMBER SYSTEM
Dr. D. Mukonda
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES, RUSANGU UNIVERSITY
2021/2022
Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 1 / 94

Chapter Outline
1 Pure Imaginary numbers and Complex Numbers
2 Algebraic Operations of Complex Numbers
3 The Complex Plane or Argand Diagram
4 Modulus and Argument of a Complex Number
5 Polar or Trigonometric Representation of Complex Numbers
6 De-Moivre’s Theorem and Rational Power of a Complex Number
7 Locus of Points in the complex plane

Pure Imaginary numbers and Complex Numbers
Definition 1 (Pure Imaginary numbers)

√ √ √
The square root of any negative number for example
√ −1, −4, −5,
−9 is called a pure imaginary number.
√ p √ √
Since
√ by√definition
√ of a surd, −5 = 5 × (−1) = 5 · −1, or √
−9 = 9 · √−1, it is√convenient
√ to introduce the symbolic i = −1,
and to adopt −5 = i 5 and −9 = 3i as the standard form for these
numbers. Thus,
√ √ √ √ √
−36 = −9 · 4 = 6i becouse −9 · 4 = (3i)(2) = 6i
but
√ √ √ √ √
−9 · −4 6= 36, −9 · −4 = (3i)(2i) = 6(i 2 ) = −6.

Definition 2 (Complex Number z)
A number
√ of the form x + iy where x and y are real numbers and
i = −1 is called a complex number.
We call “x " the real part and “y " the imaginary part of the complex
number x + iy .
The complex number is denoted by z:- z = x + iy . The real and imaginary
parts of z are denoted by Rez = x and Imz = y respectively.
Example 3
Examples of complex numbers includes:
(i) −3 +√5i, the real part is −3 and imaginary part is 5,
(ii) 2 − −36 = 2 − 6i, the real part is 2 and imaginary part is −6,
(iii) 5, the real part is 5 and imaginary part is 0,
(iv) 7i, the real part is 0 and imaginary part is 7.
For the complex number x + iy, if x = 0 then the number iy is said to be

purely imaginary. If y = 0 the number x is real. Complex numbers may
be thought as including all real and pure imaginary numbers.
Algebraic Operations of Complex Numbers
When we work with complex numbers, we use ordinary algebra methods.
That means that we cannot combine a real number with an i-term. For
example, 2 + 3i cannot be simplified because it is already in its simplest
form.
1 (Equal Complex Numbers)
Two complex numbers z = x + iy and w = u + iv are said to be equal
provided x = u and y = v .
For example, if 2 + 3i = x + iy , then x = 2 and y = 3.
2 (Addition of Complex Numbers)

Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv be two complex numbers. To add complex
numbers, we add real parts with real parts and imaginary parts with
imaginary parts:
z + w = (x + iy ) + (u + iv ) = (x + u) + i(y + v )
Example 4
Add the following complex numbers:
(i) 3 + 4i by 7 + 2i (ii) 51 + 23i by 7 − 12 i.
Solution.
(i) Let z = 3 + 4i and w = 7 + 2i. Then
z + w = (3 + 4i) + (7 + 2i) = (3 + 7) + (4i + 2i) = 10 + 6i

1
(ii) Let z = 5 + 23i and w = 7 − 21 i. Then,
1 1 1 1

z +w = + 23i + 7 − i = + 7 + 23i + − i
5 2 5 2
36 45
= + i
5 2

3 (Subtraction of Complex Numbers)
Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv be two complex numbers. To subtract
complex numbers, we subtract real parts from real parts and imaginary
parts from imaginary parts.
z − w = (x + iy ) − (u + iv ) = (x − u) + i(y − v )
Example 5
Subtract the following complex numbers:
(i) 7 + 2i from 3 + 4i (ii) 7 − 12 i from 1
5 + 23i .
Solution.
(i) Let z = 3 + 4i and w = 7 + 2i. Then
z − w = (3 + 4i) − (7 + 2i) = (3 − 7) + (4i − 2i) = −4 + 2i.

Solution cont’d.
1
(ii) Let z = 5 + 23i and w = 7 − 21 i. Then,
1 1 1 1

z +w = + 23i − 7 − i = − 7 + 23i − − i
5 2 5 2
34 47
=− +i i
5 2

4 (Powers of i)
√
We know that i = −1. On squaring both sides, we get i 2 = −1.
Multiplying by i both sides, we get
i 3 = −i
Again,
i 4 = (i 3 )(i) = (−i)(i) = −(i 2 ) = −(−1) = 1
i 5 = (i 4 )(i) = (1)(i) = i
i 6 = (i 4 )(i 2 ) = (1)(−1) = −1
i 7 = (i 4 )(i 3 ) = (1)(−i) = −i
i 8 = (i 4 )(i 4 ) = (1)(1) = 1
Because i 4 = 1, (i 4 )n = 1n = 1 for any integer n. Thus it is possible to

evaluate powers of i by factoring out powers of i 4 .
The following theorem can also be used to evaluate powers of i.

Theorem 6 (Powers of i)
If n is a positive integer, then i n = i r where r is the remainder of the
division of n by 4.
Example 7
Simplify the following:
(i) i 36 (ii) i 49 (iii) i 86 (iv) i 103
Solution.
(i) For i 36 , we divide 36 by 4 and we get 36 = 4 × 9 + 0. Then,
i 36 = i 4×9+0 = (i 4 )9 (i)0 = (1)9 = 1

(ii) For i 49 , we divide 49 by 4 and we get 49 = 4 × 12 + 1. Then,
i 49 = i 4×12+1 = ((i 4 )12 )(i) = (1)12 (i) = i

(iii) For i 86 , dividing 86 by 4, we get 86 = 4 × 21 + 2. Thus
i 86 = i 4×21+2 = ((i 4 )21 )(i 2 ) = (1)21 (−1) = −1

5 (Multiplication of Complex Numbers)
Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv be complex numbers. To multiply two
complex numbers, multiply the numbers as if they were ordinary binomials
and replace i 2 by −1.
z · w = (x + iy )(u + iv ) = x (u + iv ) + iy (u + iv )
= xu + x (iv ) + (iy )u + (iy )(iv ) = xu + ixv + iyu + i 2 yv
= xu + ixv + iyu − yv = xu − yv + i(xv + uy )
Example 8
Multiply in each case the two complex numbers:
(i) 3i by 2 − 5i (ii) 3 + 4i by 7 + 2i (iii) 15 + 3i by 7 − 12 i.
Solution.
(i) Let z = 3i and w = 2 − 5i. Then
zw = 3i(2 − 5i) = 6i − 15i 2 = 6i − 15(−1) = 15 + 6i.

Solution Cont’d.
(ii) Let z = 3 + 4i and w = 7 + 2i. Then
zw = (3 + 4i)(7 + 2i) = 3(7 + 2i) + 4i(7 + 2i)

= 21 + 6i + 28i + 8i 2 = 21 + 34i + 8(−1)
= 13 + 34i
1
(iii) Let z = 5 + 3i and w = 7 − 12 i. Then,
1 1 1 1 1

zw = + 3i 7− i = 7 − i + 3i 7 − i
5 2 5 2 2
7 1 3 2
= − i + 21i − i
5 10 2
29 109
= + i
10 10

6 (Conjugate of a Complex Number)
Two complex numbers which differ only in the sign of imaginary parts are
called conjugate of each other. If z = x + iy , then the complex conjugate
of z denoted by z is the complex number z = x − iy .
For example, 2 − 3i is the complex conjugate of 2 + 3i, and the complex

conjugate of −3 − 4i is −3 + 4i.
The complex conjugate is important because it permits us to switch from
complex to real as in the next theorem.
Theorem 9
The sum and product of a complex number and its complex conjugate are
both real, and their difference is complex.
Proof.
Let x + iy be a complex number and x − iy its conjugate complex. Then
Sum = (x + iy ) + (x − iy ) = 2x and
Product = (x + iy ) · (x − iy ) = x 2 + y 2 which is real.

For example, if z = 5 − 3i, then it’s complex conjugate is z = 5 + 3i.
Hence
Sum : z + z = (5 − 3i) + (5 + 3i) = 5 + 5 − 3i + 3i = 10
Product : z · z = (5 − 3i)(5 + 3i) = 25 + 15i − 15i − 9i 2 = 25 − 9(−1) = 34
Difference : z + z = (5 − 3i) − (5 + 3i) = (5 − 5| + (−3i − 3i) = −9i
Theorem 10
(a) For the real part x and imaginary part y (not iy !) of a complex
number z = x + iy , we thus obtain that
(i) Rez = 12 (z + z) (ii) Rez = 1
2i (z − z)
(b) If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then,
(i) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 (ii) z1 − z2 = z1 − z2
7 (Division of Complex Number)
If z = x + iy and w = u + iv are any two complex numbers, then to divide
then, multiply both numerator and denominator of the fraction by the
complex conjugate of the denominator and replace i 2 by −1.
z x + iy (x + iy )(u − iv ) xu − x (iv ) + (iy )u − (iy )(iv )

= = =
w u + iv (u + iv )(u − iv ) uu − u(iv ) + (iv )u − (iv )(iv )
xu + yv uy − xv
= 2 +i 2
u + v2 u + v2
Example 11
Divide:
(i) 3 − 6i by 2i (ii) 1 + i by 3 + 4i
Solution.
(i) Let z = 3 − 6i and w = 2i. Then
z 3−6i (3−6i)i 3i−6i 2 3i−6(−1) 3i+6
w = 2i = (2i)(i) = 2i 2 = 2(−1) = −2 = −3 − 32 i

Solution Cont’d.
(ii) Let z = 1 + i and w = 3 + 4i. Multiply the numerator and
denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator 3 + 4i,
which is 3 − 4i and we obtain,
z 1+i (1 + i)(3 − 4i) 3 − 4i + 3i − 4i 2

= = =
w 3 + 4i (3 + 4i)(3 − 4i) 9 − 12i + 12i − 16i 2
3 − i − 4i 2 3 − i − 4(−1) 7−i
= = =
9 − 16i 2 9 − 16(−1) 25
7 1
= − i
25 25

Example 12
(5−3i)(7+i)
Simplify 2−i and write your answer in the form a + ib.
Solution.
First, we simplify the numerator:
(5 − 3i)(7 + i) 35 + 5i − 21i − 3i 2 35 − 16i + 3 38 − 16i

= = =
2−i 2−i 2−i 2−i
We then multiply the numerator and denominator of this fraction by the
complex conjugate of 2 − i which is 2 + i:
(5 − 3i)(7 + i) 38 − 16i (38 − 16i)(2 + i) 76 + 16 + 38i − 32i

= = =
2−i 2−i (2 − i)(2 + i) 4+1
92 + 6i 92 6
= = + i
5 5 5

The Complex Plane or Argand Diagram
Each complex number z = x + iy can be identified as a point
(x , y ) = (Rez, Imz) in the plane R2 . As such, z = x + iy may be
represented graphically by the point P(x , y ), Figure 1, whose rectangular
coordinates are (x , y ) in the xy -plane.
The point O having coordinates (0, 0), represents the complex number
0 = 0 + i0. All points on the x -axis and y -axis have coordinates of the
form (x , 0) and (0, y ), and corresponds to a real number x + i0 = x and
pure imaginary 0 + iy = iy respectively. For this reason, the x -axis and
y -axis is called the axis of reals and imaginaries respectively. The plane on
which the complex numbers are represented is called the complex plane
or Argand Diagram.
Im(z) P
x + iy
y
O x Re(z)
In addition to representing a complex number by a point P in the complex
plane, the number may be represented by the directed line segment or
−→
vector OP, See Figure 1. The vector OP is sometimes denoted by OP and
is the directed line segment beginning at O and terminating at P.
Im(z)
P
x + iy
O Re(z)
Figure: Representation of z = x + iy as a vector

Modulus and Argument of a Complex Number
The position of the point P(x , y ) representing z = x + iy on the Argand

diagram can be given in terms of r = OP, the distance of P from the
origin O, and θ the angle in the anticlockwise direction OP makes with
respect to the positive real axis, see Figure 3.
P(x , y )
Im(z)
y
r
θ
O x
Re(z)
Figure: Representation of z = x + iy

Definition 13 (Modulus and Arugument of z)
(i) The length r = OP is called the modulus or absolute value of the
complex number z and is denoted by p | z |.
By Pythagoras theorem, r =| z |= x 2 + y 2 , and is always taken to
be positive.
(ii) The angle θ normally in radians is called the argument or
amplitudes of z and is denoted by arg z = arg(x + iy ). The value of
θ is usually chosen as the smallest, positive angle for which tan θ = yx
holds. The value(s) of θ lying in the range −π < 0 < π are called the
principal value of the argument.
For example
(i) the principal value of 120o is 60o
(i) the principal value of 240o is −120o .
(ii) the principal value of 330o is −30o .

Example 14
Find the modulus
√ and argument of each of these complex numbers.
(i) 2 + 2i 3 (ii) −1 − i
Solution.
In each case, we use | z |=| x + iy |= x 2 + y 2 and tan θ = yx
p
√ √
(i) Let z = x + iy = 2 + 2i 3, then x = 2 and
√ y = 2 3. Since both the
real part x = 2 and imaginary part y = 2 3 are positive, z lies in the
first quadrant:
Figure

Solution Cont’d.
√
The modulus of z = 2 + 2i 3 is given by
√ q √ √ √
| 2 + 2i 3 |= 22 + (2 3)2 = 4 + 12 = 16 = 4.
√ √
Its argument θ is obtained by tan θ = 2 2 3 = 3 and so,
√
π
θ = tan−1 or 60o .
3=
3
(ii) Set z = x + iy = −1 − i, then x = −1 and y = −1. Since both the
real part x and imaginary part y are negative, z lies in the third
quadrant:
Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) Figure

MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 19 / 94
Solution Cont’d.
The modulus of −1 − i is given by
q √ √
| −1 − i |= (−1)2 + (−1)2 = 1+1= 2
The angle φ in the first quadrant to which θ is linked to is given by
tan φ = 11 = 1 and so,
π
φ = tan−1 1 = or 45o
4
Therefore, the argument θ is given by
π 5π
θ=π+ = or 180o + 45o = 225o .
4 4

Theorem 15
Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv be any two complex numbers. Then,
(i) Multiplication: The modulus of the product of two complex
numbers is the product of their moduli, and the argument of the
product is the sum of their arguments.
| zw |=| z || w | and arg (z · w ) = arg z + arg w

(ii) Division: The modulus of the quotient of two complex numbers is
the modulus of the dividend divided by the modulus of the divisor,
and the argument of the quotient is the argument of the dividend
minus the argument of the divisor.
= |z | =

z z

and arg = arg z − arg w
w |w | w

Example 16
Find the modulus and argument of
√ each of these complex numbers.
(i) z = 1 + i (ii) w = −1 + i 3 (iii) zw (iv) z 2 (iv) wz
Solution.
(i) The number z = 1 + i lies in the first quadrant. The modulus of is
p √ √
| z |=| 1 + i |= 12 + 12 = 1+1= 2
1
Its argument θ is obtained by tan θ = 1 = 1 and so,
π
θ = tan−1 1 = or 45o
4
√
(ii) w = −1 + i 3 lies in the second quadrant. The modulus of w is
√ q √ √ √
| w |=| −1 + i 3 |= (−12 ) + ( 3)2 = 1 + 3 = 4 = 2
The angle φ in the√ first quadrant associated to the argument θ is
√
given by tan φ = 13 = 3 and so,

Solution Cont’d.
√ π
φ = tan−1 3= or 60o
3
Therefore, the argument of w , is
π 2π
θ=π− = or 180o − 60o = 120o .
3 3
(iii) Modulus of zw is
√ √
| zw |=| z | · | w |= 2 · 2 = 2 2.
The argument of zw is
π 2π 11π
arg zw = arg z + arg w = + =
4 3 12
(iv) The argument of z 2 is

Solution Cont’d.
√ √
| z 2 |=| z | · | z |= 2· 2=2
The argument of z 2 is
π π π
arg z 2 = arg z + arg z = + =
4 4 2
w
(v) Modulus of z is
√
= | w | = √2 = 2

w
z |z | 2
z w 2π π 5π

The argument of w is arg z = arg w − arg z = 3 − 4 = 12 .

Lemma 17
For any non zero complex number z = x + iy ,
(i) | z |2 = zz (ii) z1 = zz
z
= |z|z 2 (iii) | z |=| z |
Proof.
In each case let z = x + iy . Then p
(i) | z |2 =| x + iy |2 = x 2 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 and also,
zz = (x + iy )(x − iy ) = x 2 − ixy + ixy + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 . Hence,
| z |2 = zz.
(ii) To show z1 = zz z
= |z|z 2 is left to the reader as na exercise.
(iii) | z |=| z |, we have
q q
| z |=| x − iy |= x 2 + (−y )2 = x 2 + y 2 =| x + iy |=| z |

Lemma 18
If z and w are any two complex numbers, verify each of the following:-
|z|
(ii) wz = |w

(i) | zw |=| z || w | |
Proof.
We only prove (i) and leave (ii) as an exercise to the reader. Let
z = x + iy and w = u + iv . Then,
| zw | =| (x + iy )(u + iv ) |=| xu + ixv + iyu − yv |

q
=| xu − yv + i(xv + yu) |= (xu − yv )2 + (xv + yu)2
q
= x 2 u 2 − 2xyuv + y 2 v 2 + x 2 v 2 + 2xyuv + y 2 u 2
q q
= x 2u2 + y 2v 2 + x 2v 2 + y 2u2 = x 2u2 + y 2u2 + y 2v 2 + x 2v 2
q q
= (x 2 + y 2 )u 2 + (x 2 + y 2 )v 2 = (x 2 + y 2 )(u 2 + v 2 )
q p
= x 2 + y 2 u 2 + v 2 =| z || w |

Lemma 19
If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, prove that
(i) | z1 + z2 |≤| z1 | + | z2 | (ii) | z1 − z2 |≥| z1 | − | z2 |
Proof.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + y2 be the two complex numbers. Then,
(i) z1 + z2 = x1 + iy1 + x2 + iy2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 ) and so,
| z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 )

= z1 z1 + z1 z2 + z2 z1 + z2 z2 =| z1 |2 +z1 z2 + z1 z2 + | z2 |2
=| z1 |2 +z1 z2 + (z1 z2 )+ | z2 |2 =| z1 |2 +2Re(z1 z2 )+ | z2 |2
≤| z1 |2 +2 | Re(z1 z2 ) | + | z2 |2
≤| z1 |2 +2 | z1 z2 | + | z2 |2
=| z1 |2 +2 | z1 || z2 | + | z2 |2
=| z1 |2 +2 | z1 || z2 | + | z2 |2
= (| z1 | + | z2 |)2
Proof Contin’d.
Taking square-roots both sides, we obtain that
| z1 + z2 |≤| z1 | + | z2 | .
(ii) To prove that | z1 − z2 |≥| z1 | − | z2 |, one observes that:
| z1 |=| z1 − z2 + z2 |≤| z1 − z2 | + | z2 |
Simplifying we get, | z1 | − | z2 |≤| z1 − z2 |. Hence,
| z1 | − | z2 |≤| z1 − z2 |
Lemma 20
| z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 − z2 |2 = 2(| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 )
Proof.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + y2 . Then
| z1 + z2 |2 =| (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) |2 =| (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + iy2 ) |2

= (x1 + x2 )2 + (y1 + iy2 )2 ,
| z1 − z2 |2 =| (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) |2 =| (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − iy2 ) |2

= (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − iy2 )2
and
| z1 |2 = x12 + y12 and | z2 |2 = x22 + y22

Proof Contin’d.
Hence,
LHS =| z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 − z2 |2 = (x1 + x2 )2 + (y1 + iy2 )2 + (x1 − x2 )2

+ (y1 − iy2 )2 = (x12 + 2x1 x2 + x22 + y12 + 2y1 y2 + y22 )
+ (x12 − 2x1 x2 + x22 + y12 − 2y1 y2 + y22 )
= 2x12 + 2x22 + 2y12 + 2y22
= 2[(x12 + y12 ) + (x22 + y22 )]
= 2[| z1 |2 + | z2 |2 ] = RHS
Lemma 21
| | z1 | − | z2 | |≤| z2 − z1 |
Proof.
Since z1 = z1 − z2 + z2 , we have
| z1 |=| z1 − z2 + z2 |≤| z1 − z2 | + | z2 |=⇒| z1 | − | z2 |≤| z1 − z2 |
Similarly, z2 = z2 − z1 + z1 , and so
| z2 |=| z2 − z1 + z1 |≤| z2 − z1 | + | z1 |
giving,
| z2 | − | z1 |≤| z1 − z2 |⇐⇒| z1 | − | z2 |≥ − | z1 − z2 |
Hence, − | z1 − z2 |≤| z1 | − | z2 |≤| z1 − z2 | and so,
| | z1 | − | z2 | |≤| z2 − z1 | .

Lemma 22
| | z1 | − | z2 | |≤| z2 + z1 |
Proof.
Since z1 = z1 + z2 − z2 , we have
| z1 |=| z1 + z2 − z2 |≤| z1 + z2 | + | −z2 |.
| z1 | − | −z2 |≤| z1 + z2 |=⇒| z1 | − | z2 |≤| z1 + z2 |
Similarly, z2 = z2 + z1 − z1 , and so
| z2 | =| z2 + z1 − z1 |≤| z2 + z1 | + | −z1 |
=⇒| z2 | − | −z1 |≤| z1 + z2 |
=⇒| z2 | − | z1 |≥| z1 + z2 |
=⇒| z1 | − | z2 |≥ − | z1 + z2 |
Polar or Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers
A complex number z = x + iy in its rectangular form can be written in
terms of trigonometric functions. Consider the complex number graphed
in Figure 6. We can write x and y in terms of the sine and the cosine
functions.
Im(z)
P(x + iy )
r
y = r sin θ
θ
O x = r cos θ Re(z)
Figure: Polar form of z = x + iy

From trigonometry, x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ and hence, we obtain
z = x + iy = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
We call z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) the polar or trigonometric form of the

complex number z. The angle θ may either be in radian or degree measure.
Example 23
√
Express the complex number z = 1 − i 3 in polar form.
Solution.
√ √
Let z = x + iy = 1 − i 3, we see that x = 1 and y = − 3, implying z
lies in the fourth quadrant.
Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) Figure

Solution.
q √ √
Hence, the modulus is r = 12 + (− 3)2 = 4 = 2. Since
√ √
tan θ = yx = −1 3 = − 3, the multiple of θ is 5π o
3 (or 300 ). Hence,
o
θ = 300 . The required polar form is
√
5π 5π

z = 1 − i 3 = 2 cos + i sin
3 3
√
or if degrees are used: z = 1 − i 3 = 2(cos 300o + i sin 300o ).
Note that z may also be represented in polar form by
√
5π

5π

z = 1 − i 3 = 2 cos + 2nπ + i sin + 2nπ
3 3
or
√
z = 1 − i 3 = 2[cos (300o + n360o ) + i sin (300o + n360o )]
where n is an integer.
Example 24
Express
√ each of the following complex numbers z in polar form
(i) 6 3 + 6i (ii) −3 (iii) 4i (iv) −3 − 4i.
Solution.
√ √
(i) For z = x + iy = 6 3 + i6,qx = 6 3 and y = 6 implying z lies in the
√ √ √
first quadrant. Hence, r = (6 3)2 + 62 = 12, tan θ = 6 6 3 = 3
√
and so θ = tan−1 3 = π3 or 60o . So, the polar form is
π π

z = 12 cos + i sin .
3 3
(ii) For z = x + iy = −3 = −3 + 0i, x = 3 and yq= 0 and so, z lies on
the negative x -axis and θ = π or 180o , r = (−3)2 + 02 = 3. Thus,
the polar form is,
z = 3 = 3(cos π + i sin π).

Solution Cont’d.
(iii) For z = x + iy = 4i = 0 + 4i, x = 0 and y√= 4. Then z lies on the
positive y -axis and so, θ = π2 or 90o . r = 02 + 42 = 4. Hence, the
polar for is
π π

z = 4i = 4 cos + i sin .
2 2
= −3 − 4i, x = −3 and y = −4. z lies in the third
(iv) For z = x + iy q
4
quadrant; r = (−3)2 + (−4)2 = 5, tan θ = 3 = 1.33333,
13
θ ≈ 233.1o or 10 π. Thus, the polar for is
13 13

z = 3 + 4i = 5 cos π + i sin π .
10 10
Example 25
Express each of the following complex numbers z in rectangular form.
(i) 8(cos 210o + i sin 210o ) (ii) 2(cos 315o + i sin 315o )
(iii) 4(cos 240o + i sin 240o ) (iv) 5(cos 128o + i sin 128o )
Solution.
(i) Since 210o is in the third √
quadrant, x and y will be negatives. Now
− 3
cos 210 = − cos 30 = 2 and sin 210o = − sin 30o = − 21 ,
o o
z = 8(cos 210o + i sin 210o ) = 8(− cos 30o − i sin 30o )

" √
√
#
3 1
=8 − −i = −4 3 − 4i.
2 2
is the required rectangular form.

(ii) Since 315o is in the fourth quadrant, x is positive and y is negatives.
So
2(cos 315o + i sin 315o ) = 2(cos 45o − i sin 45o )

√ √
1 1

= 2 √ −i√ = 2 − i 2.
2 2

Solution Cont’d.
(iii) Since 240o is in the third quadrant, both x and y will be negatives.
Now
z = 4(cos 240o + i sin 240o ) = 4(− cos 60o − i sin 60o )

√ !
1 3
=4 − −i
2 2
√
= −1 − 3.
(iv) Since 128o is in the second quadrant, x is negative and y is positive.

So
z = 5(cos 128o + i sin 128o ) = 5(− cos 52o + i sin 52o )

= 5(−0.6157 + i(0.7880))
= −3.0785 + 3.9400i

Example 26
Find the modulus and principal argument of the complex number
π
1 + cos α + i sin α, 0<α<
2
Solution.
Let 1 + cos α + i sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ). Equating real and imaginary
parts, we get
1 + cos α = r cos θ (5.1)

sin α = r sin θ (5.2)
x x x
= 2 cos2

By the fact that cos x = 2 cos 2 + 2 2 − 1, squaring and adding
(5.1) and (5.2), we get
r 2 cos2 θ + r 2 sin2 θ = (1 + cos α)2 + sin2 α.

Solution Contn’d.
r 2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = 1 + 2 cos α + cos2 α + sin2 α

α α

2 2
r = 1 + 2 cos α + 1 = 2(1 + cos α) = 2 1 + 2 cos − 1 = 4 cos2
2 2
Hence modulus, r = 2 cos α2 . From (5.1), we have,
1 + cos α 1 + cos α 1 + 2 cos2 α2 − 1 α

cos θ = = α = α = cos (5.3)
r 2 cos 2 2 cos 2 2
From (5.2), we have,
sin α 2 sin α2 cos α2 α

sin θ = = α = sin (5.4)
r cos 2 2

Solution Contn’d.
2 sin α2 cos α2
!
y sin α

−1
Argument = tan = tan−1 = tan −1
x 1 + cos α 1 + 2 cos2 α2 − 1
sin α2
!
−1
= tan
cos α2
α
= tan−1 tan
2
α
=
2
General value of argument = 2πk + α2 . θ = α

2 satisfied both equations,
(1.1) and (1.2).Therefore,
α α
| 1 + cos α + i sin α |= r = 2 cos and arg(1 + cos α + i sin α) =
2 2

Example 27
π 2π
Find the complex number z for which arg(z + 1) = 6 and arg(z − 1) = 3 .
Solution.
Let z = x + iy . Then z + 1 = (x + 1) + iy . We are also given that
y π

−1
arg(z + 1) = tan =
x +1 6
y π 1
=⇒ = tan = tan 30o = √
x +1 6 3
√
=⇒ 3y = x + 1
Similarly, z − 1 = (x − 1) + iy . We also given that
y 2π

−1
arg(z − 1) = tan =
x −1 3
y 2π √
=⇒ = tan = tan 120o = − cot 30 = − 3
x −1 3
Solution.
√ √ √
y = − 3x + 3 =⇒ − 3y = 3x − 3.
√ √
Solving 3y = x + 1 and − 3y = 3x − 3 simultaneously, we obtain
1
0 = 4x − 2 =⇒ x=
2
1
Putting x = 2 in any of the equations, we get
√
√ 1 3 3 3
3y = + 1 = =⇒ y= √ =
2 2 2 3 2
Putting the values of x and y in z = x + iy , we get
√
1 3
z = +i
2 2

Theorem 28 (Multiplication and Division in Polar Form)
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be any two complex numbers. Then,
(i) Multiplication: The modulus of the product of two complex
numbers is the product of their moduli, and the amplitude of the
product is the sum of their amplitudes.
| z1 z2 |=| z1 || z2 | and arg (z1 · z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2

(ii) Division: The modulus of the quotient of two complex numbers is
the modulus of the dividend divided by the modulus of the divisor,
and the amplitude of the quotient is the amplitude of the dividend
minus the amplitude of the divisor.
= | z1 | =

z1 z1

and arg = arg z1 − arg z2
z
2 | z2 | z2
Proof.
Let, z1 = x1 + iy1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and
z2 = x2 + iy2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ). Then | z1 |= r1 and | z2 |= r2 and
so,Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 44 / 94
Proof Contin’d.
(i) Multiplication:
z1 · z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) · r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

= r1 r2 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
= r1 r2 [cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )]
= r1 r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 )]
By identites of cos (θ1 + θ2 ) and sin (θ1 + θ2 )
Taking the absolute value on both sides, we see that, the absolute
value of a product equals the product of the absolute values of the
factors.
| z1 z2 |=| z1 || z2 |

Proof Cont’d.
value of a product equals the product of the absolute values of the
factors.
| z1 z2 |=| z1 || z2 |
Taking the arguments we see that, the argument of a product equals
to the sum of the arguments of the factors
arg (z1 · z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 (up to multiples of 2π)
(ii) Division:

Proof Cont’d.
z1 r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )

= =
z1 r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )(cos θ2 − i sin θ2 )
r1 [cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 − cos θ1 sin θ2 )]
=
r2 (cos2 θ2 + sin2 θ2 )
r1 [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )]
=
r2
r1
= [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )]
r2
By identites of cos (θ1 − θ2 ), sin (θ1 − θ2 ) and cos2 θ2 + sin2 θ2
value of a quotient of two complex numbers equals the absolute
values of the dividend divided by the absolute value of the divisor.
= | z1 |

z1
z
2 | z2 |

Proof Cont’d.
Taking the arguments we see that, the argument of a quotient equals to
the arguments of the dividend minus the argument of the divisor.
arg (z1 · z2 ) = arg z1 − arg z2 (up to multiples of 2π).
Example 29
√ √
Find the product and quotient of z1 = −1 + i 3 and z2 = − 3 + i by
using the trigonometric forms of the complex numbers. Write the answer
in standard form.
Proof.
Write each complex number in trigonometric or polar form. Then use the
product and quotient property of complex numbers. Clearly, r1 =| z1 |= 2,
θ1 = arg z1 = 2π 5π
3 and r2 =| z2 |= 2, θ2 = arg z2 = 6 . See Figure 8.
Hence,

Proof Cont’d.
√
2π 2π

z1 = −1 + i 3 = 2 cos + i sin
3 3
√
5π 5π

z2 = − 3 + i = 2 cos + i sin
6 6
Figure

Proof Cont’d.
(i) By the product property of complex numbers, we obtain,
2π 2π 5π 5π

z1 z2 = 2 cos + i sin · 2 cos + i sin
3 3 6 6
2π 5π 2π 5π

= 4 cos + + i sin +
3 6 3 6
3π 3π

= 4 cos + i sin = 4[0 − i] = −4i
2 2
(ii) Applying the quotient property of complex numbers, we have,

z1 2 cos 2π 2π
3 + i sin 3

2π 5π

2π 5π

= = 1 cos − + i sin −
z2 2 cos 5π 5π 3 6 3 6
6 + i sin 6
√
π π π π 3 1

= cos − + i sin − = cos − i sin = − i.
6 6 6 6 2 2

Example 30
π 2π
Find the complex number z for which arg(z + 1) = 6 and arg(z − 1) = 3 .
Solution.
Let z = x + iy . Then z + 1 = (x + 1) + iy . We are also given that
y π

−1
arg(z + 1) = tan =
x +1 6
y π 1 √
=⇒ = tan = tan 30o = √ =⇒ 3y = x + 1.
x +1 6 3
Similarly, z − 1 = (x − 1) + iy . We also given that
y 2π

arg(z − 1) = tan−1 =
x −1 3
y 2π √
=⇒ = tan = tan 120o = − cot 30 = − 3
x −1 3
√ √
=⇒ y = − 3x + 3
Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET)
√ MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 51 / 94
Solution Cont’d.
√ √
Solving 3y = x + 1 and − 3y = 3x − 3 simultaneously, we obtain
1
0 = 4x − 2 =⇒ x=
2
1
Putting x = 2 in any of the equations, we get
√
√ 1 3 3 3
3y = + 1 = =⇒ y= √ =
2 2 2 3 2
Putting the values of x and y in z = x + iy , we get
√
1 3
z = +i
2 2

Example 31
If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, such that
| z1 + z2 |=| z1 − z2 |, prove that arg z1 − arg z2 = π2 .
Solution.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + y2 . Since | z1 + z2 |=| z1 − z2 | it implies
that | z1 + z2 |2 =| z1 − z2 |2 and so,
| z1 + z2 |2 =| (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) |2 =| (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + iy2 ) |2

= (x1 + x2 )2 + (y1 + iy2 )2
= x12 + 2x1 x2 + x22 + y12 + 2y1 y2 + y22
| z1 − z2 |2 =| (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) |2 =| (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − iy2 ) |2

= (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − iy2 )2
= x12 − 2x1 x2 + x22 + y12 − 2y1 y2 + y22
Solution Cont’d.
Thus
x12 + 2x1 x2 + x22 + y12 + 2y1 y2 + y22 = x12 − 2x1 x2 + x22 + y12 − 2y1 y2 + y22
=⇒ 2x1 x2 + 2y1 y2 = −2x1 x2 − 2y1 y2
=⇒ 4x1 x2 + 4y1 y2 = 0 =⇒ x1 x2 + y1 y2 = 0
Now
y1 y2 !

y1

y2

x1 − x2
arg z1 − arg z2 = tan−1 − tan−1 = tan−1 y1 y2
x1 x2 1+ x1 x2
x2 y1 −x1 y2 !
x2 y1 − x1 y2

−1 x1 x2 −1
= tan x1 x2 +y1 y2 = tan
x1 x2
x1 x2 + y1 y2
x2 y1 − x1 y2 π

= tan−1 tan−1 (∞) =
0 2

De-Moivre’s Theorem and Rational Powers of Complex
Numbers
De Moivre’s Theorem is a procedure for finding powers and roots of
complex numbers when the complex numbers are expressed in
trigonometric form. This theorem can be illustrated by repeated
multiplication of a complex number:
Theorem 32 (De-Moivre’s Theorem)
Let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ). For any rational number n the value or one of
the values of z n is
z n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ)
Proof.
We prove this theorem by Mathematical induction which suffices to look
at three cases. Now, Let z = r [cos θ + i sin θ]. Then
Case I: Let n be a positive integer. By actual multiplication; For
n=2
Proof Cont’d.
z 2 = z · z = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)][r (cos θ + i sin θ)]

= r 2 [(cos θ cos θ − sin θ sin2 θ) + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ sin θ)]
= r 2 [cos (θ + θ) − i sin (θ + θ)]
= r 2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ)
Similarly, for n = 3
z 3 = z · z · z = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)][r (cos θ + i sin θ2 )][r (cos θ3 + i sin θ)]

= r 2 [cos 2θ + i sin 2θ] · r [cos θ + i sin θ3 ]
= r 3 [cos (2θ + θ) − i sin (2θ + θ)]
= r 3 [cos 3θ + i sin 3θ]
Continuing in this way up-to n times, we obatin
Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) n 475-nCOMPLEX ANALYSIS

MATH 2021/2022 56 / 94
Proof Cont’d.
Case II: Let n be a negative integer, say n = −m where m is a
positive integer. Then
z n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]−m

1 1
= m
= m
[r (cos θ + i sin θ)] [r (cos mθ + i sin mθ)]
1 cos mθ − i sin mθ
= m ·
r (cos mθ + i sin mθ) cos mθ − i sin mθ
cos mθ − i sin mθ cos mθ − i sin mθ
= m 2 =
2
r (cos mθ + i sin mθ) rm
cos (−mθ) + i sin (−mθ)
= = r −m (cos (−mθ) + i sin (−mθ)
rm
= r n (cos (nθ) + i sin (nθ).
The theorem is true all rational values of n.

Example 33
Find the value of [(2(cos 30o + i sin 30o ]5 and write the answer in standard
rectangular form.
Solution.
By applying De-Moivre’s theorem, we have
[2(cos 30o + i sin 30o ]5 = 25 (cos (5 · 30o ) + i sin (5 · 30o )

= 32(cos 150o + i sin 150o
= 32(− cos 30 + i sin 30o
"√
√
#
3 1
= 32 + i = −16 3 + 16i
2 2

Example 34
Use De-Moivre’s Theorem to simplify
3
3 cos π4 + i cos π4

π π
6
3 cos 24 + i cos 24
and writing your answer in the form x + iy .
Solution.
By applying De-Moivre’s theorem,
3 3 3
3 cos π4 + i cos π4 33 cos π4 + i cos π4 33 cos π4 + i cos π4

6 = =
36 cos π4 + i cos π4

π π
36 cos 6π + i cos 6π

3 cos 24 + i cos 24 24 24
27 π π 2 1 2π 2π

= cos + i cos = cos + i cos
729 4 4 27 4 4
1 π π 1 1

= cos + i cos = (0 + i) = i
27 2 2 27 27

Example 35
Find (1 + i)8 using De-Moivre’s Theorem. Write the answer in standard
form.
Solution.
Convert 1 + i to trigonometric form and then use De-Moivre’s Theorem:
Now for z = x + iy = √ 1 + i, x = 1 √
and y = 1 implying z lies in the first
quadrant. Hence, r = 12 + 12 = 2 and θ = arg z = tan −1 1 = π or
√ 4
o pi pi
45 . The polar form is then 1 + i = 2 cos 4 + i sin 4 (or
√
1 + i = 2(cos 45o + i sin 45o )).
Applying De-moivre’s Theorem, we obtain
√ √ 8
π π 8 8π 8π

8
(1 + i) = 2 cos + i sin = ( 2) cos + i sin
4 4 4 4
= 16(cos 2π + i sin 2π) = 16(1 + 0i) = 16

Example 36
Express the following in the form x + iy = r (cosθ + i sin θ) using
De-Moivre’s Theorem.
1
(i) (cos θ + i sin θ)10 (ii) 3
(cos θ+i sin θ) 2
(cos θ+i sin θ)8
(iii) (sin θ + i cos θ)8 (iv) (sin θ+i cos θ)4
Solution.
By applying De-Moivre’s theorem, we have:
(i) In (cos θ + i sin θ)11
(cos θ + i sin θ)11 = (cos 11θ + i sin 11θ)

1
(ii) For 3
(cos θ+i sin θ)− 2
1 3 3

3
3 = (cos θ + i sin θ)− 2 = cos − θ + i sin − θ
(cos θ + i sin θ)− 2 2 2
3 3
= cos θ − i sin θ
2 2
Solution Cont’d.
(iii) For (sin θ + i cos θ)8
5
1

8
(sin θ + i cos θ) = i sin θ + cos θ = i 8 (−i sin θ + cos θ)8
i
= (cos θ − i sin θ)8 = cos 8θ −
(cos θ+i sin θ)8

(iv) For (sin θ+i cos θ)4
(cos θ + i sin θ)8 (cos θ + i sin θ)8 (cos θ + i sin θ)8

= =
(sin θ + i cos θ)4 i 4 (cos θ + 1i sin θ)4 (cos θ − i sin θ)4
(cos θ + i sin θ)8 (cos θ + i sin θ)8
= =
(cos (−θ) + i sin (−θ)) 4 ([cos θ + i sin θ]−1 )4
(cos θ + i sin θ)8
= = (cos θ + i sin θ)12
(cos θ + i sin θ)−4
= cos 12θ + i sin 12θ
The nth - Roots of a Complex Number
De-Moivre’s Theorem can be used to find the nth roots of any complex
number.
Theorem 37
A complex number x + iy = r [cos θ + i sin θ] has exactly n distinct nth
roots.
Solution.
We know from trigonometry that, cos θ = cos (θ + 2kπ) and
sin θ = sin (θ + 2kπ) for all k ∈ R. So,
r [cos θ + i sin θ] = r [cos (θ + 2kπ) + i sin (θ + 2kπ)] (6.1)
Taking the nth root both sides of (6.1) and applying De-Moivre’s theorem,
we obtain

Solution Cont’d.
1 1
(r [cos θ + i sin θ]) n = (r [cos (θ + 2kπ) + i sin (θ + 2kπ)]) n
√ (θ + 2kπ) (θ + 2kπ)

n
= r cos + i sin
n n
Giving k the values 0, 1, 2, 3, ....n − 1 successively, we obtain the following

1
n values of (r [cos θ + i sin θ]) n
√ h i
When k = 0, n
r cos nθ + i sin nθ
√ h i
When k = 1, n
r cos 2π+θ + i sin 2π+θ
√ h n n i
When k = 2, n
r cos 4π+θ n + i sin 4π+θ
n i
√n
h
6π+θ

6π+θ
When k = 3, r cos n + i sin n
When k = n − 1,
√ h i
n
r cos 2(n−1)π+θ
n + i sin 2(n−1)π+θ
n
When k = n,

Solution Cont’d.
√ 2nπ + θ 2nπ + θ √ θ θ

n n
r cos + i sin = r cos 2π + + i sin 2π +
n n n n
√ θ θ

= n r cos + i sin
n n
which is the same as the value for k = 0.

1
Thus, the values of (cos θ + i sin θ) n for k = n, n + 1, n + 2, ..., are the
mere repetition of the first n values as obtained above.
Example 38
Find all fifth roots of 4 + 4i
Solution.
For z = x + iy = 4 − 4i,
q x = 4 and y = 4 and so, z lies in the fourth
√ √
2 2
quadrant. Hence, r = 4 + (−4) = 32 = 4 2 and

−4
θ = tan−1 4 = tan−1 (−1) = 315o = 7π 4 . The usual polar form of
√ √
4−
Dr.4i is 4 2(cos
D. Mukonda 315o + i sin
(RU/SET) MATH315 o ) = 4 2(cos 45o − i sin 45o ).
475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 65 / 94
Solution Cont’d.
But,
√ we shall need the more general form
4 2(cos (315o + k360o ) + i sin (315o + k360o )), where k is any integer,
including zero. Using De-Moivre’s theorem, a fifth roots of 4 + 4i are
given by
1 √ 1
zk = [4 + 4i] 5 = [4 2(cos (315o + k360o ) + i sin (315o + k360o ))] 5
√ 1 315o + k360o 315o + k360o

= [4 2] 5 cos + i sin
5 5
√ o o o
= 2(cos (63 + k72 ) + i sin (63 + k72))
Assigning in turn the values√k = 0, 1, ..., we find

when k = 0, z0 = √2(cos 63o + i sin 63o )
when k = 4, z4√= 2(cos 351o + i sin 351o )√
when k = 5 z5 = 2(cos 423o + i sin 423o ) = 2(cos 63o + i sin 63o )
Solution Cont’n.
and so on. Thus, the five fifth roots are obtained by assigning the values
0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n − 1) to√k.
The modulus
√ of each of the roots is 2 hence these roots lie on a circle of
radius 2 with center at the origin. The difference in amplitude of two
consecutive roots is 72o hence the roots are equally spaced on this circle,
as shown in Fig 9.
Figure
Example 1
Find the indicated roots in rectangular form, except when this would
necessitate the use of tables.
√ √ √
(i) Square roots of 2 − 2i √ 3 (ii) Cube roots of −4 2 + 4i 2
(iii) Fourth roots of −8 − 8i 3
Solution.
√
(i) 2 − 2i 3, lies in the fourth quadrant since the real part is positive
and imaginary
√ part
is negative.√So,
−1 −2 3
θ = tan 2 = tan−1 (− 3) = 300o = 5π 3 and
q √ √
r = 22 + (−2 3)2 = 14 = 4. Hence, we have
√
2 − 2i 3 = 4[cos 300o + i sin 300o ]
= 4[cos (300o + k360o ) + i sin (300o + k360o )]

Solution Cont’d.
q √ 1
=⇒ 2 − 2i 3 = (4[cos (300o + k360o ) + i sin (300o + k360o )]) 2
= 2[cos (150o + k180o ) + i sin (150o + k180o )]
Putting k = 0 and 1, the required roots are
z1 = 2[cos (150o ) + i sin (150o )] = 2[− cos (30o ) + i sin (30o )]

" √
√
#
3 1
=2 − +i =− 3+i
2 2
z2 = 2[cos (330o ) + i sin (330o )] = 2[cos (30o ) − i sin (30o )]

"√
√
#
3 1
=2 −i = 3−i
2 2

Solution Cont’d.
√ √
(ii) −4 2 + 4i 2, lies in the second quadrant since the real part is
negative and
imaginary
√ part is positive. So,
θ = tan−1 4 √2
= tan−1 (−1) = 135o = 3π
−4 2 4 and
q √ √ √
r = (−4 2)2 + (4 2)2 = 64 = 8. Hence, we have
√ √
−4 2 + 4i 2 = 8[cos 135o + i sin 135o ])
= 4[cos (135o + k360o ) + i sin (135o + k360o )]
implying
q
3 √ √ 1
−4 2 + 4i 2 = (8[cos (135o + k360o ) + i sin (135o + k360o )]) 3
= 2[cos (45o + k120o ) + i sin (45o + k120o )]
Putting k = 0, 1, 2, the required roots are

Solution Cont’d.

√ √
1 1

= 2 √ −i√ = 2+i 2
2 2
z1 = 2[cos (165o ) + i sin (165o )] = 2[− cos (15o ) − i sin (15o )]

= 2[− cos (60o − 45o ) + i sin (60o − 45o )]
= 2[−[cos 60o cos 45o + sin 60o sin 45o ] + i[sin 60o cos 45o − cos 60o sin
" √ ! √ !#
1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1
=2 − ·√ + ·√ +i ·√ − ·√
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
" √ √ # √ √
1+ 3 −1 + 3 1+ 3 1− 3
=2 − √ +i √ =− √ −i √
2 2 2 2 2 2

Solution Cont’d.
√ √
−4 2 + 4i 2, lies in the second quadrant since the real part is
negative and
imaginary
√ part is positive. So,
θ = tan−1 4 √2
= tan−1 (−1) = 135o = 3π
−4 2 4 and
q √ √ √
r = (−4 2)2 + (4 2)2 = 64 = 8. Hence, we have
√ √
−4 2 + 4i 2 = 8[cos 135o + i sin 135o ])
= 4[cos (135o + k360o ) + i sin (135o + k360o )]
implying
q
3 √ √ 1
−4 2 + 4i 2 = (8[cos (135o + k360o ) + i sin (135o + k360o )]) 3
= 2[cos (45o + k120o ) + i sin (45o + k120o )]
Putting k = 0, 1, 2, the required roots are

Solution Cont’d.

√ √
1 1

=2 √ −i √ = 2+i 2
2 2
z1 = 2[cos (165o ) + i sin (165o )] = 2[− cos (15o ) − i sin (15o )]

= 2[− cos (60o − 45o ) + i sin (60o − 45o )]
= 2[−[cos 60o cos 45o + sin 60o sin 45o ] + i[sin 60o cos 45o − cos 60o sin
" √ ! √ !#
1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1
=2 − ·√ + ·√ +i ·√ − ·√
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
" √ √ # √ √
1+ 3 −1 + 3 1+ 3 1− 3
=2 − √ +i √ =− √ −i √ .
2 2 2 2 2 2

Solution Cont’d.

= 2[cos (45o + 30o ) − i sin (45o + 30o )]
= 2[[cos 45o cos 30o − sin 45o sin 30o ] − i[sin 45o cos 30o + cos 45o sin 3
" √ ! √ !#
1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3
=2 √ · −√ · −i √ · + √ ·
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
" √ √ # √ √
−1 + 3 1+ 3 1− 3 1+ 3
=2 √ −i √ =− √ −i √
2 2 2 2 2 2
√
(iii) −8 − 8i 3 lies√inthe third quadrant and so,
√
θ = tan−1 −8−8 3 = tan−1 ( 3) = 240o = 4π 3 and
q √ √
r = (−8)2 + (−8 3)2 = 256 = 16. Hence, we have
√ 1
−8 − 8i 3 = 4[cos 240o + i sin 240o ]) 2
= 4[cos (240o + k360o ) + i sin (240o + k360o )]
Solution Cont’d.
q
4 √ 1
=⇒ −8 − 8i 3 = (16[cos (240o + k360o ) + i sin (240o + k90o )]) 4
= 2[cos (60o + k180o ) + i sin (60o + k90o )]
Putting k = 0, 1, 2, 3, the required roots are
√ #
√
"
o o 1 3
z0 = 2[cos (60 ) + i sin (60 )] = +i =1+i 3
2 2
" √
√
#
3 1
z1 = 2[cos (150o ) + i sin (150o )] = 2 − +i =− 3+i
2 2
√ #
√
"
1 3
z2 = 2[cos (240o ) + i sin (240o )] = 2 − − i = −1 − i 3
2 2
"√
√
#
3 1
z3 = 2[cos (330o ) + i sin (330o )] = 2 −i = 3−i
2 2
Example 39
Solve the equation z 4 + i = 0
Solution.
1
z 4 + i = 0 implies z 4 = −i giving z − (−1) 4 . Hence, we need to find the
fourth roots of −i. Now, −i lies in the negative y -axis and so,
θ = 270o = 3π 2 . Hence, we have
3π 3π π π
z 4 = −i = cos + i sin = cos − i sin
2 2 2 2
π π

= cos 2kπ + − i sin 2kπ +
2 2
implying
1
π π (4n + 1)π (4n + 1)π

4
z = cos 2kπ + − i sin 2kπ + = cos − i sin
2 2 8 8

Solution Cont’d.
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, 3 we get the roots as
π π 5π 5π
z0 = cos − i sin z1 = cos − i sin
8 8 8 8
9π 9π 13π 13π
z2 = cos − i sin z3 = cos − i sin
8 8 8 8

Example 40
√ 4
Find all distinct values of z = ( 3 + i) 3 and write your answer in standard
form.
Solution.
√
We write z in polar form. Now, 3 + i lies in the first quadrant since both
the real and imaginary parts are positive , and so
q √ √ 1 π

r= ( 3)2 + 12 = 4 = 2 and θ = tan−1 √ = 30o = .
3 6
Hence
√ π π
3 + i = 2 cos + i sin
6 6
By applying De-Moivre’s theorem, we obtain

Solution Cont’d.
√ 4
π π 3

4 4
z = ( 3 + i) = 2 cos
3 3 + i sin
6 6
1
2π 2π

4 3
=2 3 cos + i sin
3 3
1
2π 2π

4 3
= 2 cos 2πk +
3 + i sin 2πk +
3 3
π π

4
= 2 3 cos (6k + 2) + i sin (6k + 2) .
9 9
Putting k = 0, 1, 2, we get the following values below
2π 2π 8π 8π

4 4
zo = 2 3 cos + i sin , z1 = 2 3 cos + i sin ,
9 9 9 9
14π 14π

4
z2 = 2 3 cos + i sin .
9 9
Locus of Points in the complex plane
1 (Circles and Locus of Points)
Let us consider the equation
| z − zo |= r (7.1)
with zo being a fixed point and r a real number. Recall that, | z − zo | is

the modulus or length of z − zo , that is, the length of the line joining zo to
a variable z. Thus, Equation 7.1 is the locus of a point z, moving so that
the length of the line joining a fixed point zo to z is always r . Hence, the
locus of z is a circle of radius r centered at zo .

Example 41
State and sketch the locus of points z for which | z − 2 − 3i |= 3.
Solution.
The locus of points z is | z − 2 − 3i |= 3 ⇐⇒ | z − (2 + 3i) |= 3 which is
a circle of radius 3 centered at 2 + 3i.
Figure

There are however, other ways of using complex numbers to describe
circles as in the next theorem.
Theorem 42
Let z1 and z2 be distinct complex numbers and λ be a positive real
number not equal to 1. Suppose that the locus of P(z) is drawn so that
the length of the line joining P to z1 is λ times the length of the line
joining P to z2 , see figure 12. Then, those z form a circle with
| z − z1 |= λ| z − z2 | (7.2)
Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET)

Figure
Proof.
To see that | z − z1 |= λ| z − z2 | represents a circle, assume that
z ≡ x + iy , 0 < λ < 1, z1 ≡ x1 + y1 and z2 ≡ x2 + y2 . By the definition of
the length between two points, we have
q
| z − z1 |=| (x − x1 ) + i(y − y1 ) |= (x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2
and
q
| z − z2 |=| (x − x2 ) + i(y − y2 ) |= (x − x2 )2 + (y − y2 )2
Therefore, | z − z1 |= λ| z − z2 | can be expressed as
q q
(x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2 = λ (x − x2 )2 + (y − y2 )2
Squaring both sides, we get

(x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2 = λ2 [(x − x2 )2 + (y − y2 )2 ] so that,

Proof Cont’d.
x 2 − 2xx1 + x12 + y 2 − 2yy1 + y12 =

= λ2 x 2 − 2λ2 xx2 + λ2 x22 + λ2 y 2 − 2λ2 yy2 + λ2 y22
=⇒ (1 − λ2 )x 2 + (1 − λ2 )y 2 − x (2x1 − 2λ2 x2 ) − y (2y1 − 2λ2 y2 )

+ x12 + y12 − λ2 x22 − λ2 y22 = 0
In this equation, the coefficient of x 2 and y 2 are the same and there is no
term in xy . Therefore, if λ 6= 1, the locus of z is a circle and the diameter
of this circle lies on the line joining z1 and z2 . And if λ = 1 then, we
obtain a straight line equidistant form z1 and z2 .
Example 43
1
Find the locus of points z such that | z + i |= 3 | z − 1 |.
Solution.
1
For | z + i |= 3 | z − 1 |, let z = x + iy , then we have
1
| (x + iy ) + i |= | (x + iy ) − 1 |
3
1
=⇒ | (x + i(y + 1) |= | x − 1 + iy |
3
q
1q
=⇒ x 2 + (y + 1)2 = (x − 1)2 + y 2
3
q
1q 2
=⇒ x 2 + y 2 + 2y + 1 = x − 2x + 1 + y 2
3
1
=⇒ x 2 + y 2 + 2y + 1 = (x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 ) By squaring both sides
9
=⇒ 9x + 9y + 18y + 9 = x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2
2 2
=⇒ 8x 2 + 2x + 8y 2 + 18y + 8 = 0

Solution Cont’d.
By completing the square on 8x 2 + 2x + 8y 2 + 18y + 8 = 0:
1 9 1 1 1 2

=⇒ x 2 + x + y 2 + y + 1 = 0 =⇒ x 2 + x + ×
4 4 4 2 4
1 1 2 9 1 9 2 1 9 2

2
− × +y + y + × − × +1=0
2 4 4 2 4 2 4
2 2
1 1 1 9 9 81
=⇒ x2 + x + − + y2 + y + − +1=0
4 8 64 4 8 64
1 2 9 2 18

=⇒ x+ + y+ − =0
8 8 64
1 2 9 2 18

=⇒ x+ + y+ =
8 8 64
√
18
Hence, the circle is of radius r = 8 with center − 18 , − 98 or
− 18 − 98 i.

Example 44
Describe the set of points z in the complex plane that satisfy
| z − 2 |= 3 | z + 2 | .
Solution.
Let z = x + iy , then we have
| z − 2 |= 3 | z + 2 |⇐⇒| x + iy − 2 |= 3 | x + iy + 2 | So,
| x − 2 + iy |= 3 | x + 2 + iy |
q q
=⇒ (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 3 (x + 2)2 + y 2
=⇒ (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 9[(x + 2)2 + y 2 ] by squaring both sides
=⇒ x 2 − 4x + 4 + y 2 = 9[x 2 + 4x + 4 + y 2 ]
=⇒ x 2 − 4x + 4 + y 2 = 9x 2 + 36x + 36 + 9y 2
=⇒ 8x 2 + 40x + 32 + 8y 2 = 0 =⇒ x 2 + y 2 + 5x + 4 = 0

Solution.
Completing the square of x 2 + y 2 + 5x + 4 = 0, we get
x 2 + y 2 + 5x + 5 = 0
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1

2
⇒ x + 5x + ×5 − × 5 + y2 ×0 − ×0 +4=0
2 2 2 2
2
5 25
⇒ x 2 + 5x + − + y 2 + 02 − 02 + 4 = 0
2 4
5 2 5

⇒ x+ + (y + 0)2 − = 0
2 4
5 2 9

⇒ x+ + (y + 0)2 =
2 4
√
Therefore, this is a circle centered − 52 , 0 and radius 5
2 . Its equation is
√
z + 25 = 25 .


Solution Cont’d.
Figure

2 (Lines and Locus of Points)
Let zo be a fixed point. Suppose the line joining zo and z has an argument
θ with respect to the positive real axis. Then the point z satisfies the locus
arg(z − zo ) = θ (7.3)
This is a half line, starting at zo , inclined at θ to the real axis. It is called

a half line because we want only that part of the line which starts at zo .
Figure

Example 45
Start and sketch the locus of arg (z − 2) = π3 .
Solution.
From arg (z − 2) = π3 , we have, z − 2 = 0 implying z = 2 + i0 = (2, 0)
and also θ = π3 . Hence, this locus is a half-line starting at (2, 0), inclined
at an angle π3 .
Figure
Theorem 46
Let z1 and z2 be distinct complex numbers. Suppose the locus of P(z) is
drawn so that the line joining P to z1 is equal in length to the line joining
P to z2 . Then, those z with
| z − z1 |=| z − z2 | (7.4)
is a perpendicular bisector of a line joining z1 and z2 ( i.e., is straight line

equidistant from z1 and z2 ) .
Proof.
The proof is a consequence of the proof of Theorem 42 with the case
λ = 1.

Example 47
State the locus of | z − 3 |=| z − 2i |.
Solution.
Let z = x + iy . Then | z − 3 |=| z − 2i |=⇒| x + iy − 3 |=| x + iy − 2i |.
So,
| x − 3 + iy | =| x + i(y − 2) |
q q
=⇒ (x − 3)2 + y 2 = x 2 + (y − 2)2
=⇒ (x − 3)2 + y 2 = x 2 + (y − 2)2 By squaring both sides
=⇒ x 2 − 6x + 9 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 − 4y + 4
=⇒ −6x + 9 = −4y + 4
=⇒ 4y − 6x = 5.
Since the equality is true for arbitrary x and y , 4y − 6x = 5 is an equation

of the slant line.
References
[1] Ahlfors, L., Complex Analysis, McGraw–Hill, New York, 1966.

[2] Aufmann R. N, , V. C. Barker and R. D. Nation. (2008), College Algebra and
Trigonometry. 7th Edition, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
[3] Brown, J. W. and R. V. Churchill, (1984) Complex Variables and Applications.
4th ed., McGraw-Hill. ISBN: 0 073 051949.
[4] Brown, J. W. and R. V. Churchill, (2009) Complex Variables and Applications.
4th ed., McGraw-Hill.ISBN 978-0-07-305194-9
[5] Dass H. K. (2008), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, S. Chand & Company
Pvt. Ltd., 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi.
[6] Goodman, A. W. (1969), Analytic Geometry and the Calculus, Second Edition,
Collier-Macmillan.
[7] Spiegal M. R. and Wrede M. (2002). Advance Calculus, Theories and Problems.
Schaum’s Outline Series, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc, USA.
[8] Schimdt P. A, and Ayres F. (1958). Collage Mathematics, Theories and Problems.
Schaum’s Outline Series, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc, USA.
[9] Zill D. E. (1985), Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Prindle Welber and Shmidt,
Boston

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Math 475-Complex Analysis Topic 1

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Math 475-Complex Analysis Topic 1

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MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES, RUSANGU UNIVERSITY

Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 1 / 94

1 Pure Imaginary numbers and Complex Numbers

2 Algebraic Operations of Complex Numbers

3 The Complex Plane or Argand Diagram

4 Modulus and Argument of a Complex Number

5 Polar or Trigonometric Representation of Complex Numbers

6 De-Moivre’s Theorem and Rational Power of a Complex Number

7 Locus of Points in the complex plane

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Definition 1 (Pure Imaginary numbers)

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For the complex number x + iy, if x = 0 then the number iy is said to be

2 (Addition of Complex Numbers)

z + w = (3 + 4i) + (7 + 2i) = (3 + 7) + (4i + 2i) = 10 + 6i

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z − w = (3 + 4i) − (7 + 2i) = (3 − 7) + (4i − 2i) = −4 + 2i.

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Because i 4 = 1, (i 4 )n = 1n = 1 for any integer n. Thus it is possible to

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i 36 = i 4×9+0 = (i 4 )9 (i)0 = (1)9 = 1

i 49 = i 4×12+1 = ((i 4 )12 )(i) = (1)12 (i) = i

i 86 = i 4×21+2 = ((i 4 )21 )(i 2 ) = (1)21 (−1) = −1

Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 9 / 94

zw = (3 + 4i)(7 + 2i) = 3(7 + 2i) + 4i(7 + 2i)

Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 10 / 94

For example, 2 − 3i is the complex conjugate of 2 + 3i, and the complex

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Sum : z + z = (5 − 3i) + (5 + 3i) = 5 + 5 − 3i + 3i = 10

Product : z · z = (5 − 3i)(5 + 3i) = 25 + 15i − 15i − 9i 2 = 25 − 9(−1) = 34

Difference : z + z = (5 − 3i) − (5 + 3i) = (5 − 5| + (−3i − 3i) = −9i

z x + iy (x + iy )(u − iv ) xu − x (iv ) + (iy )u − (iy )(iv )

Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 13 / 94

z 1+i (1 + i)(3 − 4i) 3 − 4i + 3i − 4i 2

Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 14 / 94

(5 − 3i)(7 + i) 35 + 5i − 21i − 3i 2 35 − 16i + 3 38 − 16i

(5 − 3i)(7 + i) 38 − 16i (38 − 16i)(2 + i) 76 + 16 + 38i − 32i

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The position of the point P(x , y ) representing z = x + iy on the Argand

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(i) the principal value of 120o is 60o

(i) the principal value of 240o is −120o .

(ii) the principal value of 330o is −30o .

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Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) Figure

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| zw |=| z || w | and arg (z · w ) = arg z + arg w

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| zw | =| (x + iy )(u + iv ) |=| xu + ixv + iyu − yv |

Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 26 / 94

| z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 )

Simplifying we get, | z1 | − | z2 |≤| z1 − z2 |. Hence,

| z1 + z2 |2 =| (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) |2 =| (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + iy2 ) |2

| z1 − z2 |2 =| (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) |2 =| (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − iy2 ) |2

| z1 |2 = x12 + y12 and | z2 |2 = x22 + y22

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LHS =| z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 − z2 |2 = (x1 + x2 )2 + (y1 + iy2 )2 + (x1 − x2 )2

| z1 |=| z1 − z2 + z2 |≤| z1 − z2 | + | z2 |=⇒| z1 | − | z2 |≤| z1 − z2 |

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| z1 | − | −z2 |≤| z1 + z2 |=⇒| z1 | − | z2 |≤| z1 + z2 |

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z = x + iy = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ).

We call z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) the polar or trigonometric form of the

Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) Figure

Note that z may also be represented in polar form by

z = 3 = 3(cos π + i sin π).

Dr. D. Mukonda (RU/SET) MATH 475- COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2021/2022 36 / 94

z = 8(cos 210o + i sin 210o ) = 8(− cos 30o − i sin 30o )

is the required rectangular form.