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 Communication for Development (ComDev) - results oriented

communication process based on dialogue and participation, that allows
farmers and rural people to voice their opinions, share knowledge and
actively engage in their own development.
 Can maximize the impact of development initiatives, fostering multi-
stakeholders dialogue, informed decision making and collective action.
 As defined during the World Congress on Communication for
Development in 2006:
COMMUNICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT “ ComDev is a social process based on dialogue using a broad range of
(COMDEV) tools and methods. ComDev is about seeking change at different levels
including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building
policies, debating, and learning for sustained and meaningful change. It
is not public relations or corporate communications.”

 Fraser and Restrepo-Estrada (1998):

“ ComDev is the use of communication processes, techniques, and

media to help people gain a full awareness of their situation and
their options to change, to resolve conflicts, to work towards
consensus, to help people plan actions for change and sustainable
development, to help people acquire the knowledge and skills they
need to improve their condition and that of society, and to improve
the effectiveness of institutions.”

 Involves the systematic use of participatory communication methods

to facilitate information and knowledge sharing among all
stakeholders.

 Rather than solely focusing on the media and technologies used, it Participatory ComDev planning
encourages stakeholders’ empowerment through dialogue,
Participatory planning
knowledge exchange and mutual learning.
It is essential to involve rural stakeholders and local community
In sum, ComDev is NOT: members as active partners in the diagnosis, discussion and problem-
solving process.
 a one-way, top-down transfer of information;
Participation, one of ComDev’s pillars, entails:
 technology transfer or diffusion of innovations;
“ the equitable and active involvement of all stakeholders in the
 just a matter of getting the message right or mounting public formulation of development policies and strategies and in the analysis,
awareness campaigns; planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of development
activities” (FAO, 2004)
 a social marketing effort persuading to adopt new behaviours.

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 The level of participation can be minimal (e.g. information-

gathering or consultations) or more active (e.g. identifying,
prioritizing and designing programme activities).

 Oltheten (1999) describes participatory planning as joint actions

of local people and project staff in formulating a development
plan and selecting the best available alternatives for
implementing it.

 During participatory planning, a learning process of dialogue,

negotiation and decision-making takes place among project
stakeholders and project staff. Through it, project activities are
aligned to local needs, constraints and opportunities.
 Participatory planning gives people a say and ensures that
development interventions are appropriate to the needs and
preferences of intended stakeholders.

The ComDev planning process ComDev planning is therefore a dynamic process, adjustable
Communication planning requires a clearly defined strategy according to the situation, the time and resources available
with specific goals, established in advance, and a measurable and, most importantly, the agenda of project stakeholders.
impact on the intended stakeholders. The process is divided into four distinct phases.
Phase 1: Participatory communication appraisal: ( Studying
the context, including key issues at stake, policy framework,
stakeholders’ characteristics, views and resources, analysis of
the situation)
Phase 2: Design of communication strategy and plan: define
clear, stakeholder-specific communication objectives and
intended results; formulation of the ComDev strategy)
Phase 3: Implementation of the ComDev plan
P-Process: Steps in strategic Phase 4: Result assessment and sustainability
communication

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PARTICIPATORY RURAL COMMUNICATION APPRAISAL Distinctive features of the PRCA methodology:

PRCA is a communication research method to carry out
communication assessment in a participatory way.  listening process;
The PRCA presents three major advantages (Bessette, 2004):
 communication between equals;
 gives a chance for stakeholders to participate in planning
a project that meets their needs from their own
 inclusion of people’s perspectives;
perspective;
 builds ownership of and commitment to the project;  acknowledgment of people as drivers of change;
 ensures relevance to the people and contributes to
project sustainability.  part of a larger transformation process into proactive
 Generates a lot of information in a limited time span about and empowered rural communities.
the characterization of a targeted community or group.

Purpose
How to do it
 Identification of what; why and how
 Assists the participants in expressing their opinions to
 Ensure the problems being addressed really perceived
as such. identify, assess and prioritize communication-
related issues.
 Validating the results of situation analysis with local
stakeholders  Learning from the Rural People
 Avoids biased planning and,
 Maps, focus group discussions (FGD) and the problem
 Allows for prioritization of issues that are relevant to tree, but also scoring and ranking tools.
both people’s needs and the project’s mandate and
capacity.

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Phase I:

Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal (PRCA) Preliminary identification of key issues

 The first dimension of situation analysis is the identification of key

 Field research method that uses participatory development issues being tackled and their cause-effect
techniques to generate information about relationship, in order to detect potential entry points for
communication stakeholders and processes. Communication Intervention.

 To spot in particular those social and cultural elements,

 It gives people a chance to participate in developing knowledge gaps or opportunities that are closely related to
Communication initiatives that meet their needs, reflect communication and which communication can help reduce, or
their perspectives, and build ownership of and maximize, as a step towards achieving development goals.
commitment to the project.
 These entry points will need to later be validated with
stakeholders and constitute the basis to determine the objectives
of the strategy

 Commonly done using techniques such as brainstorming and the Analysis of policies and programs
problem tree
 Aims to identify national and local policies, programs and services
 The problems or causes that lend themselves to a communication that can impede or foster the implementation of the plan.
intervention are the potential entry points
 Contribute significantly to the success of the communication
effort,

 Important to recognize that gaining the support of policy makers

is an essential part in the planning.

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Answers to: Organizational mapping

What are the national and local policies, guidelines and  Reviewing the existing organizations and institutions working in the
institutional arrangements concerning the rural development target area to explore cooperation and opportunities for collaboration.
issues addressed by the project and, more specifically, relevant  Partnership and alliance with other organizations doing similar work
to the communication entry points identified? can ensure a more effective project implementation.

What are the national and local policies, guidelines and  Based on this, potential partners in Communication Intervention
implementation can be readily selected.
institutional arrangements related to people’s participation
and/or communication aspects? How to do it
 What are the key organizations or institutions already active in
What programs and services exist related to the plan? To what addressing the development issue under consideration (e.g. food
extent are these services available and used? How can they be security, climate change, disaster risk reduction, etc.)?
strengthened?  Which of these organizations can carry out a communication
Who are the policy makers and opinion leaders whose support program?
would facilitate your efforts?  What are the existing organizations with a specific mandate in
communication, participation and community mobilization?
 What are the local media that could partner with the project?

Assessing organizations as strategic partners: the 5 Cs Prioritization of communication issues

Competence  listening to project stakeholders and target groups to find out their real
 Does the organization have sufficient cash flow and reserves, a financial accounting needs, understand the different perceptions and avoid assumptions.
system, bank accounts and regular audits?
 Precondition to make project design and implementation a bottom-up
 Does it have experience with similar activities?
 Does it have a positive image and a reputation for high quality work? process, to ensure ownership and to develop local capacities for
managing the process.
Commitment
 Does the organization support addressing rural development issues?  define a baseline picture that can be used later to assess whether or not
 Does it support a strong role for communication? communication efforts have made their intended impact.
Clout (Influence/Power) Purpose
 Does the organization have contacts and access to policy makers and influential people?
 Does it have political support for its work?  the identification of what the main development issues affecting the
community are, why are they happening, and how communication could
Coverage help, as described by the stakeholders themselves.
 Is the organization able to reach intended stakeholders, including different geographic
areas, age groups, or other population segments?  ensure that the problems being addressed are really perceived as such.

Continuity  allows for prioritization of issues that are relevant to both people’s
 How long has it been in operation?
needs and the project’s mandate and capacity
 Has it carried out comparable projects effectively in the past?
 Does it have an institutional base and resources for sustainability in the long run?

Stakeholder analysis Broad stakeholder categories to be considered include (Mundy

and Huggan, undated):
An important PRCA component is the study of the
communication stakeholders, those who might have an 1. Intended stakeholders
interest in, or influence on, the initiative. 2. Intermediaries

Stakeholders can be organizations, groups, structures, 3. Peers

networks or individuals. 4. Donors

In rural development projects they not only include local 5. Policy makers
communities but also donors, government and development 6. General public
agencies, research institutions, private sector, media, NGOs, 7. Media
civil society, among others.
8. Internal audiences

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Purpose  PARTICIPATION CLUES

Doing stakeholder analysis in a participatory manner leads
 Identify, describe and prioritize the relevant communication community members to:
stakeholders to be involved in planning.  jointly discuss the issue that the initiative intends to address;
 brainstorm and agree on who would be affected by the initiative,
 Communication objectives, approaches and channels, message have an influence over it or an interest in its successful or
appeals and participation options will be analyzed and designed unsuccessful conclusion;
to suit each stakeholder group (OECD, 1999).  focus on people and groups having a concrete “stake”;
 cluster and prioritize those with higher levels of interest and
influence over the issue.
This in turn helps to shape inclusive communication initiatives by
gaining understanding and support from project stakeholders.

STAKEHOLDER PROFILING AND PRIORITIZATION

During Stakeholder analysis; look at the stakeholders and try to

address the following questions:

 What specific groups of stakeholders does the project intend to

reach or cover? (e.g. farmers, traders and seed company; forest
wood gatherers, NGOs and local officials; etc.)

 Why are they included as priority stakeholders?

 What are their socio-demographic, economic, or cultural

characteristics?

KSAP ANALYS IS  The results of KSAP analysis are the basis for defining the
objectives, learning content and methods of the Communication
 Aside from the socio-demographic characteristics, it is important
strategy and plan
to assess the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes and practices
(KSAP) of the intended stakeholders in relation to the prioritized  They also serve as baseline data to evaluate the degree of change
rural and communication issues. or learning as a result of the communication activities during
project monitoring and evaluation
Purpose
 It is a mini-study in itself, to gauge what stakeholders “already
KSAP analysis is useful in pinpointing various elements that may
know, do, believe, hope for and practice” (Piotrow et al., 1997).
either facilitate or hinder a community’s understanding and action
towards a development issue or project:
 people’s perceptions and levels of awareness;
 knowledge gaps and information needs;
 ways of accomplishing things;
 feelings and cultural beliefs;
 patterns of behavior and existing practices.

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Sample KSAP questions on climate change

Analysis of communication resources Purpose

Communication resources include materials, technologies,  useful to understand information and knowledge exchanges
services, networks and capacities already available that may be happening within a rural community, and between its members
tapped as channels during the implementation of the and outsiders.
Communication plan. Their assessment involves:
 allows one to determine the most appropriate and cost effective
 traditional, print and broadcast media; venues, media and interpersonal channels to reach and interact
with the intended stakeholders
 social media and ICTs;
 Influential sources of advice and role models identified (e.g.
 advisory and information service providers; community leaders, religious persons, traditional healers) can be
called upon to support communication efforts, as people consider
 local institutions and social networks; them reliable, knowledgeable and respectable.
 opinion leaders, knowledge brokers and role models;

 communication behaviors, skills and competencies.

Key questions for assessing the communication resources Analysis of communication resources

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Social Network Analysis Purpose

 allows to understand what can assist or hinder knowledge sharing in a
 Social networks are nodes of individuals, groups, organizations group or community.
and related systems that tie in one or more types of
interdependencies. Their members share values, visions, ideas,  can help communication planners prioritize changes and interventions
for improving social connections and knowledge flows.
social contacts, kinship, conflict and financial resources (Serrat,
2009). Major benefits from doing SNA are:
 facilitate identification of who knows who and who might know what
 Social network analysis (SNA) is a research method that maps (teams and individuals playing central roles, thought leaders, key
and compares formal and informal relationships, flows and knowledge brokers, experts, etc);
patterns of interaction between individuals, groups, organizations
 identify isolated teams or individuals and knowledge bottlenecks;
and systems (Ramalingam, 2006; Krebs, 2002).
 strategically work to improve knowledge flows;
 It has two main focuses: the actors and the relationships
 accelerate the flow of knowledge and information across functional and
between them in a specific social context. organizational boundaries;
 improve the effectiveness of formal and informal communication
channels;
 raise awareness of the importance of informal networks.

SNA can help answer the following questions (Ramalingam, 2006; The SNA process consists of the following steps:
Serrat, 2009):
1. Review background data collected through key informant
 Which individuals and groups play central roles? Who are the interviews regarding the specific target group or community.
thought leaders, key knowledge brokers, information managers, 2. Outline and clarify objectives and scope of analysis, and determine
etc.? the level of reporting.

 Where are the bottlenecks in the knowledge flow? Who are the 3. Formulate hypotheses and develop the question guide.
isolated individuals and groups? 4. Conduct FGDs or interviews with community members to identify
relationships and knowledge flows.
 How do we improve the flow of knowledge in the community?
5. Use a mapping tool (software or manual) to visualize the network.
 Which individuals and which groups will benefit the most from 6. Review the map and assess the structure of the relationships
better knowledge sharing? mapped (ranging from casual acquaintance to close bonds).
7. Highlight problems and opportunities related to the way
information and knowledge are shared.
8. Design and implement actions to bring about desired changes.
9. Map the network again after an appropriate period of time.

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PRCA tools and techniques Key Informant Interview

Problem tree
 KII involves a one-on-one interview with people chosen because
they are deemed most knowledgeable about the subject matter or
issue on hand.
 These informants are selected by virtue of their age, experience,
position, authority, and/or involvement in activities pertaining to
the subject being studied.
 Instrument used for KII is a questionnaire or topic guide.
 Questions are usually open-ended to enable the respondents to
answer in different ways.
 Provides immediate insights into a particular issue or subject.
 Most useful for collecting data on highly sensitive topics, when
respondents are widely distributed over a large area, and when
peer pressure may influence a respondent’s answer in a group.

Sample KII topic guide Focus Group Discussion

 Focus group discussion (FGD) involves bringing together a group of
stakeholders to talk about a specific topic.
 It takes advantage of group dynamics and allows respondents to be
guided by a skilled facilitator to explore issues in depth.
 Focus groups should ideally be homogenous with six to eight members.
The composition of focus groups is determined by certain factors :
 Demographic data (age, gender, occupation)
 Position in the organization (officers, members)
 Level of knowledge and/or expertise on the subject matter
 Representativeness (farmers, NGOs, local officials, women, etc.)
 Provides the opportunity for group interaction, which stimulates richer
responses and allows new and valuable thoughts to emerge.
 Gives first-hand insight into the respondents’ behavior and attitudes;
although its responses represent a group, not individuals.

Sample FGD question guide Social mapping

 Translating information into a drawing, picture, or image that
references data according to geographical location.
 Stakeholders draw or assist in drawing maps that depict certain
elements relevant to those that are being studied.
 For example, using a village map, stakeholders may map out the
location of various agricultural communication services to readily
depict progress in one area or gaps in other areas.

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Matrix ranking Direct observation

 This is a convenient and highly effective tool for prioritizing items.  Direct observation is a technique in which the planner
systematically observes individuals, groups, events, processes, or
 It involves ordering various items, conditions or perceptions in an
relationships and records his/her observations.
objective manner.
 Included here is participant observation – when the planner stays
 the preference ranking for communication channels especially
in the community for a certain time to carry out an in-depth study.
among widely dispersed groups.
 Results of direct observation can be recorded by using a checklist
 Preference ranking provides the opportunity to quickly survey a
based on an observation guide that directs the taking of extensive
small sample of respondents and gives the interviewer the
notes in the field notebook.
opportunity to reach a deeper understanding of why the
respondent selects her/his preferences in the order s/he does.  It is useful for validation because it can be used to cross-check
respondents’ answers.

Time line Venn diagram

 A time line is a visual tool for planning that depicts the occurrence  It uses circles to illustrate how different components of an
of major events in the history of a community. The type of event institution or a community are linked, thus showing the relative
depends on the issue being addressed. significance of people, places, institutions, or ideas.
 Understanding the past of a community is often necessary to  Size, distance and overlapping of the circle matters.
analyze the present conditions, and to try to forecast how present
 Very useful to get an initial overall picture of the stakeholder
conditions may evolve in the future.
community and to analyze the social and power relations among
 The time line helps the community understand which local, different actors.
regional, or international events they consider important in their
 It especially:
history, and how such events affected their lives (FAO, 2013).
 compares aspects like relative importance and accessibility of
 In the context of Communication planning, a timeline can help
different institutions or services (both local and external
illustrate the communication-related activities that a pilot
institutions can be represented);
community has gone through, given a particular development
concern.  explores the relationships between people, institutions and
services and their effects on vulnerability.

It may be used to generate discussion on

the following topics (Ford et al., 1992):
 levels of communication among
organizations;
 role of project bodies;
 potentials for collaborative work;
 potential roles of new organizations;
 roles and significance of various
institutions to community members;
 roles and significance of various
institutions to one specific
organization.

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Some Terms
Participatory communication strategy design (PCSD) is the
process in planning that uses the findings from the participatory
field appraisal to set communication objectives that respond to the
needs and priorities of local stakeholders. It also determines the
content and channels of activities and services.
Communication strategy is an integrated set of communication
objectives, approaches, messages and channels to achieve overall
project outcomes. It sets the lines of action that will bring
stakeholders to jointly address communication-related issues and
move forward to accomplish common goals.
Communication plan of action is a tool to specify and schedule
activities and products, and allocate resources to make the
communication strategy operational on the ground. The
Communication plan has to be fine-tuned with local stakeholders to
facilitate their mobilization, commitment and control over
communication activities.

Priority communication stakeholders are those individuals, Communication method is a way of interacting, sharing or
groups and organizations involved in, or able to influence the exchanging information – such as interpersonal, mediated or mass
outcomes of the ComDev strategy and activities (referred to as communication. For each method, a number of communication
“audience” or “targets” in non-participatory communication channels can be used or combined.
planning).
Communication channels (or media) refer to any medium through
Communication objective is a statement expressing desirable which a message is conveyed to reach the intended stakeholders and
states or possible solutions to a specific issue, in terms of changes in establish with them a two-way communication process. These can be
stakeholders’ knowledge, attitudes, skills or practices, under a given classified as folk or traditional media, community media,
set of conditions and with a certain degree of success. It must be mainstream or mass media, information and communication
simple, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-bound (SMART). technologies (ICTs) and social media.

Participatory communication approaches refer to specific Multi-media mix is a combination of two or more different types of
functions that two way communication accomplishes in the communication channels to enhance the effectiveness of a
framework of a ComDev strategy. These include awareness raising, Communication strategy.
information and knowledge sharing, social mobilization, advocacy,
edutainment and negotiation, among others.

Participatory communication strategy design

 It is a bottom-up process that builds on the views and

perspectives of local stakeholders, to come up with a
communication response that meets their needs, fits their culture
and is applicable to their situation.

 It involves collaborative decision-making between community

members, subject matter specialists, local leaders, government
officials, project staff and management, local media and
institutions.

 The strategy is shaped by the background information gathered

during the participatory communication appraisal. It is therefore
important to analyze the data collected with stakeholders during
the assessment, and transform it into usable accounts.

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So, what particular data sets of the communication appraisal are The methodology for communication strategy design follows six
relevant for Communication strategy design? major steps

The review should especially focus on data that reflect local views
and perspectives about:

 communication entry points to address local development

priorities;

 priority stakeholder groups and their characteristics;

 stakeholder knowledge, skills, attitude and practice (KSAP) about

the given issues;

 communication systems, resources, channels available in the

community;

 social networks influencing power structures and knowledge

flows.

PRCA findings relevant for strategy design  Selecting key issues to address

 What problems or issues do project stakeholders consider to resolve

through a Communication intervention? What are the gaps between
the ideal situation (what the project aims to achieve) and the
current situation of the stakeholder group or community?

 Such gaps, also called communication entry points, will emerge

from situation analysis and from the information collected during
the PRCA through focus group discussions, key informant
interviews and problem tree analysis.

Identifying and profiling priority stakeholders Setting communication objectives

 Stakeholders constitute an important component of the  Once the key communication entry points and the priority
Communication strategy, whose success partially depends on stakeholder groups have been identified, the next step is setting
understanding who exactly should be involved. the communication objectives.
 The more familiar one is with the stakeholder groups, the easier it  These will be the basis to determine the rough core content of the
will be to design specific communication activities, services or strategy and to select communication methods and channels and
messages which fit in with their characteristics. will provide targets for evaluation of the initiative.
 This will help avoid the risk of using inappropriate approaches,  The funnel approach to objective setting
contents or channels.
 Stakeholder segmentation, profiling and prioritization are part of
stakeholder analysis, usually done during the PRCA
 Attribute of stakeholders is constituted by their knowledge, skills,
attitudes and practices (KSAP).
 The results of KSAP analysis will give an idea of what stakeholders
currently know, what skills they possess, how they feel and what
they do in relation to a development concern, a new practice,
technology or livelihood program.

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Communication objectives are often stated and measured in terms of The objectives are easily developed as:
changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes and practices (KSAP)
1. From the stakeholders’ perspective – they are the ones who drive
the change.
Sample Communication objectives formulated as desired changes in
stakeholders’ KSAP 2. Observe the SBCD pattern – indicate the stakeholder group, the
behavior desired, the condition under which the desired change
is to take place, and finally the expected degree of success.
3. Are SMART – simple, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-
bound.

Stakeholder orientation SBCD elements

 The strategy and plan are formulated from the stakeholders’ A good communication objective should contain the four SBCD
perspective: this also applies to objective setting. elements:

 Communication goals should properly specify and emphasize the  S = Stakeholder (a single intended group of stakeholders)
desired changes to be achieved with and by the stakeholders
themselves.  B = Behavior (action or change desired)

 It is thus important to use their point of view, instead of the  C = Conditions (time, place, situation) under which the desired
project implementers’ perspective, when phrasing and setting change should occur
indicators for measuring success.
 D = Degree (extent or measure) of success
Objective stated from project implementers’ perspective: Producing at least 20 public Sample objective SBCD Elements
service announcements (PSA) and participatory videos on disaster risk management At the end of the two week training on S = training participants
disaster risk management, at least 80 B = demonstrate two strategies
Stakeholder-oriented objective: After producing and distributing 20 PSA and percent of the participants should be
participatory videos on disaster risk management, at least 40 percent of the village able to demonstrate two strategies for
C = after two week training
households are able to identify various ways of reducing disaster risks managing disaster risks. D = 80 percent of participants

SMART principle Choosing the appropriate communication approach

When writing a good communication objective, the following basic  The communication approach is “a specific communication focus,
characteristics should be kept in mind: or set of coherent tactical actions, aimed at achieving a certain
objective” (Mefalopulos, 2008).
S = Simple (Reflects a single idea at a time; not more than one
behavioral objective at a time)  Communication approaches overlap to some extent but are not
mutually exclusive.
M= Measurable (Observable, visible, uses an operative verb)
 Each puts emphasis on a specific element of the strategy (e.g.
A= Achievable/Attainable (Can be accomplished given existing intended stakeholders, objectives to accomplish, core content or
resources (time, people, money) communication methods to apply).

R= Realistic (Can be accomplished given the normal human capability  Examples include information and knowledge sharing, social
and based on typical experiences) marketing, awareness raising, behavior change communication,
social or community mobilization, edutainment and advocacy
T= Time bound (Sets the time period by which the target behaviour communication, among others.
should have been accomplished)

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Identifying the core content of the ComDev strategy Selecting communication methods and channels
 The final step in designing a Communication strategy is to think
 According to OECD (1999), the content of any communication about the channels through which the intended stakeholders can
strategy will have greater chance for success if the information is: be reached and engaged with, in fruitful, two-way communication.
(a) accessible;  A good media selection serves to maximize impact and cost-
(b) accurate; effectiveness.
(c) verifiable;
Difference between
(d) complete;
(e) timely; and  Communication method – the manner of interacting, sharing
(f) relevant. and exchanging information such as through interpersonal,
mediated, or mass communication. Each method can combine a
 The core content of the Communication strategy defined keeping number of communication channels to facilitate the process.
in consideration the results of PRCA and in particular KSAP
analysis; done involving both local communities and technicians.  Communication channel – any medium used to convey a
message to the intended stakeholders and/or interact with them,
such as folk media, community owned media, mass media,
information and communication technologies (ICTs) and social
media.

Different communication methods and channels General rules for media selection
Select and use a medium:
1. for a single or specific goal rather than for different goals;
2. with a unique characteristic or advantage to help achieve a specific
purpose;
3. which the stakeholders are already familiar with and have access to;
4. which can easily accommodate ‘localized’ messages;
5. that can be locally developed, produced and operationally
supported;
6. which complements and reinforces other channels used in the same
strategy, while offering distinct functional strengths and emphases.

In practice, the following elements should be considered for media

 Communication tends to work best with a combination of selection:
interpersonal, mediated and mass communication. 1. PRCA findings
2. communication objectives and content of the strategy
 A multi-channel approach is always encouraged 3. cost-effectiveness criteria

PRCA findings From PRCA Results, key questions to answer include:

 What are the literacy and educational levels of the intended
 Stakeholder and KSAP analyses provide useful insights about the
stakeholders?
characteristics and interests of the intended stakeholders, their
knowledge, capacities, norms and values.  Are there any culturally-specific values and beliefs that might
impact the acceptance of certain communication channels and
 Organizational mapping highlight existing communication materials, types or designs?
initiatives or organizations in the target area that may positively
 How do stakeholders usually behave when addressing the issue
or negatively affect the strategy.
under consideration?
 The analysis of communication resources and social  Which are stakeholders’ preferred and most trusted sources of
networks will tell what communication channels are available to information about the issue?
stakeholders, how they are used and who influences local flows of
 Who controls available communication channels (e.g. a radio set) in
information and knowledge. Knowing the potential of community-
a household?
based media, communication services and facilities can help
determine which resources to use and combine.  What are the communities’ impressions of past, similar
communication initiatives and materials?

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Factors to be considered in the process of

Communicating any message
(in selection of communication method)

85 86

Communication objectives and content of the strategy Cost-effectiveness criteria

Also depends on the communication objectives and approaches
chosen for the strategy. Important considerations in media selection should also be
If the aim of the communication strategy is to raise awareness on a made in relation to:
straightforward topic and regularly deliver information to
stakeholders (e.g. public alerts) radio or mobile phones are good 1. Production costs
venues. However, if the aim is to facilitate information and knowledge
sharing among stakeholders and with experts, then facilitated group
discussion or a training workshop would be the best option. 2. Difficulties and time constraints
Correlating the communication channel with the content of the
strategy is also important. The following questions should be asked: 3. Logistic efforts needed
 Does the medium lend itself to the content of the strategy?
4. Reach
 Is the key message more visual or audio-based? Does it primarily
rely on written words?
5. Frequency and impact of exposure
 Does the content require a repeated/frequent exposure?

Types of media and their characteristics Types of media and their characteristics

• Folk media  There is no magic formula for choosing the channel most suitable
to the intended stakeholders.
• Community media  Oftentimes, combining more than one media available in a locale
produces the best results.
• Mainstream or mass media
Folk media – local media with limited geographical coverage,
traditional of a particular community.
• Information and communication technologies (ICTs)
 They include theatre, puppetry, drama skits, songs, music, sayings,
• Social media poetry and storytelling.

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Media Advantage Limitation Community media

Folk media  Can be easily understood  Requires skilled crafting of
(e.g. puppetry, by all members of the development messages into the  Media which are controlled by the community and are
community community fabric of the folk media non-profit and non-commercial.
theatre,  Intrinsically adapted to  May lack prestige vis-à-vis more
storytelling) local cultural scene modern media in some societies  They cater to a small geographic community and a
 Can use familiar dialects  May be difficult to organize and
for the most intimate and calls for close working homogenous audience with similar interests.
local communication at relationship between
the village level development workers and folk
 They have localized content, are accessible to people,
 Appeals at the personal media artists and utilize indigenous resources (Maslog, 1997).
level
 Does not depend on  Examples are community radio, community television,
technology that is liable wall newspaper, folk media and audio tower system.
to break down
 Comparatively cheap to
produce since most of
the resources needed are
available in the
community

Mainstream or mass media – those with national coverage, usually Media Advantage Limitation
commercial in nature, managed and staffed by media professionals. Radio • Wide coverage and • Weak as a medium for training
availability/accessibility and education since it is audio
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) – an even in rural areas only
umbrella term that encompasses ‘new’ communication devices such as • Low production cost • Constant competition with
mobile phones, computer/network hardware and satellite systems, as well other programmes in other
• Delivery of information
as the various services and applications associated with them such as the stations
can be localized
world wide web, email, blog, videoconferencing and electronic archives,
• Well-segmented • Fleeting message
among others. ‘Old’ electronic media such as radio and television, as well as
video and photo, are included in the ICT category when they use digital audience • With nothing to watch,
technologies (in the so called ‘media convergence’). listeners more subject to
distractions, limiting their
Social media – web-based media that offer new ways to interact with attention-span
other people online and to publish information with free, easy tools (e.g. • Some concepts can be
web 2.0). portrayed more clearly in visual
than in auditory terms
Examples of social media are internet forums, weblogs, social blogs, micro • Requires skills in broadcasting
blogging, wikis, podcasts, photographs or pictures, video and social and programme planning,
bookmarking (FAO, 2011). designing, production, and
management

Media Advantage Limitation Media Advantage Limitation

Television  Wide coverage  Tends to be monopolized Video  Combines sight,  Multiplicity of
by powerful interests sound, and motion, standards/formats
 Combines sight,
sound, and motion, because of its prestige thus, more attention  Requires talent, skill, and
grabbing
thus, more attention  Not widely available experience to produce
grabbing especially in all rural areas  Highly persuasive good programs for
development
 High prestige  High production cost  Constantly
 Difficult to localize improving  Requires rather
information for agriculture technology is sophisticated repair and
unless there are local TV making production maintenance facilities
ever cheaper and
stations, still rare in  Dependent on the use to
developing countries more reliable which it is to be put, may
 Can be played back call for quite large capital
 Allows more than investment
one language to be  Color/visual quality
recorded as mediocre in some
commentary on a standards
single tape

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Media Advantage Limitation Media Advantage Limitation

Printed  Relatively cheap,  Limited to literate Visual  Cheap and simple to  Care required to make
materials simple, and easy to audience media produce and use drawings understandable
(e.g. leaflet, produce  Some formats tend to be (e.g.  Good for training to illiterates
brochure,
 Can be taken home, boring most especially if flipchart, and extension  Lack the attraction of
magazine, consulted, and kept there are no visual images poster, support in areas audio-visual materials
newspaper) as a permanent billboard, where there is no
 May be thought of as
reminder comics) electricity “second-rate” by people
 Particularly valuable  Use of images helps with experience in
for extensionists, people recall and electronic media
technicians, and remember concepts
 Suitable only for small
community leaders better group discussions
 Easy to use

Media Advantage Limitation Media Advantage Limitation

Mobile  Capable of a variety  Limited information can be Internet and  Facilitates the  May not be accessible/
phones of tasks such as stored based on mobile social media exchange of available to intended
sending and phone’s capacity information among stakeholders
receiving messages, stakeholders
 Dependent on electricity  Special skills are needed to
recording audio and regardless of operate the technology
visual images,  Not widely available in geographical and to access the
playing video and some rural communities boundaries
because of poor information
audio files, browsing  Links all
the Internet, and signal/reception  Computer technology is
stakeholders expensive
organizing files  Privacy and confidentiality
 Encourages
 Compact and easy to of information are at a  Language barrier
great risk interactivity
use
 More flexible in
 May not be affordable in
some communities delivering
information

The multi-media mix The advantages of a multi-media mix include (JHU/ PCS,
1984):
 A well-established principle in communication is that
 reaching a segment of stakeholders not reached by
“there is no single best medium”.
the primary medium;
 Different communication methods and media serve  reinforcing messages by providing additional,
different purposes. The success of a communication repeated exposure in a less expensive, secondary
program often depends on a thoughtful and creative medium, after optimum reach is obtained through
media mix. the first;
 creating a synergy of communication efforts.
 Planning for the combined use of different
A communication strategy should always identify a lead
communication channels and materials may be more
medium so that major efforts and resources can focus on
cost-effective and give the greatest chance of a positive
it (Piotrow et al., 1997).
impact (Swann, 2004).
The lead medium should be the one that stakeholder
analysis indicates as the best way to reach the
stakeholders.

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 In communicating rural development issues on food security, Potential areas of collaboration include:
climate adaptation or natural resource management, creating
linkages with mainstream media and ICTs is advantageous.  co-production and sharing of materials (e.g. plugs,
articles, documentaries, expert’s views);
 This is done not only to maximize the potential and strengths of
community media, but also to enhance the efficiency of
 identification and coordination with authorities, subject
development initiatives.
matter specialists and resource persons;
 Community media can localize content to facilitate the
community’s better understanding and appreciation of  implementation of media-based action programs.
information, and to promote a sense of involvement for
community members to plan and perform specific actions.

 On the other hand, local and mainstream media can link

communities with provincial, regional or national authorities and
mobilize other development organizations to support community
actions.

Assembling the Communication strategy Outlining a plan of action

Once all the key elements have been identified, they can be combined
into a full-fledged communication strategy in the form of a matrix.  Operational framework which outlines macro communication
activities and the quantitative or qualitative outputs to be
produced in order to achieve the Communication objectives.

 To draw up a consistent and feasible plan of action, it is important

to look at the objectives in the strategy and link them with a set of
concrete actions that should be performed in order to achieve
them.

 The questions to ask are:

 What should be done to best achieve this objective?

 What are the main tasks to be accomplished?

 What concrete communication outputs should be produced?

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Making Communication operational on the ground Fundamentals of implementation

Participatory local communication planning There are some essential factors needed to make a Communication
 The Communication plan of action is an operational tool which plan effective on the ground. They are strictly interlinked.
specifies how the communication strategy will unfold. Partners mostly belong to following categories:
 Planners may use it to set macro activities and outputs that will 1. Community groups
2. Local authorities
contribute to achieving the strategic objectives. 3. Technical agencies and private sector
 It serves to assign tasks and responsibilities at the project level, 4. Local and national media
5. Local artists and other talents
delineate the timeframe and geographical scope of the
communication activities and, most importantly, verify what inputs are
required. Steps in local capacity enhancing/ training
1. Identify the participants
 The plan of action is normally outlined by project staff, to ensure the and their training needs
overall consistency of communication efforts to the strategy, and to 2. Formulate the learning objectives
3. Organize the training content
secure an appropriate budget provision. 4. Identify the resource persons
Local plan addresses questions such as: 5. Set date, venue and duration
6. Select training methods
• Who should be involved in the various tasks? and prepare materials
7. Develop an evaluation strategy
• Which partner is going to lead each activity? 8. Follow up and facilitate
• What will the timeframe for the implementation be? knowledge sharing among participants

• How much will it cost and who can bring resources to the table?

Participatory development of Communication materials Stakeholder participation in message design

 Process involving stakeholders, project staff and communication

experts in planning, developing, testing and producing
Communication products (videos, radio programs, leaflets,
posters, social media, multimedia packages, etc.).

 The process is both creative and analytical: participants decide

how to best combine texts, illustrations, graphics or sounds into
appropriate formats and channels, that are chosen according to
field data and production requirements.

 Pre-testing is the evaluation of the intended audience’s reactions

to prototype or sample Communication materials, in order to
improve their quality and effectiveness prior to final production
and distribution.

 Budgeting is the estimation of the required costs for producing

and achieving the best results with Communication products.

Ten tips for effective message design 6. Cater to the heart and head. Show data to support the issue but
try to make an emotional connection before conveying facts.
Some tips in creating noticeable and easily remembered messages:
1. Customize the message. Make it related to real life, tailor it to 7. Call for action. Use powerful, action-based words (e.g. value-
suit different geographic areas and be sensitive to cultural driven, peoplecentred, climate-smart) and use the active voice to
context, social values and political priorities. move the audience (Clean up the world sounds better than The
2. Be benefit-oriented. Build on points of interest and advantages. world should be cleaned up).

3. Offer the unexpected. Use a catchy, short and attractive title. 8. Be consistent. Repetition of key points is essential for message
recall and for better understanding.
4. Keep it simple and straightforward (KISS). Use concrete,
specific terms that are familiar to the audience. Avoid getting too 9. Leave the audience with an incomplete message, something
cute or edgy and keep messages clear, crisp and easy to
to ponder about.
understand.
5. Put the most important message first. Start with the key issue, 10.Have fun and be creative. Dry, boring, statistics-laden messages
need, or goal. do not catch people’s attention and tend to not translate well.

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Stakeholder participation in Communication materials development Tips for Pre-testing

Production Requirements for communication Materials Key elements to consider in radio broadcast production

Key elements to consider in print materials production

Key elements to consider in video materials production Ten tips for conceptualizing and producing Communication
materials
The following guidelines will be helpful in preparing communication
for development materials:
1. Start with a rough outline of the goal and major points to be
communicated: First determine the goals, the audience’s
expectations and what the physical setting requires.
2. Keep the material simple and brief. If possible, a given space must
contain only one message.
3. Assess the cost constraints. A flipchart can be used with small
groups even without electricity, unlike a PowerPoint
presentation. A newsletter can reach more audiences than a
poster.
4. Account for production time. ComDev materials need editing and
revision.

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5. Use local photographs, testimonies and stories when discussing

community problems, issues, and solutions.
6. Use charts and graphs to support the presentation of numerical
information.
7. Make sure that graphics are not too crowded in detail. Do not
over-use colour.
8. See that line, detail, letters and visuals are bold enough to be seen
by the normal eye.
9. Seek feedback on the clarity of the materials. Allow time to make
needed adjustments.
10. Geographically customize the materials. If appropriate, design
materials tailored for each geographic region of the country.
Materials produced for national distribution may not be equally
suitable in all parts of the country.

Below are the five steps to follow in participatory M&E of

Communication endeavors:

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