Topic 1

Evolution of the language teaching. Current trends in the teaching of

English as a Foreign Language. The communicative approaches.

Table of contents

0. INTRODUCTION
1. LANGUAGE TEACHING UP TO THE 20TH CENTURY
1.1. From Grammar Translation Method to the emergence of Applied
Linguistics
2. LANGUAGE TEACHING AS OF THE 20TH CENTURY
2.1. The upturn of Linguistics: Structuralism, Russian Formalism and
Interactionism
2.2. The emergence of language learning theories: Behaviourism and
Cognitivism
2.3. The upsurge of language learning methods: the Age of Methods (1950-
1980)
3. NEW CURRENTS WITHIN THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
4. TEACHING IMPLICATIONS
5. CONCLUSION
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

The topic under scrutiny is number 1 in the set, which is intended to provide an
insightful analysis of the diachronic evolution of Foreign Language Teaching
(“FLT”) during History.

In the long search for the best way to teach a foreign language, many different
methods and approaches have been devised. In this regard, foreign language
pedagogy has come a long way since the days when the repetitive Grammar-
Translation Method was regarded as the only way to learn. Today, new currents
within the Communicative Approach are widespread in schools, emphasizing
communication and the practical uses of language.

To carry out this dissertation, we will present different methods and approaches
which were introduced based upon distinct theories related to Human and

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Social Sciences. Even if we will highlight certain peculiarities of all of them
which may contribute to our teaching performance, we will explore a teaching
method which may help our students take the maximum advantage of their
learning process. We will conclude this document with a proper conclusion, as
well as some references to bibliography.

The importance of this topic lies on the fact that, as stipulated in the current
legislation to regulate our educational system, students should enhance their
communicative skills throughout CSE and Bachillerato stages. In the context of
English as a Foreign Language, such improvement implies the capability of
employing language in all kinds of communicative situations. On this account, it
seems noteworthy to explore the historical evolution of language teaching with
the aim of considering the most salient and positive aspects of different
methods and approaches so as to optimize our teaching performance.

After having introduced this topic properly, we will comment on the main trends
in the history of language teaching up to the 20 th century. The information in this
section has been consulted in Brown, H. D. Principles of Language Learning
and Teaching. (6th Ed.). New York: Longman, 2007 and Larsen-Freeman, D.
Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. (3rd Ed.). Oxford: O.U.P.,
2011.

The study of languages has accompanied and preoccupied human beings from
the very stages of human existence, although it appeared to have little room for
innovation. In fact, until the 18th century, the dominating teaching-learning
practice followed the Grammar-Translation Method, which pursued language
learning as a result of memorizing and translation of texts. However, several
voices commenced to raise doubts over this traditional teaching scheme during
the 19th century.

The scholars who challenged traditional views on language learning may be

chiefly classified in two major groups: the Reform Movement and the Direct
Method. On the one hand, the Reform Movement encompassed, among others,
Viëtor and Sweet, and claimed new approached in language teaching
considering oral proficiency. On the other hand, the Direct Method, mostly
represented by Sauveur and Berlitz, advocated a language learning process far

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from translation or the use of the learner’s mother tongue to highlight an
exclusive use of the target language in the class through demonstration and
action. All these practical moves during the 19 th century set the foundations of a
quite incipient Applied Linguistics, focused on second language learning
processes, which would experience its apogee in the 20 th century, as we will
study in the following section. So as to provide accurate information on this
section, we have consulted Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. Approaches and
Methods in Language Teaching. (6th Ed.). Cambridge: C.U.P., 2001.

The extraordinary development of Applied Linguistics was a direct consequence

of the growth of Linguistics, which endeavoured to provide a theoretical
framework on distinct aspects concerning language, learning included. Different
schools presented theoretical tendencies in the early 20 th century: Structuralism,
chiefly defended by Saussure, ensured that language was a system of limited
units whose combination allows speakers encode infinite messages; Russian
Formalism regarded language as the engine which facilitates communication,
as depicted by Jakobson’s Communicative Model; and Interactionism assured
that social exchanges turn interpretation and negotiation of meanings possible,
as asserted by Blumer. It was precisely by virtue of these breakthroughs in
Linguistics which resolved around the nature of language that numerous
academics were determined to explore how it is learnt and acquired.

One of the first theories which emerged on this account was Skinner’s
Behaviourism, who, under the influence of Psycholinguistics, concluded that
language was merely learnt as a consequence of habit formation and repetition.
Nevertheless, Skinner views were soon put under scrutiny, especially by
Chomsky. Convinced by the fact that language is featured by creativity and
innateness, Chomsky asserted that all human beings are endowed with a
Language Acquisition Device, which comprises a Universal Grammar allowing
children to test hypotheses and formulate an unlimited number of sentences.
Therefore, Chomsky conceived that language was learnt through cognitive
processes, setting a milestone in Cognitivism.

Cognitivist views established that language learning was subject to certain

mental connections which learners perform during the acquisition process. It did

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actually ease the path for several studies on mother tongue and foreign
language learning processes: Selinker regarded Chomsky’s conclusions and
introduced the notion of Interlanguage, a storage of knowledge which is formed
as learners apprehend a second language. According to this author, this
Interlanguage acts as a backup during the learning process and increases by
dint of the teacher’s feedback. This posture did not only permit a new
consideration on error treatment, hitherto seen as something negative; but also,
it encouraged an upsurge in foreign language methods and approaches.

This upturn is often referred to as the Age of Methods, chiefly developed from
the 1950s to the 1980s, and encouraged the birth of several methods and
approaches sustained in the academic developments in Human and Social
Sciences commented above. In order to fully comprehend their nature, it
appears to be relevant to distinguish method from approach: the former held to
be a fixed teaching system with prescribed techniques and practices; the latter
representing language teaching philosophies which may be applied in different
ways in the classroom. Once clarified, we will be devoted to present the major
contributions to foreign language learning and teaching as of the 1950s in the
subsequent paragraphs by following a diachronic perspective which may be
divided into the early period, the middle period and the late period.

Firstly, the early period in the Age of Methods is chiefly portrayed by Situational
Language Teaching, a more scientific version of the Direct Method, set on the
foundations of Applied Linguistics. Situational Language Teaching attempted to
link communicative situations to linguistic structures, where speech was the
basis of language learning. In the United States, certain scholars advocated a
branch of Situational Language Teaching, Audiolingualism, an oral approach of
language learning with little grammar explanation which sought the acquisition
of good linguistic habits.

Secondly, the middle period was characterized by the arousal of distinct

Humanistic Methods which were motivated by the cognitive conviction that
language learners develop a conscious control of language structures. This
control of different levels of language (phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon
and semantics) paves the way for an organized learning process into coherent

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groups of knowledge. As a consequence, the figure of the language learner
gained relevance, something which was materialized in the methods which
appeared during this period: Total Physical Response (combining speech and
action to reduce stress), The Silent Way (highlighting output productions
supported by extralinguistic materials), Community Language Learning (fusing
cognition and affection in language learning, where teachers are a sort of
counsellor who promoted self-confidence acquisition), Suggestopedia (aimed at
creating an optimal learning atmosphere) and Natural Approach (rejecting the
support of the mother tongue in language learning and seeking the exploitation
of the target language in different situations).

As for the late period, this is highly influenced by the Sociolinguistic perspective
which grew as of the 1970s. Several authors connected Linguistics with
Anthropology in the domain of language acquisition, such as Hymes, Canale
and Swain, who examined how Communicative Competence allows language
learners adhere to the rules of language to express utterances appropriately
depending upon real communicative situations. Their contributions became
canonical in Applied Linguistics, as they claimed that second language
acquisition should contemplate the components of Communicative
Competence: Grammar Competence (the rules of the code), Sociolinguistic
Competence (the social effects of utterances), Discursive Competence (the
combination of utterance to create discourse, following cohesion and
coherence) and Strategic Competence (the ability of compensating for any
communicative breakdown).

By virtue of their theoretical background, a new vision of what language learning

should be appeared: the Communicative Approach. This approach emphasizes
interaction as both the mans and the ultimate goal of second language learning,
and does also eases a curricular organization in terms of notions and functions.
Communicative approaches are further features by a flexibility and openness, in
which language is pragmatically regarded as the vehicle for communicative
transmission of functional meaning. Hence the scheme established by the
European Council in the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (CEFR), in which language acquisition levels are organized in
competences, rather than theoretical knowledge.

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The first serious attempt to adopt the principles of the Communicative Approach
to syllabus design was a set of specifications termed Threshold Level, by Van
Ek and Alexander in 1980, which specified topics, functions, notions, situations,
as well as the grammar and vocabulary needed to cross the threshold and
begin real communication. The most favored of syllabuses is Brumfits’ Model,
which has a grammatical core around which notions, functions and
communicative activities are grouped.

We will now focus on various new trends within the Communicative Approach.
The information in this section has been consulted in Richards, J. C., and
Burns, A. Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: C.U.P.,
2012.

One new current within the Communicative Approach can be the Content-based
Learning, which focuses on cross-curricular learning of concepts and the
language is considered a vehicle for understanding and communications. We
may also talk about PLB (Project Based Learning), in which students learn by
actively engaging in real-world and personally meaningful projects. Another
trend within the Communicative Approach is Whole Brain Teaching, which
encourages interaction and the use of both cerebral hemispheres. Service
Learning, which advocate collaboration in learning with tangible effects on the
community, is also a new trend within this approach. The Task-based Approach
is not actually an approach but a method within the Communicative Approach.
A task can be considered as something meaningful that students do with a
specific, practical and meaningful outcome and it usually implying putting at
work what is learned in the classroom. There are three steps to be followed in
the development of a task: 1) pre-task activities: introducing the topic and task
(brainstorming, warming-up activities); 2) the task cycle: where the task is
planned and done and finally reported to the class; and 3) the language focus:
where language is analyzed.

The teaching implications of all what has been heretofore explained are
unquestionable in the EFL classroom, as we will study in the following lines. We
have gathered the information in this section from Harmer, J. How to Teach
English. Harlow: Pearson, 2007 and the current legislation.

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The legislation in force (i.e., LOMLOE 3/2020, RD 217/2022, Decree 65/22
(CSE) and 64/22 (Bachillerato)  Madrid; LOMLOE 3/2020, RD 217/2022,
Decree 82/22 (CSE) and 83/22 (Bachillerato)  CLM; LOMLOE 3/2020, RD
217/2022, Decree 235/22 (CSE) and 251/22 (Bachillerato)  Murcia) sets that
learning of English is based upon a series of Competences, divided into four
major blocks (Written and Oral Comprehension and Production) and a group of
Syntactic- Discursive Contents (following the linguistic norm, and aimed at
facilitating the acquisition of such competences). Furthermore, these legal
instruments call for innovative teaching practices, something in which there is
room for not only different facets from those methods which appeared during
the 20th century (as the creation of an optimal atmosphere in Suggestopedia, or
the encouragement of self-confidence in Community Language Learning); but
also, for different approaches which have been presented in the 1990s and
2000s, such as Whole Brain Teaching or Task-based learning.

Additionally, our educational laws affirm that education should be encouraged

from a homogeneous perspective, hence the necessity of the relations brought
about by interdisciplinary connections. In this regard, the nature of the content
of this topic allows us to establish associations with French Language, because
all the elements previously studied are also treated in the French classroom.

It is noteworthy to mention that the content of this topic deals with Competence
in Linguistic Communication and it also touches on Competence in Cultural
Expression and Awareness, because learning a language is also learning a
culture.

With concerns to the best teaching method which may fulfil the objectives
above, Harmer’s ESA Model appears to be a considerable option. Harmer
created this model with the objective of keeping foreign-language students
emotionally involved in their learning process in three main phases: Engage,
which awakes the student’s attention and seeks their participation; Study, which
presents a series of linguistic tools to be used; and Activate, which evokes the
exploitation of such tools in real and meaningful communicative interactions.

We will now draw this topic to a conclusion. This essay has been aimed at the
thorough insight of the evolution of Second Language Teaching, as well as how
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we may benefit from each method and/or approach which have been introduced
during History. The ultimate objective of Applied Linguistics has been to
demonstrate that language learning is subject to real and communicative use of
language. Thanks to this Communicative Approach, our students may
apprehend how language must be utilized in each situation, by observing
language rules, social rules and communicative objectives. Our premier target
should be to let our learners communicate in English so that they can become
both personally and professionally realized. To sum up, it is highly noteworthy
for teachers of English to tackle different beneficial aspects of all the methods
and/or approach which have characterized Language Teaching to turn our
students into active users of the language.

Finally, we will include the main bibliographical references that we have

consulted for the elaboration of this paper. This analysis is foregrounded on a
series of relevant and influential figures in the fields of Linguistics and Teaching,
namely:

- Brown, H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (6th Ed.).

New York: Longman, 2007.
- Harmer, J. How to Teach English. Harlow: Pearson, 2007.
- Larsen-Freeman, D. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching.
(3rd Ed.). Oxford: O.U.P., 2011.
- Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching. (6th Ed.). Cambridge: C.U.P., 2001.
- Richards, J. C., and Burns, A. Communicative Language Teaching
Today. Cambridge: C.U.P., 2012.

Of course, we have also consulted: LOMLOE 3/2020, RD 217/2022, Decree

65/22 (CSE) and 64/22 (Bachillerato)  Madrid; LOMLOE 3/2020, RD
217/2022, Decree 82/22 (CSE) and 83/22 (Bachillerato)  CLM; LOMLOE
3/2020, RD 217/2022, Decree 235/22 (CSE) and 251/22 (Bachillerato) 
Murcia.

We will wrap up with the following wise words by Benjamin Franklin: Tell me
and I forget, teach me and I may remember, involve me and I learn.