Engineering Thermodynamics

Psychrometry and Refrigeration Cycles

Dr. J. Venkatesan
Professor in Automobile Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Pennalur, Sriperumbudur TK, Chennai - 602 117
PSYCHROMETRY
- Atmospheric air always contains water vapour. The water vapour
content in air plays an important role in comfort air conditioning. The
partial pressure of water vapour in atmospheric air is very low and the
vapour exists either in superheated or saturated.
- The science which deals with the study of the behaviour of air and
water vapour mixture is known as Psychrometry.
- The properties of air and water vapour mixture are known as
psychrometric
h t i properties.
ti
Dry air : Air with no water vapour is called ‘dry air’.
O2 = 21 % ; N2 = 78.1
78 1 % ; CO2 = 0.03
0 03 %
Since dry air is never found, it always may contain some water vapour.
p
Moisture : The water vapour present in the air is known as moisture.
p
Moist air : It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour.
2
Unsaturated and Saturated air : The moist air in which the water
vapour exists in superheated state, is known as Unsaturated air and such
air will be invisible
- If the water vapour is added to dry air or unsaturated air, a limit will
b reached
be h d when
h the
h air will
ll be
b saturated
d and
d can hold
h ld no more water
vapour. Such air will also be invisible and the air is called ‘saturated air’.
- But if more water is added,
added the drops of water may remain in
suspension and make air misty or foggy. Thus such drops are the
condensed particles of water vapour.
vapour This will happen only beyond
saturation limit.
According
Accord ng to the Dalton
Dalton’ss law of part
partial
al pressures,
pb = pa + pv
pb = Barometric p
pressure
pa = Partial pressure of dry air
3
pv = Partial pressure of water vapour
Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) : The temperature of the air measured by
ordinary thermometer whose bulb is dry,
dry is known as DBT of the air.
air
Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) : The temperature of the air measured
by
y a thermometer when its bulb is covered with wet cloth and is exposed
p
to a current of air is known as WBT of air.
Wet bulb depression = DBT – WBT
Dew Point Temperature (DPT) : It is the temperature of air at which
water vapour in the air starts condensing when the is cooled. Thus this
temperature will corresponds to the saturation temperature at partial
pressure of water vapour. DPT can be obtained from steam table at pv.
Dew point depression = DBT – DPT
Note:
F saturated
For t t d air,
i DBT = WBT = DPT
4
Specific humidity (W)
It is the mass of water vapour present with one kg of dry air.
pv
W = 0.622 kg / kg dry air
pb − pv
C pa (Tw − Td ) + Ww h fgW ρ v mv
Also, W= = =
hgd − h fw ρ a ma
p sw
Ww = 0.622
pb − p sw
psw = Saturation pressure at WBT
hfgw = hfg at WBT in kJ/kg
hgd = hg at DBT in kJ/kg
hfw = hf at WBT in kJ/kg
Cpa = Specific heat of air = 1.005 kJ/kgK
ρv = Density
y of water vapour
p in the mixture
ρa = Density of dry air in the mixture
5 mv = Mass of water vapour, ma = Mass of dry air
 Density of dry air and water vapour
Density of dry air can be calculated as,
as ρa = pa / (Ra Td)
Td = Dry bulb temperature in K
Ra = 287 J
J/kgK
g
pa = Partial pressure of dry air in Pa
Density of water vapour can be calculated from, ρv = W ρa
Mass of dry air and water vapour
Mass of dry air (ma) is calculated from,
pa V = ma Ra Td
Mass of water vapour (mv) is calculated from,
pv V = mv Rv Td
If gas constant (Rv) for water vapour is not available, mv can be
calculated
l l d from,
f mv = W m a
6
 Specific humidity of saturated air (Ws)
It is the mass of water vapour
p present
p with 1 kg
g of dry
y air when the
air is saturated.
ps
Ws = 0.622
pb − p s
ps Æ Saturation pressure at DBT
Degree of saturation (or) Saturation ratio (μ)
W p v ( pb − p s )
μ= =
Ws p s ( pb − p v )
Relative humidity (φ)
It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given volume of moist
air to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at
the same temperature & pressure. pv μ
φ= =
ps ps
1 − (1 − μ )
7 pb
pv can be calculated from, Carrier’s equation,

( pb − p sw ) (Td − Tw )
p v = p sw −
1527.4 − 1.3Tw
Note: Tw Æ WBT in oC
psw = Saturation pressure at WBT pb = Barometric pressure

If Φ = 0,
0 pv = 0,
0 W = 0,
0 μ=0
If Φ = 100%, pv = ps, W = Ws, μ = 1
Therefore μ varies between 0 and 1.
1

Enthalpy of moist air h = C pa Td + W [ h gd + 1.88(Td − Tdp )]

Td = DBT in oC, Cpa = 1.005 kJ/kgK, W = Specific humidity in kg/kg dry air,
Tdp = DPT in oC

8
 Psychrometric processes
Sensible cooling
The cooling of air without change in its specific humidity is known as
‘Sensible cooling’.

Td 2 − Td 3
By pass factor ( BPF ) =
Td 1 − Td 3
td3 = Coil temperature
9
Coil efficiency (ηc) = 1 – BPF
Sensible heating

The heating of air without change in its specific humidity is known as

‘Sensible heating’.

Td 3 − Td 2
By pass factor ( BPF ) =
Td 3 − Td 1

Td3 = Coil temperature

10
Coil efficiency (ηh) = 1 – BPF
Dehumidification
The removal of moisture from the air, without change g in its dry
y bulb
temperature is known as ‘dehumidification’. Perforated plate is used as
‘dehumidifier’ which removes water particles from the air.

11
Chemical dehumidification

- Some substances like silica g

gel and activated alumina have g
great affinity
y
with water vapour.

- They are called absorbents. When air passes through a bed of silica gel,
water
t vapour molecules
l l gett absorbed
b b d on its
it surface.
f L t t heat
Latent h t of f
condensation is released.

- For vapour to condense,

condense it has to lose its heat to surrounding air.
air So,
So
the DBT of air increases. This process is called ‘Chemical
dehumidification’.

12
Humidification
Addition of moisture to the air, without change in its dry bulb
temperature is known as ‘Humidification’.

13
Adiabatic dehumidification and humidification
Dehumidification or humidification of air at constant enthalpy with no
heat transfer is called ‘adiabatic dehumidification’ or ‘adiabatic
humidification’.

14
Cooling & Dehumidification
This process is generally used in Summer air conditioning to cool and
d h
dehumidify
d f the
h air.

Sensible heat
Sensible heat factor (SHF) = -----------------
Total heat
h1 – h2
= ----------
15
h1 – h3
Heating & Humidification
This process is generally used in Winter air conditioning to warm &
h idif the
humidify th air.
i

Sensible
S ibl heat
h t
Sensible heat factor (SHF) = ------------------
Total heat
h2 – h1
= ----------
16 h3 – h1
Adiabatic evaporative cooling

- A large
g q quantityy of water is constantly y circulated throughg a spray
p y
chamber.
- The moist air is passed through this spray water. Some water
evaporates into moist air.
- During this
h evaporation the h water absorbs
b b latent
l h
heat f
from the
h air
reducing air temperature and increasing air specific humidity.
- This process is called ‘Evaporative cooling’ of air.
- If the
th airir is cooled
c l d in a insulated
insul t d chamber,
ch mb r then
th n the
th cooling
c lin is known
kn n ass
‘adiabatic evaporative cooling’.

Cooling tower utilizes the phenomenon of evaporative cooling to cool warm

water below the DBT of the air.

17
Adiabatic mixing of two streams

m1 = Mass flow rate of dry air of First stream

h1 = Specific enthalpy of moist air/kg of dry air of first stream
W1 = Specific humidity of moist air of first stream
m2, h2, W2 Î Corresponding parameters of second stream
m3, h3, W3 Î Corresponding parameters of mixed stream
18
 We can write,
m1 + m2 = m3 ------ (1)
m1 h1 +m2 h2 = m3 h3 ------ (2)
m1 W1 + m2 W2 = m3 W3 -------(3)
From (1) & (2),
m1 W1 + m2 W2 = ((m1 + m2) W3
m1(W1 – W3) = m2 (W3 – W2)

m1 W3 – W2
---- = -----------
m2 W1 – W3

And similarly we can write,

m1 h3 – h2
----- = ----------
m2 h1 – h3
19
20
21
Problem: 5 gm of water vapour per kg of atmospheric air at 35oC, 60%
RH and 1.013 bar is removed and the temperature of air after
removing the water vapour is 25oC DBT. Determine RH and DPT.

Given
Mass of water vapour
p (mv) = 5ggm
Initial DBT (Td1) = 35oC
Initial RH (Φ1) = 60%
Total pressure of air (pb) = 1.013 bar
Fi l DBT (Td2)
Final = 25oC

Required: Φ2 and Tdp2

Solution
p v1
φ1 =
p s1

ps1 = 0.05628 bar at Td1 = 35oC from steam table

Therefore, p v1
0.6 = pv1 = 0.03377 bar
22 0.05628
 pv1
W1 = 0.622
pb − pv1

0.03377
W1 = 0.622 = 0.02145 kg / kg dry air
1.013 − 0.03377
= 21.45 gm/kg dry air
Therefore, W2 = 21.45 – 5 = 16.45 g
gm/kg
g dry
y air
ps2 = 0.03169 bar at Td2 = 25oC from steam table

pv 2
W2 = 0.622
pb − p v 2

pv 2
0.01645 = 0.622 x
1.013 − p v 2
0.02679 – 0.026447 pv2 = pv2
pv2 = 0.0261 bar
23
 pv 2 0.0261
φ1 = = = 0.823 = 82.3 % ---- Ans
ps 2 0.03169
From steam table, Tdp2 = 22oC at pv2 = 0.0261 bar ----- Ans

Problem: The sling psychrometer reads 40oC DBT and 28oC WBT. WBT
Calculate, (i) specific humidity, (ii) relative humidity (iii) vapour
density of air, (iv) DPT and (v) enthalpy of mixture. Assume
atmospheric
p pressure to be 1.013 bar.
p
Given
Atmospheric pressure (pb) = 1.013 bar
Dry bulb temperature (Td) = 40oC
Wet bulb temperature (Tw) = 28oC

Required: (i) W (ii) Φ (iii) ρv (iv) Tdp (v) h

Required

Solution
pv
(i) W = 0.6622
pb − p v
24
 C pa (Tw − Td ) + Ww h fgW
Also, W=
hggd − h ffw
p sw
Ww = 0.622
pb − p sw

psw = Saturation pressure at WBT = 0.03778 bar from steam table

0.03778
Ww = 0.622 = 0.024096 kg / kg dry air
1.013 − 0.03778

hfgw = hfg at WBT = 2435.4 kJ/kg from steam table at 28oC

hgd = hg at DBT = 2574.4 kJ/kg from steam table at 40oC
hfw = hf at WBT
B = 117.3
11 k /k from
kJ/kg f steam table
bl at 28oC
Cpa = Specific heat of air = 1.005 kJ/kgK

00 (28 − 40) + 0.024096(2435

1.005 243 .4)
W= = 0.018975 kg / kg dry air
25 2574.4 − 117.3
 (ii) pv
φ=
ps
pv
W = 0.622
pb − p v

pv
0.018975 = 0.622 x
1.013 − pv
pv = 0.02998 bar

ps = 0.07375 bar at 40oC from steam table

Therefore, Φ = 0.02998/0.07375 = 0.4065 = 40 % ----- Ans
(iii) Density of water vapour can be found out from, W = ρv / ρa
pa
We know that,
that ρa =
Ra Ta
26
 Ra = 287 J/kgK
Ta = DBT
pa = Partial pressure of dry air = pb – pv
pa = 1.013 – 0.02998 = 0.98302 bar

0.98302 x 10 5
ρa = = 1.0943 kg / m 3
287 x (40 + 273)

Therefore, ρv = 0.018975 x 1.0943 = 0.020764 kg/m3 ----- Ans

(iv) At pv = 0.020764 bar from steam table, Tdp = 24oC ----- Ans

(v) h = C pa Td + W [ h gd + 1.88(Td − Tdp )]

= 1.005 ( 40) + 0.018975 [ 2574 .4 + 1.88( 40 − 24)]

= 89.62 kJ/kg dry air ---- Ans

Note: Substitute Td in oC
27
Problem: Atmospheric air at 1.0132 bar has a DBT of 32oC and WBT
of 26oC. Compute (a) the partial pressure of water vapour, (b) the
specific humidity,
humidity (c) the DPT,
DPT (d) the RH, RH (e) the degree of
saturation, (f) the density of air in the mixture, (g) the density of
vapour in the mixture and (h) the enthalpy of the mixture.
Given
Atmospheric pressure (pb) = 1.0132 bar
Dry bulb temperature (Td) = 32oC
Wet bulb temperature (Tw) = 26oC

Required: (a) pv (b) W (c) Tdp (d) Φ (e) μ (f) ρa (g) ρv (h) h

Solution
(a) I-Method (Using Carrier’s equation)
( pb − p sw ) (Td − Tw )
pv = p sw −
1527.4 − 1.3Tw
Note: Tw Æ WBT in oC

28 psw = Saturation pressure at WBT = 0.03360 bar from steam table

 (1.0132 − 0.03360) (32 − 26)
p v = 0.03360 −
1527.4 − 1.3 ( 26)
= 0.0296 bar ----- Ans

II-Method C pa (Tw − Td ) + Ww h fgW

W=
hgd − h fw
p sw
Ww = 0.622
pb − p sw
psw = Saturation pressure at WBT = 0.03360 bar from steam table
0.03360
Ww = 0.622 = 0.021334 kg / kg dry air
1.0132 − 0.03360
hfgw = hfg at WBT = 2440.2 kJ/kg from steam table at 26oC
hgd = hg at DBT = 2560 kJ/kg g from
f steam table at 32oC
hfw = hf at WBT = 108.9 kJ/kg from steam table at 26oC
29 Cpa = Specific heat of air = 1.005 kJ/kgK
 1.005(26 − 32) + 0.021334(2440.2)
W= = 0.01878 kg / kg dry air
2560 − 108.9
pv
Also, W = 0.622
pb − p v
pv
0.01878 = 0.622 x
1.0132 − p v
pv = 0.0297 bar ---- Ans

(b)
pv
W = 0.622
pb − p v
0.0296
= 0.622 = 0.01872 kg / kg dry air
1.0132 − 0.0296
(c) Tdp = 24oC at pv from steam table ----- Ans

30
(d) pv
φ=
ps
ps = 0.04753 bar at 32oC from steam table
Therefore, Φ = 0.0296/0.04753 = 0.623 = 62.3 % ----- Ans

(e)
W p v ( pb − p s )
μ= =
Ws p s ( pb − p v )
0.0296 (1.0132 − 0.04753)
= = 0.6114
0.04753 (1.0132 − 0.0296)
(f) We know that, pa
ρa =
Ra Ta
Ra = 287 J/kgK
Ta = DBT
pa = Partial pressure of dry air = pb – pv
31 pa = 1.0132 – 0.0296 = 0.9836 bar
 0.9836 x 10 5
ρa = = 1.1236 kg / m 3 ----- Ans
287 x (32 + 273)

(g) Density of water vapour can be found out from, W = ρv / ρa

Therefore,
f , ρv = 0.01872 x 1.1236 = 0.021
. kg/m
g m3 ----- Ans

(h) h = C pa Td + W [ hgd + 1.88(Td − Tdp )]

At pv = 0.0296 bar from steam table, Tdp = 24oC ----- Ans

h = 1 . 005 ( 32 ) + 0 . 01872 [ 2560 + 1 . 88 ( 32 − 24 )]

= 80.365 kJ/kg dry air ---- Ans
Note: Substitute Td in oC

32
Problem: Air at 20oC, 40 % RH is mixed adiabatically with air at
40oC, 40 % RH in the ratio of 1 kg of the former with 2 kg of latter
(on dry basis). Find the final condition of air. Draw the process in
chart also as diagram.
Given
DBT of I-stream
I stream (Td1) = 20oC
RH of I-stream (Φ1) = 40 %
DBT of II-stream (Td2) = 40oC
RH of II-stream (Φ2) = 40 %
ma1/ma2 = 1/2
Mass of dry air in the I-stream (ma1) = 1 kg
Mass of dry aairr in
n the II
II-stream
stream (ma2) = 2 kg

Required: Final condition of air (h3, W3)

Solution
We can write,
ma1 h1 + ma2 h2 = (ma1 + ma2) h3

ma1 W1 + ma2 W2 = (ma1 + ma2) W3

33
Using Steam table and equations
p v1
φ1 =
p s1

ps1 = 0.02337 bar at Td1 = 20oC from steam table

p v1
0.4 =
0.02337
pv1 = 0.009348
0 009348 b
bar

34
 p v1
W1 = 0.622
pb − p v1
0.009348
= 0.622 x = 0.0058 kg / kg dry air
1.0132 − 0.009348
pv 2
φ2 =
ps2
ps2 = 0.07375 bar at Td2 = 40oC from steam table
pv 2
0.4 =
0.07375

pv2 = 0.0295 bar

pv 2
W2 = 0.622
pb − pv 2
0.0295
= 0.622 x = 0.01865 kg / kg dry air
1.0132 − 0.0295

35 h1 = C pa Td 1 + W1 [ h gd 1 + 1.88 (Td 1 − Tdp1 )]

At pv1 = 0.09348 bar from steam table, Tdp1 = 6oC
hgd1 = 2538.2 kJ/kg

h1 = 1.005 (20) + 0.0058[2538.2 + 1.88(20 − 6)]

= 34.97 kJ/kg dry air

h2 = C pa Td 2 + W2 [ h gd 2 + 1.88 (Td 2 − Tdp 2 )]

At pv2 = 0.0295 bar from steam table, Tdp2 = 24oC

hgd2 = 2574.4 kJ/kg

h2 = 1.005 (40) + 0.01865[2574.4 + 1.88(40 − 24)]

= 88.8 kJ/kg
g dry
y air
1 (34.97) + 2 (88.8) = (1 + 2) h3
h3 = 70.86 kJ/kg dry air ----- Ans
1 (0.0058) + 2 (0.01865) = (1 + 2) W3
36
W3 = 0.01436 kg/kg dry air ----- Ans
Using chart
• Locate the p
point (1) on the chart at Φ1 = 40% and Td1 = 20oC
• Locate the point (2) at Φ2 = 40% and Td2 = 40oC
• Get h1, h2, W1 and W2 from chart
h1 = 35 kJ/kg dry air W1 = 0.0058 kg/kg dry air
h2 = 90 kJ/kg dry air W2 = 0.0187 kg/kg dry air
1 (35) + 2 (90) = (1 + 2) h3
h3 = 71.67 kJ/kg dry air ----- Ans
1 (0.0058)
( ) + 2 (0.0187)
( ) = (1
( + 2)) W3
W3 = 0.0144 kg/kg dry air ----- Ans

37
We can also get other properties from chart.
• Locate point (3) on the chart at W3 or h3
• Point (3) lies between (1) and (2) and on the line joining (1) and (2)
• Get WBT and DPT on the saturation curve
• Get DBT on the x-axis
• Get RH and specific volume at point (3)
Tw3 = 23.8oC, Td3 = 33.1oC, Tdp3 = 19.6oC, v3 = 0.887 m3/kg dry air,
Φ3 = 46%

38
Problem: Air-water vapour mixture at 0.1 MPa, 30oC, 80% RH has a
volume of 50 m3. Calculate the specific humidity, DPT, WBT, mass of
dry air and mass of water vapour.
Given
Total pressure of mixture (pb) = 0.1 MPa = 1 bar
DBT of mixture (Td) = 30oC
RH of mixture (Φ) = 80%
Volume of mixture (V) = 50 m3

Required: W, DPT, WBT, ma and mw

Solution W = 0.622
pv
pb − p v
pv
φ=
ps

ps = 0.04242 bar at Td = 30oC from steam table

pv = 0.8 (0.04242) = 0.03394 bar
39
 0.03394
W = 0.622 x = 0.02185 kg / kg dry air ---- Ans
1 − 0.03394
Tdp = 26oC at pv = 0.03394 bar from steam table ---- Ans

• Using
g Carrier’s equation,
q only
y by
y trial and error we can find WBT.
Therefore it is advisable to refer chart for obtaining the WBT.
• Locate the point on the chart at 30oC and 80% RH
• Get WBT on saturation curve
Tw = 27oC ---- Ans

To find mass of dry air

pa = pb – pv = 1 – 0.03394 = 0.96606 bar
pa V = ma Ra Ta
0.96606 x 105 x 50 = ma x 287 x (30 + 273)
ma = 55.54 kg ----- Ans
40
To find mass of water vapour

ρ v mv
W= =
ρ a ma

mv = 0.02185 ((55.54)) = 1.2136 kg

g ---- Ans
Note: If we know the value of Rw, mw can be found out from,
pw V = mw Rw Tv
Ta = Tv =Td
Problem: Saturated air at 20oC at a rate of 1.16 m3/s is mixed
adiabatically with the outside air at 35oC and 50% RH at a rate of 0.5
0 5
m3/s. Assuming adiabatic mixing condition at 1 atm, determine specific
humidity, relative humidity, dry bulb temperature and volume flow rate
of the mixture.
mixture
Given
Saturated air, i.e., Φ1 = 100%
DBT of I-stream (Td1) = 20oC
Volume flow rate of I-stream (V1) = 1.16 m3/s
41
DBT of II-stream (Td2) = 35oC
RH of II-stream (Φ2) = 50%
Volume flow rate of II
II-stream
stream (V2) = 0 5 m3/s
0.5
Total pressure (pb) = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar

Required:
q W3, Φ3 Td3 and V3

Solution
We can write,
write
ma1 h1 + ma2 h2 = (ma1 + ma2) h3
ma1 W1 + ma2 W2 = (ma1 + ma2) W3
Using chart
• Locate the p
point (1) on the chart
at Φ1 = 100% and Td1 = 20oC
• Locate the point (2)
at Φ2 = 50% and Td2 = 35oC
42
• Get h1, h2, W1 and W2 from chart
h1 = 58 kJ/kg dry air W1 = 0.015 kg/kg dry air v1 = 0.851 m3/kg dry air
h2 = 81.5 kJ/kg dry air W2 = 0.018 kg/kg dry air v2 = 0.898 m3/kg dry air

V1 1.16
m1 = = = 1.3631 kg / s
v1 0.851
V2 0.5
m2 = = = 0.5568 kg / s
v 2 0.898

1 3631 (0.015)
1.3631 (0 015) + 0.5568
0 5568 (0.018)
(0 018) = (1.3631
(1 3631 + 0.5568)
0 5568) W3
W3 = 0.0159 kg/kg dry air ----- Ans
• Locate point (3) on the chart at W3
• Point (3) lies between (1) and (2) and on the line joining (1) and (2)
• Get DBT on the x-axis
• Get RH and specific
p volume at ppoint ((3))
From chart, Φ3 = 80% ----- Ans
Td3 = 25oC ------ Ans
v3 = 0.866 m3/kg dry air

43
V3 = m3 v3 = (1.3631 + 0.5568) (0.866)
= 1.6626 m3/s ----- Ans
Problem: Air at 16oC and 25% RH passes through a heater and then
through a humidifier to reach final DBT of 30oC and 50% RH. Calculate
the heat and moisture added to the air.air What is the sensible heat
factor?
Given
I i i l DBT of
Initial f air
i (Td1) = 16oC
Initial RH of air (Φ1) = 25%
Final DBT of air (Td3) = 30oC
Final RH of air (Φ3) = 50%
Process Æ Heating and humidification

Required: Heat added,

added Moisture added and SHF

Solution
Using chart
•Locate the point (1) at Td1 and Φ1
•Locate
Locate the point (3) at Td3 and Φ3

44
• Draw the horizontal line (heating) from (1) and Vertical line
((humidification)) from ((3)) and g
get intersection p
point ((2))
• Get h1, h2, h3, W1, W2 and W3
h1 = 23 kJ/kg dry air h2 = 38 kJ/kg dry air h3 = 64 kJ/kg dry air
W1 = W2 = 0.0033 kg/kg dry air W3 = 0.0134 kg/kg dry air
Heat added = SH + LH = (h2 – h1) + (h3 – h2)
= h3 – h1
= 64 – 23 = 41 kJ/kg dry air ---- Ans
Moisture added = W3 – W2 = 0.0134 – 0.0033
= 0.0101 kg/kg dry air ----- Ans

SH h2 − h1 h2 − h1
Sensible heat factor (SHF) = = =
SH + LH (h2 − h1 ) + (h3 = h2 ) h3 − h1

38 − 23
= = 0.366
45 64 − 23
Problem: For a hall to be air conditioned, the following conditions are
given:
Outdoor condition Æ 40oC DBT, 20oC WBT
Required comfort condition Æ 20oC DBT, 60% RH
Seating capacity of hall = 1500
Amount of air supplied = 0.3 m3/min per person
If the
th required
i d condition
diti i achieved
is hi d first
fi t by
b adiabatic
di b ti humidification
h idifi ti
and then by cooling, estimate (a) capacity of the cooling coil in tones,
and (b) the capacity of the humidifier.
humidifier

Given
Process Æ Adiabatic humidification and Cooling
g

Before adiabatic humidification

DBT of air (Td1) = 40oC
WB of
WBT f air (T
( w1) = 20oC
46
After adiabatic humidification
RH of air (Φ2) = 60%

After cooling (sensible)

DBT of air (Td3) = 20oC
Amount of air supplied (Va1) = 0.3 m3/min per person
S ti capacity
Seating it = 1500

Required: (a) Capacity of cooling coil (b) Capacity of humidifier

Solution

47
• Locate the point (1) at Td1 = 40oC and Tw1 = 20oC
• Dur
During
ng a
adiabatic
a at c hum
humidification,
f cat n, h = c
constant.
n tant. F
Follow
w th
the c
constant
n tant W
WBT
line and get point (2) at 60%.
• During cooling process, W = constant. Follow constant W line and get
point (3) at Td3 = 20oC

From chart, h1 = h2 = 57 kJ/kg dry air

h3 = 42 kJ/kg dry air
W1 = 0.0065 kg/kg dry air
W2 = W3 = 0.0088 kg/kg dry air
v1 = 0.896 m3/kg dry air

(a) Capacity of cooling coil = ma (h2 – h3)

Volume flow rate of air (Va1) = 0.3 x 1500/60 = 7.5 m3/s
Mass flow rate of air (ma) = Va1/v1 = 7.5 / 0.896 = 8.37 kg/s
48
Mass flow rate of air (ma) = Va1/v1 = 7.5 / 0.896 = 8.37 kg/s
Capacity of cooling coil = 8.37
8 37 (57 – 42) = 125.55
125 55 kJ/s
= 125.55 / 3.89 = 32.27 TR ---- Ans

C
Capacity
it of
f humidifier
h idifi = ma (W2 – W1) = 8.37
8 37 (0.0088
(0 0088 – 0.0065)
0 0065)
= 0.019251 kg/s
= 69
69.3
3 kg/h ----- Ans

49
Refrigeration
- It is the process of maintaining the temperature of the system below the
temperature of the surroundings.

Types
yp of Refrigeration
g System
y
1. Air Refrigeration System
2. Vapour Refrigeration System
1. Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCR)
- uses mechanical energy
2. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System (VAR)
- uses thermal energy

50
- The major difference in theory and treatment of vapour refrigeration
system as compared to the air refrigeration system is that, the vapour
alternately undergoes a change of phase from vapour to liquid and liquid to
vapour during the completion of cycle.

- The latent heat of vapourisation is utilized for carrying heat from the
refrigerator which is quite high compared with the air cycle, which
depends only upon the sensible heat of air.

• The substances used do not leave the plant and circulated through the
system alternately after condensing and re-evaporating.

• During
D evaporation, it absorbs
b b its latent
l h
heat and
d in condensing
d it gives
out its latent heat, therefore this machine is also called “Latent heat
pump”.

Main components:
• Evaporator
• Compressor
• Condenser
51 • Expansion device (Throttle valve (or) Control valve)
 Vapour Compression Refrigeration

2
Condenser
High Pressure
3 Side

Expansion
Device Compressor

1 Low
4
Pressure
Side
Evaporator

52
 VCR
L w p
Low pressure
u liquid
qu refrigerant
f g in
evaporator absorbs heat and changes to
a gas

2
Condenser
High Pressure
3 Sid
Side

Expansion
Device Compressor

4
1 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side

53
 VCR
The superheated vapour enters the
compressor where its pressure is raised

2
Condenser
High Pressure
3 Sid
Side

Expansion
Device Compressor

4
1 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side

54
 The high pressure superheated gas VCR
is cooled in several stages in the
condenser

2
Condenser
High Pressure
3 Sid
Side

Expansion
Device Compressor

4
1 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side

55
 Liquid passes through expansion device, which VCR
reduces its pressure and controls the flow into the
evaporator

2
Condenser
High Pressure
3 Sid
Side

Expansion
Device Compressor

4
1 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side

56
 Refrigerant is dry at the end of compression with no sub cooling

1-2 Î Compressor (Isentropic compression)

2-3 Î Condenser (Constant pressure condensation)
3-4 Î Expansion device (Isenthalpic expansion)
4-1 Î Evaporator (Constant pressure evaporation)
57
 Refrigerant
g is dryy at the beginning
g g of compression
p with no sub cooling
g

58
 Refrigerant is superheated (superheating) at the beginning of
compression with no sub-cooling
sub cooling

59
Wet compression & Dry compression

- If the condition of vapour after compression is wet, the compression is

called ‘Wet compression’.

• Wet
W compression
i damages
d the
h valves
l and
d cylinder
li d head.
h d

• Wet compression wash out the lubricating oil from the walls
of the cylinder,
cylinder thus accelerating the wear.
wear

- If the condition of vapour before compression is dry, the compression is

called ‘Dry
Dry compression
compression’.

60
Refrigeration effect

The
h ccooling
ng effect
ff ct pr
produced
uc by
y rremoval
m a offh
heat
at fr
from
mccold body
y is ca
called
‘refrigeration effect’.

Refrigeration effect = mf (h1 – h4)

Coefficient of performance (COP)

Refrigeration
R f i ti effect
ff t
COP = --------------------------
Work input

h1 – h4
= ---------- Î Vapour compression refrigerator
h1 – h2

T2
= --------- Î Carnot refrigerator
g
T1 – T2
61
 Actual heat extraction
(COP)act = ------------------------------
Actual workdone

(COP)act
(COP)rel = ------------
(COP)the

Note: The COP found out from refrigeration chart or table is called
(COP)the.

Capacity of the refrigerator

It is expressed in ‘Ton of refrigeration’. It is defined as the rate of

heat added to 1 ton of ice at 0oC to convert it into water at 0oC in 24 hour.
1 Ton off Refrigeration
f g ((TR)) = 210 kJ/min
J m = 3.5 kJ/s
J
1 Tonne of Refrigeration (TR) = 3.87 kJ/s

Power required to drive the compressor

62
P = mf (h2 – h1)
 Effect of Sub-cooling & Superheating

3’ – 3 Æ Sub-cooling
g
Æ Increases refrigeration effect
Æ No change in compressor work
Æ Therefore increases the COP
1’ – 1 Æ Superheating
Æ Increases the refrigeration effect
Æ Increases the compressor work
Æ But
B t increase
i in
i RE < iincrease iin W
Æ Therefore it decreases COP
63
 Evaporator Flash Chamber
Accumulator
Liquid only

Liquid

Heat Exchanger Vapour Expansion

Valve
Vapour only

Compressor

Drier or Filter
Condenser

64 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

- The refrigerant vapour is compressed by means of compressor to a
pressure at which temperature obtained at the end of compression will be
more than atmospheric temperature, so that at this temperature it will
reject heat to the atmosphere and will then get condensed.
condensed

- This condensate is then allowed to pass through the heat exchanger and
filter to expansion
p device.

- The refrigerant from condenser is cooled in the heat exchanger by means

of vapour refrigerant from evaporator.

- The function of filter is to remove the moisture from the refrigerant in

order to prevent the freezing of air in the expansion device.

- In the expansion device the pressure and temperature are lowered.

65
- The pressure of the refrigerant when it leaves the expansion device is
maintained above the atmospheric pressure, whereas the temperature of
refrigerant will be corresponding to the saturation temperature.
temperature

- The low temperature, low pressure refrigerant is allowed to pass through

Flash chamber
m to the evaporator.
p

- Flash chamber separates vapour from the liquid + vapour mixture and
allows pure liquid refrigerant to evaporator which increases the COP.

- In the evaporator, the refrigerant absorbs latent heat from the

substance to be cooled.

- From the evaporator the refrigerant is taken to the compressor through

the Accumulator and heat exchanger.

- Accumulator separates liquid refrigerant from vapour + liquid mixture and

liquid refrigerant is taken back to evaporator.

- Thus the cycle is completed.

66
 Applications
Typical refrigerants
Refrigeration application Short descriptions
used
Appliances
l usedd for
f k keeping f
food
d in
Domestic refrigeration R-600a, R-134a
dwelling units
Holding and displaying frozen and fresh
Commercial refrigeration R-134a, R-404A, R-507
food in retail outlets
Equipment to preserve, process and
Food processing and cold R-134a, R-407C, R-
store food from its source to the
storage 410A, R-507
wholesale distribution point
Large equipment,
equipment typically 25 kW to 30
MW, used for chemical processing, cold R-134a, R-404A, R-
Industrial refrigeration
storage, food processing and district 507, R-717
heating and cooling
Equipment to preserve and store goods,
goods
R-134a, R-407C, R-
Transport refrigeration primarily foodstuffs, during transport by
410A
road, rail, air and sea
Low-temperature cooling of CMOS
El t
Electronic
i cooling
li circuitry
i it and d other
th components t iin llarge R 134 R
R-134a, R-404A,
404A RR-507
507
computers and servers [7]

Medical refrigeration R-134a, R-404A, R-507

Cryogenic refrigeration Ethylene Helium
Ethylene,

67
Properties of good refrigerant
• Low boiling point.
• High critical temperature.
• High
Hi h latent
l t t heat
h t of
f evaporation.
ti
• Low specific heat of liquid.
• Low specific volume of vapour.
vapour
• Non-corrosive to metal.
• Non
Non-flammable
flammable and non
non-explosive
explosive.
• Non-toxic.
• Easy
y to liquefy
q y at moderate p
pressure & temperature.
p
• Low cost.

68
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
-The major drawback of the vapour compression refrigeration system is
that it requires a compressor to compress large volume of refrigerant
vapour which requires large mechanical power for its operation.
- If some methods are used to reduce this volume before compression,
there would be considerable reduction in weight of the system and power
requirement for its operation.
- Some liquids have great affinity of absorbing large quantities of certain
vapours and
d reducing
d i them
th t liquid
to li id state,
t t this
thi reduces
d th total
the t t l volume
l
significantly.
- The absorption system differs fundamentally from vapour compression
system only in the method employed for compressing the refrigerant. In
the absorption system,
system the compressor is replaced by “an
an absorber,
absorber a
generator and a pump”.
69
 Ammonia Absorption system

70
The basic components are

(i) Generator

(ii) Analyser

(iii) Rectifier

(iv) Condenser

(v) Heat exchanger

( i) Receiver
(vi) R i

(vii) Expansion valve

(viii) Evaporator

(ix) Absorber

71 (x) Pump etc.

- The low pressure refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is absorbed
by
y the weak solution of the refrigerant
g in water which is sprayed
p y in the
absorber.
- Absorption of ammonia lowers the pressure in the absorber, which in
turn draws more ammonia vapour from the evaporator.
- Usually some form of cooling is employed in the absorber to remove
the heat of solution evolved there. (during absorption of vapour by
water spray evolves heat).
- The cooling of hot ammonia solution is necessary to increase its
absorption capacity, because at high temperature, water absorbs less
ammonia
i vapour.
- The strong ammonia solution thus formed is then pumped into the
generator The pump increases the pressure of the solution about 10
generator.
bar.
72
- The strong solution of ammonia is heated by some external means
(steam or gas), and in the heating process, the refrigerant vapour is
driven out of solution and the vapour is allowed to enter the condenser
through Rectifier.
- The rectifier removes the water particles from the vapour. If there is
water with
h ammonia vapour, this
h water will
ll freeze
f in the
h expansion
device and will affect the performance of the system.
- The
Th dry
d ammonia
mm ni vapour
p u in the
th condenser
c nd ns is converted
c n t d into
int liquid
ammonia.
- The weak solution of ammonia left in the generator after ammonia has
driven off, is first throttled to a low pressure by an expansion valve and
then returned to the absorber through heat exchanger.

73
- In the heat exchanger, the strong solution from the absorber is
heated by weak solution from generator.
- The high pressure liquid ammonia is passed through a throttle valve
where the pressure and temperature of the liquid ammonia reduced and
is passed
d to the
h evaporator.
- In the evaporator, liquid ammonia absorbs latent heat from the space
( r) substance
(or) subst nc to
t be
b cooled
c l d and
nd dry
dr ammonia
mm ni vapour
v p ur coming
c min out
ut of
f the
th
evaporator is allowed to mix with the weak solution of ammonia sprayed
in the absorber.
absorber
- This completes the cycle.

74
 Lithium-Bromide Absorption Refrigeration system

75
- In this system the water itself works as a refrigerant and Li-Br salt
solution as an absorber.
- For air conditioning in which refrigeration temperatures below 0oC are
not required, an absorption system of this type has been successfully
developed and has achieved great commercial success.
- The Li-Br solution has a strong affinity for water vapour because of its
very low vapour pressure, so that if water and Li-Br solution are placed
adjacent to each other in a closed evacuated system, the water will
evaporate.
t
- In the evaporator, the water will evaporate absorbing its latent heat
from
f m the remaining
m g water and lowering
g its temperature
mp to 2oC as the
pressure in the evaporator is 5.5 cm of Hg.
- The cooled water in evaporator is used to cool the water used for air
conditioning purposes.
76
Refrigerants for Vapour absorption system

• Ammonia
• Water
Properties
p of ideal refrigerant
g for Vapour
p absorption
p system
y
• High critical temperature.
• Large latent heat of evaporation.
• Low specific heat.
• Stability in complete cycle.

Different types of absorbents

• Water
• Lithium bromide

77
Properties of ideal absorbent
• It should remain in liquid condition under operating conditions.
• It should have g
greater affinity
y for the refrigerant.
g
• Heat liberated should be minimum when the refrigerant is absorbed by
absorbent.
• It should have high boiling point.
• It should have chemical stability.

78
Problem 1: An ammonia refrigerator works on Vapour compression
cycle. The temperature range in the compressor is 25oC to – 15oC.
The vapour
p is dryy saturated at the end of compression
p and an
expansion valve is used. Find COP. Take the following properties for
ammonia.
Specific Enthalpy Specific entropy
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)
Temperature
(oC) Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
25 100.04
100 04 1319.22
1319 22 0.3473
0 3473 4.4852
4 4852
- 15 - 54.56 1304.99 - 2.1338 5.0585

Given
Temperature at the inlet of the compressor (T1) = - 15oC
Temperature at the outlet of the compressor (T2) = 25oC
Vapour is dry at the end of the compression
Required
q : COP

79
Solution
1-2 Æ Compressor
2-3 Æ Condenser
3-4 Æ Expansion valve
4-1 Æ Evaporator

h1 – h4
COP = --------
h2 – h1
h1 = spec
specific
f c enthalpy of refrigerant
refr gerant at compressor inlet
nlet
= hf1 + x1 hfg1 = hf1 + x1 (hg – hf)1
hf1 = specific
p enthalpy
py of liquid
q at – 15oC
= - 54.56 kJ/kg
hg1 = specific enthalpy of vapour at 25oC
= 1304.99 kJ/kg
80
 To find ‘x’
1-2 Æ Isentropic process, s1 = s2
s2 = specific entropy at compressor outlet
= specific entropy of vapour at 25oC = 4.4852 kJ/kgK
s1 = specific entropy at compressor inlet
= specific entropy of wet vapour at – 15oC
= sf1 + x1 sfg1
= sf1 + x1 (sg – sf)1
sf1 = specific entropy of liquid at – 15oC = - 2.1338
2 1338 kJ/kgK
sg = specific entropy of vapour at – 15oC = 5.0585 kJ/kgK
∴ 4 4858 = - 2.1338
4.4858 2 1338 + x1(5.0585
(5 0585 – ((- 2.1338))
2 1338))
x = 0.92
∴ h1 = - 54.56 + 0.92 ((1304.99 – ((-54.56))
))
= 1196.226 kJ/kg
81
 h2 = specific enthalpy at compressor outlet
= specific enthalpy of vapour at 25oC = 1319.22 kJ/kg
h3 = specific enthalpy at condenser outlet
= specific enthalpy of liquid at 25oC = 100.04 kJ/kg
1196 226 – 100.04
1196.226 100 04
∴ COP = ----------------------- = 8.9 ---- Ans
1319.22 – 1196.226
Problem 2: A vapour compression refrigerator uses methyl chloride
and operates between temperature limits of – 10oC and 45oC. At
entry to the compressor, the refrigerant is dry saturated and after
compression it acquired
d a temperature of f 60oC.
C Find
F d the
h COP
C P of
f the
h
refrigerator. Take the following properties :
Specific
p Enthalpy
py Specific
p entropy
py
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kgK)
Temperature
(oC) Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour

45 133.0 483.6 0.485 1.587

- 10 45.4 460.7 0.183 1.637
82
Given
Temperature at the inlet of the compressor (T1) = - 10oC
Temperature at the outlet of the compressor (T2) = 60oC
Vapour is dry at the beginning of the compression.

Required : COP

h1 – h4
COP = --------
h2 – h1

h1 = specific enthalpy of refrigerant at compressor inlet

= specific enthalpy of vapour at – 10oC = 460.7
460 7 kJ/kg
h2 = specific enthalpy at compressor outlet
p f enthalpy
= specific py of
f super
p heated vapour
p at 60oC
= hg2’ + Cp (Tsup – ts)
83
 hg2’ = specific enthalpy of saturated vapour at 45oC
= 483.6 kJ/kg
g
Cp = specific heat of refrigerant
To find Cp
1-2 Æ Isentropic process, s1 = s2
s2 = specific entropy at compressor outlet
= specific entropy of superheated vapour at 60oC
= sg2’ + Cp ln [Tsup/ts]
s1 = specific entropy at compressor inlet
= specific entropy of saturated vapour at – 10oC
= 1.637
1 637 kJ/kgK
kJ/k K
= sf1 + x1 (sg – sf)1
sf1 = specific entropy of liquid at – 10oC

84 = - 2.1338 kJ/kgK
 sg = specific entropy of vapour at – 10oC
= 5.0585
5 0585 kJ/kgK
∴ 4.4858 = - 2.1338 + x1(5.0585 – (- 2.1338))
x1 = 0.92

1196.226 – 100.04
∴ COP = ---------------------- = 8.9 ---- Ans
1319.22 – 1196.226

85
 Thank You !

86