BIOL1020 Lab 5 Introduction 1

LAB 5
DIVERSITY OF PLANTS AND FUNGI
INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Plants:
Evolution of Land Plants:
It is thought that the land plants evolved from a type of algae (photosynthetic protists) that
grows as mats along the edges of fresh water ponds and marshes. As such, they have many
shared characteristics with some protist groups, such as some green algae (Chlorophyta) and
charophytes (Charophyta). The key shared characteristics are that these protists and plants
are eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic, contain chlorophylls a and b and have
walls made of cellulose. The transition from a moist environment to a terrestrial habitat
involved adaptations to resist drying out. Successful adaptations to land include:
development of a waxy surface (cuticle) that slows down drying out, development of thick
walls around their spores, encasement of gametes (protecting them from drying out),
surrounding their embryos in a protective structure (seeds), and evolving certain pigments
that protect them from the high levels of mutagenic ultraviolet radiation reaching land
habitats.

There are four major groupings of plants. The first major division is between the non-
vascular plants and the vascular plants. Non-vascular plants lack an extensive transport
system for water, minerals and nutrients while vascular plants have an extensive system of
vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) for transport.

Nonvascular plants are often informally called bryophytes and are categorized into three
Phyla: Hepatophyta (liverworts), Anthocerophyta (hornworts) and Bryophyta (mosses).
However, there is some debate over the relationship between liverworts, hornworts and
mosses to one another and to vascular plants. The vascular plants form a clade that consists
of approximately 93% of all plant species. They can be categorized further into three smaller
clades two of which lack seeds: the Lycophyta (club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts)
and the Pterophyta (ferns, horsetails and whisk ferns). The third clade consists of seed
plants. Seed plants can be further divided into two groups: Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms. Gymnosperms are also referred to as the “naked seed” plants because their
seeds are not enclosed in chambers. Angiosperms are a huge clade which consists of all
flowering plants. Angiosperm seeds develop inside chambers called ovaries, which originate
within flowers and mature into fruits. Figure 1 shows the general relationships between the
plant groups.
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Figure 1. Plant phylogeny (Figure 29.7 from Campbell and Reece, 2008).

The non-vascular plants:

Because non-vascular plants lack the specialized conducting tissues responsible for the
efficient transport of water, minerals and food compounds throughout the plant, they must
compensate in other ways. Non-vascular plants have to be small enough so that these
materials can be distributed internally by the process of diffusion. Gametophytes generally
grow close to the ground in carpets and are only a few cells thick.

Non-vascular plants occur in habitats that are moist during at least part of the year. A moist
environment is needed because surface water is required for the sperm to swim to the eggs
for fertilization in sexual reproduction.

In non-vascular plants, the haploid gametophyte is the larger body form. It is the leafy plant,
nutritionally independent of the smaller diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte is smaller,
attached to the gametophyte (either male or female) and is nutritionally dependent upon the
gametophyte. The spores produced by the sporophyte will give rise to either a male
gametophyte or a female gametophyte. Figure 2 below shows a typical moss life cycle.

While the non-vascular plants lack true leaves, roots and stems, they do have leaf-like,
stem-like and root-like structures. The root-like structures are called rhizoids and function
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to anchor the plant. Unlike roots, they do not have specialized conducting cells and do not
play a role in water and mineral absorption.

Figure 2. Moss life cycle (Figure 29.8 from Campbell and Reece, 2008).

Mosses are both ecologically and economically important. Peat moss (Sphagnum spp.) is
very widespread and forms vast deposits of partially decayed organic matter called peat. It is
estimated that worldwide, approximately 400 billion tons of organic carbon are stored in
peat. Peat has been used as a fuels source in Europe and Asia and is still used today. Peat
moss contains large amounts of large dead cells (hydroid cells) that have an incredible
capacity to absorb water – up to 20 times the weight of the cell! Peat moss is also used as a
soil conditioner and as a horticultural packing material.

The vascular plants:

The vascular plants were the first plants to grow to large size and away from open water.
These capabilities were made possible by the presence of a vascular system (xylem and
phloem) which enables the efficient transport of water, minerals, and food throughout their
generally larger, and more complex bodies. The presence of a vascular system also allowed
these plants to form the first forests on earth. All vascular plants also have true roots, stems
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and leaves. In all vascular plants (in contrast to the non-vascular plants), the diploid
sporophyte is the larger generation and the gametophyte is less conspicuous life stage.

The seedless vascular plants:

While the gametophyte in the seedless vascular plants is small, it is still nutritionally
independent of the sporophyte. Also fertilization of the egg with sperm is still dependent on
the presence of water. Therefore this group must have a habitat in which moisture is
abundant for at least part of its growing season. Most seedless vascular plants are
homosporous meaning they have one type of sporophyll producing one type of spore. The
spore develops into a bisexual gametophyte. Most ferns are homosporous.

Figure 3. Fern life cycle (Figure 29.13 from Campbell and Reece, 2008).

The vascular seed plants:

The seed plants are further adapted to life on land, because they are no longer dependent on
water for fertilization. Seed plants reproduce by pollination – the transfer of pollen grains to
the female gametophyte. Pollination can occur via wind or animals. Like the seedless vascular
plants, the diploid sporophyte is the dominant generation. But unlike the non-seed vascular
plants, the female gametophyte is greatly reduced in size, enclosed within the sporophyte
tissue, and nutritionally dependent upon the sporophyte for its survival. The highly reduced,
largely hidden gametophyte generation of the seed plants is the most obvious difference with
the other plant groups. The vascular seed plants also have well developed root and shoot
systems. The seed plants are divided into two major groups - the Gymnosperms and the
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Angiosperms. The Gymnosperms have seeds on the surface of modified leaves; the
Angiosperms have their seeds enclosed within a fruit.

Gymnosperms:
Gymnosperms are plants that produce “naked” seeds that are not enclosed in ovaries. The
four major categories of Gymnosperms are the cycads, ginkos, gnetophytes and the
conifers. The most recognizable of these four categories are the conifers, or evergreen trees
such as pine, cedar and spruce. Conifers are characterized by their cones (strobili), which
contain the reproductive organs. Like all seed plants, conifers are heterosporous, which
means that they have two types of sporophylls (the scales of the cones) and produces two
types of spores. The male cones (bearing the pollen grains) are small with very thin scales
whereas the female cones (bearing the egg cell) are large and woody. Pollen is transferred
from male cones to female cones by wind and gravity and the seeds develop on the exposed
upper surface of scales of the female cones. In the gymnosperm life cycle, the sporophyte
generation dominates; the gametophyte generation is reduced to a microscopic portion of
the life cycle. Figure 4 shows a gymnosperm life cycle.

Figure 4. Gymnosperm life cycle (Pine – Pinus sp.) (Figure 30.6 from Campbell and
Reece, 2008).
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Angiosperms:
Angiosperms are vascular plants with a reproductive structure in the form of flowers and
fruits. The diploid sporophyte is the dominant body form containing the true leaves, shoots
and roots of the plant. The gametophyte generation is very reduced. The gametophytes are
contained in protective tissue within the flowers. Figure 5 shows a typical angiosperm life
cycle.

Figure 5. Typical angiosperm life cycle (Figure 30.10 from Campbell and Reece, 2008).

Angiosperms are divided into two general groups, the monocots and the eudicots, based
mainly on anatomical and morphological characteristics. The main anatomical differences
reside in the number of cotyledons in the embryo, the structure of the leaf venation, the
arrangement of the vascular bundles in the stems, the structure of the roots and the number
of floral parts. Figure 6 summarizes the differences between monocot and eudicot
angiosperms.
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Figure 6. Comparison of Monocots and Eudicots (Figure 30.13 from Campbell and Reece, 2008).

Angiosperm Seed Structure and Seedling Development:

Angiosperm seeds store proteins, oils and starch to different degrees depending on the
species. These nutrients are stored in the endosperm of the seed and this endosperm
surrounds the embryo. During the last stages of seed development, the seed dehydrates and
enters dormancy. So the seed consists of the embryo (which will develop into the plant), the
endosperm which serves as the food supply for the embryo and a protective seed coat
externally. Figure 7 shows a comparison of the structure of a eudicot seed and monocot seed.
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Eudicot seeds are characterized by two cotyledons. In bean seeds the elongated embryo is
attached to the cotyledons. The cotyledons in beans contain nutrients which were absorbed
from the endosperm during seed development, so bean seeds do not have endosperm, the
embryo absorbs nutrients from the cotyledon. The topmost part of the embryo, below the
miniature leaves is the epicotyl. Below that is the hypcotyl which terminates in the radicle.
The radicle is the embryonic root.

Monocot seeds, such as corn, contain only one cotyledon and a large amount of endosperm.
They too contain the epicotyls, hypocotyls and radicle. In addition they contain a coleoptile
which covers and protects the young shoot as it grows.

Figure 7. Comparison of eudicot and monocot seed structure (Figure 38.8 from Campbell and Reece,
2008).

Germination of any type of seed depends on the uptake of water referred to a imbibition.
When water is taken up by the seed this triggers enzymes to begin digestion of the stored
nutrients in the endosperm or cotyledons. These nutrients are then transferred to the
growing embryo which eventually forms a seedling. Figure 8 shows developing eudicot and
monocot seedlings. Notice which parts of the seed become the different parts of the seedling.

Figure 8. Comparison of eudicot and monocot seedlind structure (Figure 38.9 from Campbell and
Reece, 2008).
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Introduction to Fungi:
Fungi are a very diverse group with some unicellular species (e.g. the yeasts), but with most
species being multicellular. Despite this structural diversity, they share some key traits, most
importantly, how they derive nutrition. Fungi are eukaryotic heterotrophs that have cell
walls containing chitin. Although they are heterotrophs, fungi are unable to ingest their
food, instead they use absorptive nutrition. This involves the release of powerful hydrolytic
enzymes (exoenzymes), which they secrete outside the fungal body to digest their food. The
digested material is then taken into their body through absorption. The morphology of
multicellular fungi enhances their ability to absorb nutrients from their surroundings. The
bodies of fungi are made up of a network of small filaments called hyphae. Hyphae form an
interwoven mass called a mycelium that surrounds and extends into the material on which
the fungus feeds. These hyphae can become so extensive that a 1 cm3 area of rich organic soil
can contain as much as 1 km of hyphae, with a total surface area of 300 cm2. This makes
feeding exceptionally efficient!

The most important role of the fungi is as decomposers - breaking down complex organic
molecules into their simpler components. Thus, they fill an essential role of recycling complex
organic compounds by breaking them into simpler products that they and other organisms
can use. Some fungi live off dead organic matter and are referred to as saprophytes.

Fungi produce spores through either sexual or asexual life cycles. In most species of fungi, the
nuclei of the fungal hyphae and spores are haploid. Diploid stages are transient and are
formed during the sexual cycles. Sexual reproduction involves plasmogamy (fusion of
cytoplasm) leading to heterokaryotic mycelia. This stage can last hours, days or even
centuries. The next stage is karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) producing diploid cells. Meiosis
then occurs, restoring the haploid condition and the mycelium produces specialized
reproductive structures that produce and disperse spores. In asexual reproduction, clones are
produced by mitotic production of spores. The spores are spread by air or water. Some
species reproduce only asexually. Figure 9 illustrates the generalized life cycle of fungi.

Mold is a familiar fungus that often grows on food. Molds are asexual fungi that grow quickly
as mycelia and produce spores. Yeasts are another example of an asexual fungi. Yeasts
reproduce asexually by simple cell division or by budding off a parent cell. They are
economically important being involved in bread-making and in beer, wine and alcohol
production.

Ovary
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Fungi can form symbiotic relationships with algae or cyanobacteria. A lichen is not a single
organism but a heterotrophic fungus and a phototrophic microorganism (an alga or a
cyanobacterium) joined together in a symbiotic or mutualistic relationship. The fungal
component (= the mycobiont) provides protection and supplies nutrients, CO2 and water to
the algal component (= the phycobiont) that produces carbohydrates and O2 for the fungus.
The phycobiont is usually a cyanobacterium or chlorophyte (green alga). Because of this tight
‘self-sufficient’ interaction, lichens can tolerate very harsh conditions (e.g. Arctic and
Antarctica, barren rocks); however they are very sensitive to air-borne pollutants (e.g. NOx
and SO2) and can be used as environmental “monitors” warning us about environmental
damage. Lichens can have three different growth forms shown below in Figure 10.

Crustose – crust-like Foliose – leaf-like Fruticose – shrub-like

Figure 10. Growth forms of lichens.