BIO 102: GENERAL BIOLOGY II

DR. (Mrs) Justina F. Ogunsola

Course synopsis
 Plant kingdom (study of similarities and differences in the external features)
 Plant nutrition
 Respiration in plant, transpiration
 Reproduction in plant
 Plant Growth and development

Plant Kingdom – Plantae

Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic
organisms. The plant cell contains a rigid cell wall. Plants have chloroplast and chlorophyll
pigment, which is required for photosynthesis.

Characteristics of Kingdom Plantae

The plant kingdom has the following characteristic features:
 They are non-motile.
 They make their own food and hence are called autotrophs.
 They reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation or sexually.
 These are multicellular eukaryotes. The plant cell contains the outer cell wall and a large
central vacuole.
 Plants contain photosynthetic pigments called chlorophyll present in the plastids.
 They have different organelles for anchorage, reproduction, support and photosynthesis.

The plant kingdom can be divided into groups based on plant structures. Plants with similar
structures are grouped together. In the plant kingdom, these groups are called divisions

Plant Divisions
Plants can first be divided into two groups. These are plants that make seeds and plants that
do not make seeds. We call the subdivision of plants that make seeds phanerogams. We call
the subdivision that does not make seeds cryptogams.
Phanerogams – Flowering and seed-bearing plants. E.g. Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
Cryptogams – Non-flowering and non-seed bearing plants. E.g. Thallophyta, Bryophyta,
Pteridophyta

Classification of Kingdom Plantae

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A plant kingdom is further classified into subgroups. Classification is based on the following
criteria:

Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body. E.g. Root, Stem and
Leaves.

Vascular system: Presence or absence of a vascular system for the transportation of water
and other substances. E.g. Phloem and Xylem.

Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the seeds are naked or
enclosed in a fruit.

Thallophyta

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Thallophytes lack a well-differentiated body structure and the plant body is thallus like.
Thallophyta includes plants with primitive and simple body structures. The plant body is thallus,
they may be filamentous (Spirogyra), colonial (Volvox, Pandorina), branched or unbranched.
Examples include green algae, red algae and brown algae. Common examples are Volvox,
Fucus, Spirogyra, Chara, Polysiphonia, Ulothrix, etc.

Blue-green Algae
Algae have a wide range of size and form such as
Unicellular e.g. Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Navicula
Filamentous e.g. Spirogyra
Colonial e.g. Volvox, Pandorina
Thalloid form e.g. Ulva, Fucus, Laminaria

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE

 Algae serves as food to the aquatic life i.e. they are the producers in any aquatic
environment.
 They also serve as food for man due to the vitamins and nutrients they contain. E.g. Ulva
(sea lettuce), Chlorella, sea weeds such as Chondrus (Irish moss).
 They also serve as fodder to livestock e.g. Fucus, Laminaria. Some are used as
nutritional supplements. E.g. Spirulina
 Source of medicine and minerals due to the nutrients they possess. E.g. Spirulina.
 Source of agar-agar which is commonly used in laboratories to culture microorganisms.
Agar-agar is usually produced from Gelidium, Sarconema and Hypnea.
 Macroalgae such as Macrocystis and Laminaria are used in the production of alginic acid
and algin for waterproofing and fireproofing materials. Algin is also used in the
production of drugs, cosmetics, shampoos, shaving cream, paints etc.
 Algae are used for basic biological research e.g. Chlamydomonas
 It can lead to algal bloom which leads to the death of aquatic life and may cause paralytic
shellfish poisoning to animals/ humans who consume this fish.
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Algae such as Botryococcus, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Dunaliella and Scenedesmus are used
in production of biofuels which is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels (petroleum) It can lead to
contamination of water supply e.g. Anaebaena, Microcystis

BRYOPHYTES
Bryophytes do not have vascular tissues. The plant body has root-like, stem-like and leaf-like
structures. Bryophytes are terrestrial plants but are known as “amphibians of the plant kingdom”
as they require water for sexual reproduction. They are present in moist and shady places.
Bryophyta includes mosses, hornworts and liverworts. Some of the common examples
are Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum, Antheoceros, etc.

Characteristics of Bryophytes
• Bryophytes are found in moist humid and shady places such as damp rocks, logs, swamps
or marshes, streams, ponds, trunks of standing trees because they lack vascular tissues.
• The bryophyte body is either a thallus (not differentiated into leaves, stems and roots) or
differentiated into simple leaves and stems.
• True roots are absent; they have “rhizoids” instead of roots which helps the plant to
anchor to surface and for water and nutrient absorption.
• They lack vascular tissues such as xylem and phloem
• Alternation of generation in which the haploid gametophyte generation is dominant. The
sporophyte is attached to and dependent on the gametophyte for its nutrition.
• Bryophytes are seedless plants and reproduce by means of spores
• Mosses release spores from their leaves which travels by water and make new mosses in
new locations.
• Water is very essential for mosses to grow and spread. They can entirely dry out and
survive. When in contact with water, they again revive and continue growing.
Bryophytes are classified into 3 classes

i. Hepaticopsida (Liverwort) E.g. Marchantia, Riccia

ii. Bryopsida (Mosses): This is the largest class of bryophytes and they are
commonly called mosses e.g. Polytrichum, Sphagnum (peat moss)
iii. Anthoceroptosida (Horn wort) E.g. Anthoceros, Megaceros, Dendroceros,
Phaeceros.

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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BRYOPHYTES

i. Bryophytes serve as primary producer in the ecosystem

ii. They help to prevent soil erosion because they are capable of holding the soil together
using their extensive carpets.
iii. Bryophytes help in rock weathering i.e. the process of soil formation. They are also
important in the early stages of ecological succession.
iv. They can serve as indicators of atmospheric and soil pollution.
v. Bryophytes such as can serve aesthetic purposes as mosses are employed in Japanese
gardens.
vi. Bryophytes such as Sphagnum are used as packing materials for fragile goods/ materials
such as glass wares when dried.
vii. Bryophytes are used as seed beds in nurseries and greenhouses because they have the
ability to absorb and retain water. E.g. Sphagnum
vii. The ability to retain water makes bryophytes such as useful as packaging materials for
seedlings, cut flowers, perishable fruits, vegetables and other plants. E.g. Sphagnum
viii. Formation of peat. Peat is a fossil fuel formed from Sphagnum (peat moss) and is
commonly used as fuels in Ireland and Scotland.
ix. Bryophytes are used as medicine. They are emerging sources of antibiotics
x. Bryophytes such as Marchantia, Riccia are important in basic biological research.
Pteridophyta
Pteridophytes have a well-differentiated plant body into root, stem and leaves. They have a
vascular system for the conduction of water and other substances. Some of the common
examples are Selaginella, Equisetum, Pteris, etc. These are seedless vascular plants. They are
also referred to as lower vascular plants.
Pteridophyta Characteristics
1. Pteridophytes are considered as the first plants to be evolved on land:
It is speculated that life began in the oceans, and through millions of years of evolution, life
slowly adapted on to dry land. And among the first of the plants to truly live on land were the
Pteridophytes.
2. They are cryptogams, seedless and vascular: Pteridophytes are seedless, and they reproduce
through spores. They contain vascular tissues but lack xylem vessels and phloem companion
cells.
3. The plant body has true roots, stem and leaves: They have well-differentiated plant body into
root, stem and leaves.
4. Spores develop in sporangia: The sporangium is the structures in which spores are formed.
They are usually homosporous (meaning: one type of spore is produced) and are also
heterosporous, (meaning: two kinds of spores are produced.)
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5. Sporangia are produced in groups on sporophylls: Leaves that bear the sporangia are termed as
sporophylls. The tip of the leaves tends to curl inwards to protect the vulnerable growing parts.
6. Sex organs are multicellular: The male sex organs are called antheridia, while the female sex
organs are called archegonia.
7. They show true alternation of generations: The sporophyte generation and the gametophyte
generation are observed in Pteridophytes. The diploid sporophyte is the main plant body.
DIVISIONS OF PTERIDOPHYTES

Psilophyta (Whisk fern) E.g. Psilotum

Lycophyta (club mosses) E.g. Lycopodium

Arthrophyta (horse tails) E.g. Selaginella

Filicophyta: Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum, Marsilea, Axolla

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PTERIDOPHYTES

i. Pteridophytes have ornamental or aesthetic values in gardens and homes. E.g. Psilotum,
Dryopteris, Lycopodium, Selaginella
ii. They serve as food. E.g. Marsilea, Pteris
iii. Source of drugs. E.g. Dryopteris, Lycopodium, Equisetum
iv. Some pteridophytes can serve as indicator of element deposits. E.g. the Equisetum is
valuable in gold ore prospecting.

Difference between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes

Following are the major differences between bryophytes and pteridophytes:

Bryophytes Pteridophytes

Bryophytes are non-vascular plants. Pteridophytes are vascular plants.

The plant body is leafy or thalloid. The plant body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.

No vascular tissues. Vascular tissues are present.

Rhizoids are present for anchorage. Roots are present for anchoring.

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The gametophyte is dominating. The sporophyte is dominating.

Antheridium is stalked. Antheridium is sessile.

Cells are haploid. Cells are diploid.

Eg: Mosses, liverworts, hornworts, etc. Eg: Spikemosses, ferns, quillworts, etc.

SPERMATOPHYTA
GYMNOSPERM
Gymnosperms have a well-differentiated plant body and vascular tissues. They bear naked seeds,
i.e. seeds are not enclosed within a fruit. Some of the common examples of gymnosperms are
Cycas, Pinus, Ephedra, etc. Gymnosperms means “naked seeds”.

Gymnosperms are sub-divided into 4 group namely;

Class pinopsida (Conifers): This is the largest phylum of Gymnosperms consisting of 65–70
genera and 600–630 species. They are cone bearing seed plants. They are usually evergreen and
are found mostly in temperate regions. Conifers include; Pinus (Pines), Taxus (Yews), Sequioa
(Redwood), Araucaria, Cedrus (cedars), Juniperus (Junipers) Abies (Firs), Larix (larches) and
Picea (spruces). Gymnosperms are group of seed producing plants that produce naked seeds.
The word naked is used for the unenclosed condition of their seeds. Their seeds are not enclosed
within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, often
modified to form cones, or at the end of short stalks. The largest group of living gymnosperms
are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes and Ginkgo (a
single living species). The reproductive structure is the cones unlike flowers in the angiosperms.
Pollination is done by wind and water and the site of pollination is the ovule unlike on stigma
where pollen tube grows to ovule in the Angiosperms.

Class cycadopsida: They are commonly called cycads and comprises about 11 genera and 130
species. They are found mostly in tropical areas. Cycads look like palm and are also known as
Sago palm. They are dioecious, an individual only produces male or female cones. Cycad stems
feature a large fleshy pith surrounded by a cylinder of xylem and phloem. The plants have less
secondary vascular tissue than conifers, which makes the wood less dense. Many cycad species
host cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in nodules in the roots. It is thought that those
bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by the plant.

Class Gingkophyta: there is only one living species; Gingko biloba (Maiden hair tree). It is a
hardy deciduous tree. Ginkgo resembles an angiosperm in that the woody stem is frequently and
irregularly branched and bears broad leaves, which are fan-shaped. Like the cycads, Ginkgo is

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dioecious and bears microsporangia and megasporangia on separate trees. Stems of Ginkgo are
anatomically similar to those of conifers

Class gnetopsida: This consists of 3 genera namely Ephedra, Gnetum and Welwitschia. Some
Ephedra species may have both microstrobili and megastrobili on the same plant, though they
more commonly occur on separate plants. Both Gnetum and Welwitschia are dioecious. The
large oval leaves of Gnetum look much like those of dicotyledonous angiosperms, while those of
Ephedra are small and scale like.

CONIFERS

GINGKOS

CYCADS
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 GNETUMS

Economic importance of gymnosperms

• Gymnosperms are grown widely as ornamentals e.g. Cycas, Pines, Giant sequoia
• They are effective wind breakers e.g. Pines
• Some gymnosperms such as yew and Junipers are low growing plants cultivated for
ground cover Some gymnosperms are used for pulp production/ paper
• Most of the commercial lumbers in the temperate regions are gotten from trunks of
conifers because of the straight, strong, light and easily worked wood. Examples include
Pines, firs, spruce, hemlock.
• The woods are used in building constructions, utility poles, plywood, masts in sailing
vessels.
• Conifers produce resins which are used in production of paints, turpentine and varnishes.
Commercially useful oils are derived from some conifers which are used in production of
air freshener, disinfectants, scents in soaps and cosmetics. E.g. Junipers, pines, firs and
spruce.
• Some gymnosperms are source of foods e.g. Pine seeds are eaten plain or to garnish
bakery products; Gingko seeds are also eaten, cones from Cycads are used as flours.
• Gingko species are planted on city roads as shade trees and also to reduce the effect of
pollution.
• Source of drugs. E.g. Taxol is derived from Taxus (Yew) which is used to treat cancer;
ephedrine from Ephedra is used to treat respiratory problems.
• Conifer forests of the world represent the largest terrestrial carbon sink.
• They are also of great economic value for timber and paper production; the wood of
conifers is known as softwood.

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 ANGIOSPERMS
Angiosperms are the most advanced, diverse and successful group of plants with a well-
developed plant body with true leaves, stems and roots. Angiosperms have their seeds enclosed
within a fruit. They also have advanced vascular bundles. Angiosperms are widely distributed
and vary greatly in size, e.g. Wolffia is small measuring about 0.1 cm and Eucalyptus trees are
around 100 m tall. Angiosperms are further divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons
according to the number of cotyledons present in the seeds. Some of the common examples are
mango, rose, tomato, onion, wheat, maize, etc.
Characteristics of Angiosperms
1. They are the largest elongated evolved group of plants
2. They are differentiated into root, stem and leaves
3. Sporophyte is the dominant generation, Gametophyte generation highly reduce and
reproduce by pollen grain and ovules
4. They bear flowers in which male and female gametes and spores develop
5. Vascular bundles show highest degree of development
6. They are widely distributed and grow well in diverse ecological conditions. They are
classified as a. Hydrophytes b. Mesophytes (land plants with moderate water) and c.
Xerophytes (desert plants)
7. Pollination is by self or cross
8. They may be herbaceous, woody, may be annual, biennials or perennials
9. They may be monoecious or dioecious
10. Roots may be tap root system or adventitious roots

Importance of Flowering plants (Angiosperm)

1. They are of great importance to human life and survival. Man depends on flowering
plants for major basic needs which are food, clothes, shelter and health care. Food are
obtained from agricultural or horticultural crops such as cereals i.e. grass family (e.g.
wheat, maize, etc.), legume(e.g. cowpea), fruit crops (like orange), vegetable crops(e.g.
Green amaranths)
2. They also provide livestock feeds and habitats for terrestrial animals.
3. They serve as raw materials for Agro-based industries e.g. wood for paper, fiber (cotton
and hemp) for clothing, medicines (e.g. Artemisin, codeine, quinine and camphor),
rubber for tyre, cocoa for beverages, oils, waxes, spices, etc.
4. They provide shelter e.g. wood for buildings.
5. There are decorative and landscaping plants for beautification.
6. They provide recreation centres or parks.
The main area in which they are surpassed by coniferous trees, which are non-flowering
(gymnosperms) is in timber and paper production. In terms of location, about two-third of the
angiosperm species are tropical in their distribution.

Angiosperms can be divided into two based on the type or number of seed leaves
(cotyledons) present namely

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Monocotyledonous plants (Monocot): presence of one cotyledon in their seeds. Monocots
include plants such as orchids, palms, lilies and grasses

Dicotyledonous plants (Dicot): Presence of two cotyledons in their seeds. Examples Hibiscus,
mango tree, beans, cassava.

The differences between monocots and dicots are:

S/N DICOTS MONOCOTS
1 Embryo: Have two cotyledons (seed One cotyledon (seed leaf) endosperm
leaves) endosperm present or lacking frequently present
in seed
2 Roots: Usually tap root with smaller Usually adventitious root
secondary roots
3 Growth form: may be herbaceous or Mostly herbaceous
woody
4 Leaves: usually net veined, usually Leaves usually parallel-veined, commonly
broad in shape long or linear shape

5 Vascular system: usually consist of Consist of numerous scattered bundles

ring of primary bundles with cambium without definite arrangement

Assignment

Write three (3) differences and two (2) similarities between the following classes of plant

Bryophyte and Pteridophyte

Angiosperm and Gymnosperm

PLANT NUTRITION
Plant nutrition refers to the process by which plants acquire and utilize essential nutrients for
their growth and development.
Nutrients play a crucial role in various physiological processes, including photosynthesis,
respiration, and cell division.
Plants take these nutrients directly from the soil in solution and are therefore called PRIMARY
MINERALS. There are about 16 essential elements. Carbon, Oxygen and oxygen forms the
organic compounds while the others such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,
sulphur, calcium. Iron, copper, zinc, boron, manganese, molybdenum forms the actual
mineral nutrients.
These elements are grouped based on the amount required into two (2) namely;

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Macronutrients (macro elements or major elements): These elements are required in large
quantities and usually participate in plant body construction. Examples are Carbon (C),
Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), potassium (K), Sulphur (S), Calcium (Ca),
Magnesium (Mg), Phosphorus (P).

Micronutrients (micro elements/minor elements or trace elements): These are required in

minute/ small quantities and when concentrated in soils form heavy metals and become toxic.
They usually participate in various metabolisms. Examples include Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe).
Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine (Cl) and Boron (Bo).

MACRO- FUNCTIONS DEFICIENCY

ELEMENTS SYMPTOMS

NITROGEN Very important in protein -Yellowing of leaves

synthesis which begins with the
Essential for chlorophyll older leaves which then
formation dies off.
Influence on vegetative
growth -Delayed maturity (plants
will not flower and fruit
on time).

-Stunted growth leading

to poor development of
foliage and roots.

-Development of
anthocyanin pigment in
the stems, petioles and
veins of leaves which
makes them appear red.

SULPHUR -Formation of amino acids -General chlorosis due to

e.g. cysteine, cysteine and inhibition of chlorophyll
methionine formation
Component of amino acids
and vitamins -Stunted growth
Formation of disulfide -Red pigmentation
bridges in proteins (anthocyanins) in stems
Essential for the synthesis and leaves.
of coenzymes
- formation and ripening
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 Late/ reduced or no
flowering of fruit

PHOSPHORUS It is important for Energy Development of necrotic

transfer in plants (ATP) (dead) areas on the leaves,
Structural component of petioles and fruits.
nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)
Root development and Leaves falls off
flowering Older leaves turn dark
green or reddish.

Stunted growth due to

abnormal cell division.

POTASSIUM Important in Osmotic Mottled chlorosis (yellow

regulation patches on the leaves).
Activation of enzymes
Stomatal regulation and Development of necrotic
water uptake spots at the tips and
margins of the leaves

Stunted growth

Pronounced shortening of
the internodes.

CALCIUM Cell wall structure Death of meristematic

Membrane stability tissues of stems and roots
Cell division and ending growth of the
elongation plants.

Chlorosis develops along

the margins of young
leaves.

Poor development of root

hairs.

-Roots become short and

stubby

IRON Acts as catalyst in -Chlorosis followed by

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 chlorophyll synthesis. mottling.
Electron transport in
photosynthesis -Reduction in respiration
rate.

Necrotic spot

CRITERIA THAT INDICATES AN ELEMENT IS ESSENTIAL

i. Plants cannot complete lifecycle without that element.
ii. The element cannot be replaced by another element.
iii. The effect of the element must be direct.

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
All living things get the energy they need to live from a chemical reaction called respiration.
This process needs glucose as a starting point. All living organisms respire in order to release
energy from glucose and make it available in the form of ATP for chemical, osmotic and other
work. Respiration is a process which involves the intake of oxygen and chemically brings
about the oxidation and decomposition of organic compounds with the release of energy.
The energy released is usually in form of kinetic energy. Consequently, respiration is regarded
as an exothermic and oxidative reaction, which comprises the process of breakdown of
complex carbon containing substances into simpler substances with the release of energy in
usable form.
Respiration is represented by the equation:
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy 689 kcal)
The word equation for respiration is the reverse of the word equation for photosynthesis i.e. the
word equations respiration and photosynthesis are opposite. Respiration uses oxygen and
produces carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and produces oxygen. This
depends on whether it is in the dark or the light, and how bright the light is. Plants respire all the
time, whether it is dark or light but they photosynthesize only when they are in the light.

Therefore, respiration is a complex process which includes

i. Absorption of oxygen
ii. Conversion of carbohydrate (complex) to CO2 and water (simpler substances)
iii. Release of energy- part of which is utilized in various vital processes and the rest may be
lost in the form of heat
iv. Formation of intermediate products playing different roles in metabolism
v. Liberation of CO2 and water, and
vi. Loss of weight in plants as a result of oxidation.

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Types of respiration
Aerobic respiration is the chemical reaction used to release energy from glucose. It involves
use of free oxygen in respiration. This results in complete oxidation of stored food and
formation of carbon dioxide and water as an end product. A considerable amount of energy is
released in the process. Aerobic respiration releases 19 times more energy than anaerobic
respiration from the same amount of glucose
Anaerobic respiration does not need oxygen (it occurs in the absence of oxygen), this results in
incomplete oxidation of stored food. The end products are carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol,
and sometimes, organic acids like citric acid, malic acid oxalic acid etc. This occurs in
tissues of many higher plants, seeds in storage and in fleshy fruits and succulent plants.
Less energy is released during anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration in yeast is used during brewing and bread-making. In this case the
equation is:
glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2C02 + energy

Ethanol is the alcohol found in alcoholic drinks like beer and wine. In bread-making, bubbles of
carbon dioxide gas expand the dough and help the bread rise. Thus, anaerobic respiration by
yeast helps bread dough to rise.

Lactic acid fermentation: This type of anaerobic respiration takes place in animals especially in
human when there is limited supply of oxygen for the aerobic stage of respiration. Lactic acid
fermentation does not produce Cabon (IV) oxide rather pyruvic acid is converted straight to
lactic acid in the presence of NADH.
C6H12O6→ 2CH3CHOHCOOH+Energy

Process of Respiration
In the first stage of the process, glucose is breakdown into two molecules of pyruvic acid through
the process called glycolysis. This takes place in the cytosol of the cell. Following this occurring
in the lumen of the mitochondria is a complex oxidation of pyruvic acid to CO2 and H2O. This
process is called Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. The last process involved in
respiration, which takes place in the inner matrix of the mitochondria, is called oxidative
phosphorylation. Here, oxygen is used up and ATP synthesized.
Assignment: Explain the three stages involved in respiration process

Significance of respiration
i. It releases energy which is consumed in various metabolic processes essential for plan
life and activates cell division
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 ii. It converts insoluble food into soluble form
iii. It liberates carbon dioxide and plays a part actively in maintaining the balance of carbon
cycle in nature
iv. It converts stored energy (potential energy) into usable form (kinetic energy)

Structure and functions of parts of flowers

There is an immense variety of shape and structure among flowers but they have certain features
in common which are basic.

Inflorescence: These are groups of flowers borne on the same stalk.

Pedicels: This is the specialised reproductive shoot upon which flowers grow (flower stalk). It
attached the flower to the stem. It is joined to a swollen portion called the receptacle.
The receptacle: This is the region of the flower stalk to which the other parts of the flower s are
attached. It carries the sepals, petals, stamen and pistil
The sepal or calyx: In many flowers, the sepal is the outermost set of floral parts. They are
known collectively as the calyx which is usually arranged in a ring or whorl. Sepals are green
and look like small leaves. They enclosed and protect the central region of the flower when it is
in bud stage of development
Petals: These are found on the inner side of the sepals. They are arranged in rings or whorls.
They are known collectively as corolla e.g. pride of Barbados has five petals which are coloured
and scented.
Androecium: This is the male reproductive part of a flower. It consists of the stamens which is
made up of the anther and the filament. The stalk of the stamen is the filament which bears the

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anther that is made up of four pollen sacs in which pollen grains are formed. The pollen grains
contain the male gamete.
Gynoecium: This is the female reproductive part of a flower. It consists of carpels which are
collectively known as gynoecium or pistil. Each carpel may be either single or solitary. Each
carpel consists of an expanded hollow based ovary above which is a narrow region called style
which end with stigma. The stigma received the pollen grain from the same (or another flower
during pollination.
The ovary is a structure found at the base of the carpel which houses the ovules/eggs
(potential seeds).
The Gynoecium could be Apocarpus, syncarpus or unicarpellate
Apocarpus: This is when the carpels are separated on the gynoecium.
Syncarpus: This is when the carpels are fused
Unicarpellate: when the gynoecium consists of only one carpel.

The Pedicels: This is the specialized reproductive shoot upon which flowers grow (flower stalk).
It attached the flower to the stem. It is joined to a swollen portion called the receptacle.
The receptacle: This is the region of the flower stalk to which the other parts of the flower s are
attached. It carries the sepals, petals, stamen and pistil

Types of Flowers based on symmetry

Regular flower: (Actinomorphic). These are flowers which as a whole can be cut into two halves
along many vertical planes to produce identical halves i.e. radially symmetrical e.g. Rose,
sunflower and hibiscus.
Irregular flower: (Zygomorphic) Petals of Crotalaria and Caesalpinia are of various sizes and
shapes, some are fused. They can only be cut into identical halves along only one vertical plane
i.e. bilaterally symmetrical

Types of Flowers based on floral part

A perfect flower: This is the one which has both androecium and gynoecium. It is also a balled
bisexual flower or hermaphrodite.
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An imperfect flower: This one lacks either the androecium or the gynoecium e.g. Guinea grass. It
is also called a unisexual flower.
Complete flower: This is the flower which has all the floral parts such as sepals, petals,
androecium gynoecium.

Positions of ovary in flowers

Hypogynous Flower: This is a flower with a conical-shaped receptacle with the ovary sitting on
the receptacle so that the other floral parts arise from below the ovary. The ovary is said to be a
superior ovary e.g. Hibiscus, Crotalaria, pride of Barbados

Perigynous Flower: This is a flower in which the receptacle is cup-shaped with the ovary located
at the centre of the cup. The other floral parts arise from the edge of the cup just above the centre
of the ovary. This type of ovary is said to be half inferior e.g. Rose flower.

Epigynous Flower: This is a flower in which the ovary is embedded in the receptacle. The
receptacle completely surrounds the ovary so that other floral parts arise from above the ovary.
This type of ovary is described as an inferior ovary. E.g. flowers of guava, cana lily, sunflower
etc.

Reproduction in plant
Plant reproduction refers to the biological processes by which plants produce offspring, ensuring
the continuity of their species. It is a key for genetic diversity, adaptation, and survival of plant
species.
Types of Reproduction
 Asexual Reproduction

 Sexual Reproduction
a. Flowering plants: angiosperms
b. Non-flowering plants: gymnosperms, ferns, mosses, and algae

18
Reproduction in flowering plants
Reproduction may either be sexual or asexual.

Asexual reproduction in flowering plants

Asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes. Here one or more
cell, tissue or organ is detached from a mother plant and develop into a new individual of the
same species. Only one parent is involved and the offspring are genetically identical to the parent
plants and each other, except when mutations occur.
Vegetative reproduction
Vegetative reproduction is the major type of asexual reproduction found in flowering plants. It
takes place when any vegetative part (stem, root or tuber) detaches from a plant and develop into
a new plant. Example of vegetative parts used in this type of reproduction include: stem cuttings,
tubers, rhizomes, stolon, corms, bulbs and suckers. Vegetative reproduction can be divided into
two: 1) Natural vegetative propagation and 2) Artificial vegetative propagation

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes from different parents to form a new
individual. This results in offspring genetically different from the parent or parents. When the
gametes fuse they form a zygote and the process is known as fertilization. Sexual reproduction
involves two fundamental processes:
(1) Meiosis: which rearranges the genes and reduces the number of chromosomes, and
(2) Fertilization: which restores the chromosome to a complete diploid number.

In between these two processes, plant undergo alternation of generations, with two different
multicellular phases, a gametophyte and a sporophyte.

Plant gametogenesis (sporogenesis)

The process of gamete formation in plants is called Sporogenesis. There are two types of
sporogenesis: the male sporogenesis which is called microsporogenesis and the female
sporogenesis is called megasporogenesis. Among the diploid vegetative cells that make up the
flowering or sporophyte portion of the plant, some are induced to differentiate into
megasporophyte cells (female) and microsporophyte cells (male) which then undergoes meiosis.
The female cells are called megasporocytes while the male cells are called microsporocytes.

Microsporogenesis
Microsporogenesis is the process that leads to the formation of microspores, which eventually
develop into male gametophytes (pollen grains). This process takes place within the anthers of
the flower. This begins in the microsporangia, specialized structures within the anthers of the
flower. The microsporocyte which is diploid undergoes two meiotic divisions to form a group of
19
four haploid cells known as a tetrad. Each of the cells in the tetrad undergoes maturation to
become the pollen grain or microspore.
Tetrad Pollen grain or
Microsporocyte
(haploid cells) microspore (haploid)
(diploid)

Meiosis I Meiosis II

Pollen tube

Tube nucleus
Male nuclei

The process of Microsporogenesis

Megasporogenesis

The megasporocyte which is also diploid undergoes two meiotic divisions to form a group of
four haploid megaspores. However, three of the megaspores degenerate and the remaining
megaspore undergoes maturation to become the embryo sac. The haploid nucleus undergoes
three successive mitotic divisions resulting in eight haploid nuclei. One of the nuclei becomes
the egg nucleus, two of them become the polar nuclei while the others become the synergids and
the antipodal nuclei.

20
 Degenerated
Megaspores
Megasporocyte megaspores
(haploid cells)
(diploid)

Meiosis I Meiosis II
3 mitotic divisions
Embryo sac

Antipodal
Egg nucleus
Polar nuclei
haploid Synergids
nuclei

The process of megasporogenesis

At the time of fertilization, one of the sperm nuclei fuses with the egg nucleus to form a diploid
zygote. The second sperm nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm
which helps to nourish the developing embryo. The remaining haploid nuclei of the embryo sac
play accessory roles in fertilization and seed formation.

21
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering plants (Angiosperm)
Double fertilization in Angiosperm reproduction

Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary. One
sperm and the egg combine, forming a diploid zygote. Double fertilization

22
In angiosperms, two fertilization events occur. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves
the production of male and female gametes, the transfer of the male gametes to the female ovules
is a process called pollination. After pollination, a pollen tube grows from the pollen grain to the
ovule After the pollen tube grows through the carpel's style, the sperm from the pollen grain
migrate into the ovule to fertilize the egg cell and central cell within the female gametophyte in a
process termed double fertilization. One of the sperm cell fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote,
and the other combines with two nuclei to form a triploid cell, which develops into the
endosperm. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo. Plants may either self-pollinate or
cross-pollinate. Most flowers are monoecious or bisexual. Monoecious flowers are also known as
“perfect” flowers because they contain both types of sex organs. Both anatomical and
environmental barriers promote cross-pollination mediated by a physical agent: wind, water, or
animals, such as an insect or bird. Cross-pollination increases genetic diversity in a species.

Structure and functions of parts of flowers

There is an immense variety of shape and structure among flowers but they have certain features
in common which are basic.
Inflorescence: These are groups of flowers borne on the same stalk.
Pedicels: This is the specialised reproductive shoot upon which flowers grow (flower stalk). It
attached the flower to the stem. It is joined to a swollen portion called the receptacle.
The receptacle: This is the region of the flower stalk to which the other parts of the flower s are
attached. It carries the sepals, petals, stamen and pistil
The sepal or calyx: In many flowers, the sepal is the outermost set of floral parts. They are
known collectively as the calyx which is usually arranged in a ring or whorl. Sepals are green
and look like small leaves. They enclosed and protect the central region of the flower when it is
in bud stage of development
Petals: These are found on the inner side of the sepals. They are arranged in rings or whorls.
They are known collectively as corolla e.g. pride of Barbados has five petals which are coloured
and scented.
Androecium: This is the male reproductive part of a flower. It consists of the stamens which is
made up of the anther and the filament. The stalk of the stamen is the filament which bears the
anther that is made up of four pollen sacs in which pollen grains are formed. The pollen grains
contain the male gamete.
Gynoecium: This is the female reproductive part of a flower. It consists of carpels which are
collectively known as gynoecium or pistil. Each carpel may be either single or solitary. Each
carpel consists of an expanded hollow based ovary above which is a narrow region called style
which end with stigma. The stigma received the pollen grain from the same (or another0 flower
during pollination.

Sexual Reproduction in Non-flowering Plants:

Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms:
Gymnosperms produce reproductive structures called cones, which are of two types: male
(pollen cones) and female (seed cones). Male cones contain microsporangia, which produce
microspores through meiosis. Each microspore develops into a pollen grain.
23
Female cones consist of ovules, which are megasporangia surrounded by protective scales. Each
ovule contains a megasporocyte that undergoes meiosis to produce megaspores.
Pollen is carried by the wind to female cones, Once a pollen grain reaches a female cone, it
settles on a specialized structure called the ovule. The pollen grain produces a pollen tube that
extends down to the megasporangium within the ovule. One of the two sperm cells in the pollen
grain fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote. This process is similar to fertilization in
angiosperms. The second sperm cell combines with two other nuclei in the ovule to form a
triploid cell, which will develop into the nutrient-rich tissue known as the endosperm. After
fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed, and the protective scales of the cone enclose the
developing seeds. The seed contains the embryo, which is the young sporophyte plant,
surrounded by a protective seed coat derived from the integuments of the ovule.
The endosperm provides nutrients for the developing embryo. As the seeds mature, the cone
scales may open to release the seeds, allowing them to disperse in the wind. Cycads and Ginkgo
have flagellated motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers
and gnetophytes have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a pollen tube to the egg.

Sexual Reproduction in Ferns:

Ferns reproduce via spores, which are produced in specialized structures called sporangia. Spores
are dispersed, and upon germination, they develop into a gametophyte. Ferns exhibit a distinctive
life cycle involving alternation of generations. The sporophyte, the dominant and visible phase,
produces spores in sporangia located on the undersides of fronds. These spores disperse and
germinate into a small, heart-shaped gametophyte. The gametophyte produces both male
(antheridia) and female (archegonia) reproductive structures. Water is essential for sperm cells to
swim to the egg, facilitating fertilization. The zygote develops into a new sporophyte, completing
the cycle.

24
Sexual Reproduction in Mosses:
Mosses also undergo alternation of generations but with a more prominent gametophyte phase.
Mosses have a dominant gametophyte stage, producing male and female gametes. Fertilization
results in the formation of a sporophyte. Spores are released from sporangia on the sporophyte
and disperse, germinating into a gametophyte. The gametophyte produces male (antheridia) and
female (archegonia) structures. Sperm cells travel to the egg via water for fertilization. The
zygote develops into a sporophyte, growing on the gametophyte and releasing spores to continue
the life cycle.

25
Sexual reproduction in Algae:
Sexual reproduction in algae varies across species. Some algae exhibit isogamy, where gametes
are similar in size and structure, while others display anisogamy or oogamy, involving different-
sized gametes. Algal reproductive structures may be unicellular or multicellular, producing
gametes within specialized cells. Fertilization can occur in water, and zygotes often develop
protective structures. Some algae undergo alternation of generations, transitioning between
haploid and diploid phases, while others have a simpler life cycle.

PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth is the irreversible increase in size, shape, volume and weight of living organisms.
Growth is also defined as a permanent and irreversible increase in dry mass of living materials.

PATTERNS OF GROWTH
In plant, growth occurs in plant organs such as leaves, fruits and flowers (they stop growing
when they reach a particular size. This is referred to as limited or determinate growth. While
in higher plants, the shoots and roots grow continuously throughout the lifespan of the plant and
is referred to as unlimited or indeterminate growth.

REGIONS OF GROWTH
Growth in plants is restricted to the apical regions (apices) of shoot and roots. These regions
are called the primary meristems, apical meristems or regions of primary growth and are
responsible for increase in length, differentiation and formation of plant tissues.
Intercalary meristems (parts of apical meristems separated by permanent tissues) are temporary
regions of growth in monocots.

Lateral meristems (secondary meristems) are responsible for increase in the girth (diameter) of
the stems.

COURSE OF GROWTH
The total period from initial to final stage of growth can be divided into 4;
i. Lag period of growth: This is the initial stage of growth. The growth rate is quite slow during
this phase.
ii. Log (Logarithmic) period of growth: The growth rate is exponential i.e. maximum because
the cell division and physiological processes are very rapid.
iii. Senescence period or stationary period: the growth is almost complete and is stationary.
IV. Decline period of growth: the growth rate slows down as metabolic processes become slow
as a result of some internal or external factors.

26
Growth rate is zero as the plant has reached maturity and begins to senesce (age). If the growth
rate is plotted against time, a “S” shaped curve is obtained which is referred to as Sigmoid Curve
or Grand Period curve.

MEASUREMENT OF PLANT’S GROWTH

The growth of a plant can be measured using the following criteria
i. Increase in the length/ height of stems
ii. Increase in the girth of stems and roots
iii. Increase in weight
iv. Increase in volume of fruits
v. Increase in area of leaves.
vi. Increase in number of cells per unit area.
The following methods are employed in the measurement of plant growth;
a. Direct measurement of plants at regular intervals using a metre rule or scale.
b. Arc auxanometer is used to measure the stem length

27
c. Horizontal microscope
d. Pfeffer’s Auxanometer

FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH OF PLANTS

The growth of plants is affected by both external and internal factors:
External factors: These include all the factors which affect various physiological processes of
the plants directly or indirectly, thereby affecting the growth of the plant.
They include light, temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide, water and food materials.
i. Light:
Light duration: The favourable length of day for each plant is called the photoperiod while
photoperiodism is the response of plants to the relative length of the day and the night. Plants
may be classified based on light duration as short day, long day and day-neutral.
Photoperiodism affects the induction and suppression of flowering. For flowering, short day
plants require less amount of light, long day plants require more amount of light while light have
no effect on the day neutral.

Light quality: Different wavelengths of light affect the growth of plant. Blue light enhances the
intermodal growth while green light reduces the expansion of leaves as compared with complete
spectrum of visible light. The overall development of plant takes place most effectively in the
full visible light spectrum. Red light favours growth while infra-red and ultraviolet are
detrimental to growth.

Light intensity: Weak light promotes shortening of internodes and expansion of leaves. Very
weak light reduces the overall growth and affects photosynthesis. In the dark, plants appear
weak, thin and pale yellow and are said to be etiolated. High light intensity indirectly increases
water loss thereby increasing transpiration.

ii. Temperature: Plants growing in different regions require different temperatures for growth.
The three temperatures regarded as cardinal points for growth are; a. the minimum or lowest
temperature at which growth can be detected; the optimum or maximum rate of growth and the
maximum or highest temperature at which growth can be detected. The optimum temperature for
growth may be different for a particular plant and also at a particular stage of development.

iii. Oxygen: This is needed for respiration during which food is oxidized to release energy which
is required for various metabolism involved in growth and development. Growth of plant is
greatly retarded in poorly aerated soils because the roots get insufficient oxygen to function
properly in water and nutrient absorption.

iv. Carbon dioxide: This affects mostly photosynthesis. Excess carbon dioxide increases the
photosynthetic rate which results in the production of more food for growth. The rate of
photosynthesis is slowed down when the amount of carbon dioxide is not sufficient.

28
v. Water: This is the most important factor for growth because in its presence, various
physiological activities such as water absorption, translocation of food materials, photosynthesis,
activation of enzymes which are all related to growth. Excess water may result in poor
development of leaves and poor differentiation of tissues due to excessive stretching of cell
walls. Water deficiency retards or completely stops growth.

vi. Food/nutrients: The supply of nutrients is directly proportional to the rate of growth i.e. the
growth rate increase in presence of more nutrients and decreases when nutrients are in shortage.
Also, these nutrients should be present in ionic forms or as constituent of macromolecules which
can easily be absorbed by the plant roots.

Internal/Intrinsic factors
These are factors necessary for growth and influence the extent and timing of growth. They
include;
a. growth hormones such as auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins
b. genetic control Growth hormones:
Plant hormones are produced naturally in higher plants and at low concentrations
regulate growth, development and even metabolism
Auxins: these are the growth regulating organic compounds which are produced at the tips of
roots and stems and are transported to the region of elongation causing shoot elongation. It
controls xylem differentiation and helps the cell to stimulate root formation. It helps to initiate
rooting in stem cuttings. They promote the growth of adventitious roots. Stimulate the growth of
lateral branches from the lateral or axillary bud when the apical bud is cut. They cause apical
dominance. It prevents dropping of fruits and leaves too early. It Examples are; Indole Acetic
acid (IAA), Indole butyric Acid (IBA), Napthalene Acetic acid (NAA) and Phenylacetic acid
(PAA).
Gibberellins: stimulates cell division and cell elongation. They help to break dormancy in
buds and seeds. They promote the development of flowers in some plants

Cytokinins: stimulates cell division and cell multiplication. They are derivatives of Adenine and
have an important role in shoot induction (Lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot
formation).Examples are Benzyl adenine (BA), or 6- benzyl aminopurine (BAP), kinetin and
zeatin

Abscissic acids: it is a growth inhibitor which stimulates the formation of abscisic layer in
leaves, flowers and fruits leading to leaf fall, flower fall and fruits dropping. It also induces buds
and seeds dormancy. Regulates abscission and dormancy. Inhibit plant growth, metabolism
and seed germination. It increases the tolerance of plants to different kinds of stress and it’s
therefore called “stress hormone”

29
Ethylene: It is a gaseous hormone. It stimulates the formation of abscisic layer in leaves,
flowers and fruits leading to leaf fall, flower fall and fruits dropping

Genetic control: Every cell has the information for the activities, growth and development of
cells stored in the genes present in the nucleus.

Expressions of appropriate genes are activated in a sequential manner and are controlled by the
genes and the environment. The genes which are located in chromosomes transcribes
information to mRNA which then translates it into structural proteins.

30
BIO102:GENERAL BIOLOGY II
Ogunsola J.F. Ph.D.

Department of Biological Sciences

 General course outline
• Basic characteristics, identification and classification of viruses, bacteria and
fungi (Dr. (Mrs) Kester).
• A generalized survey of the plant kingdoms based mainly on the study of
similarities ad differences in the external features. Ecological adaptations.
Briefs on physiology to include nutrition, respiration, circulatory systems,
excretion, reproduction, growth and development. (Dr. (Mrs) Ogunsola).

• A generalized survey of the Animal kingdoms based mainly on the study of

similarities and differences in the external features. Ecological adaptations and
Reproduction in animal (Prof. Omoike).

• Briefs on physiology to include nutrition, respiration, circulatory systems,

excretion,, growth and development in animal (Dr. Daramola). 2
 Course outline
• Plant kingdom (study of similarities and differences in the external features)

• Plant nutrition

• Respiration in plant, transpiration

• Reproduction in plant

• Plant growth and development

3
 Learning Outcomes
• At the end of the lectures, students should be able to:

• state the unique characteristics of plant kingdoms;

• explain nutrition, respiration, and reproduction in plants; and

• describe growth and development in plants and animals.

4
PLANT KINGDOM
• PLANTS
• Plants are multicellular, autotrophic and eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Plantae

• Characteristics of the Kingdom Plantae

• They are non-motile.
• They make their own food and hence are called autotrophs.
• They reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation or sexually.
• These are multicellular eukaryotes. The plant cell contains the outer cell wall and a
large central vacuole.
• Plants contain photosynthetic pigments called chlorophyll present in the plastids.
• They have different organelles for anchorage, reproduction, support and
photosynthesis.
5
Plant Divisions

• Plants can first be divided into two groups. These are plants that
make seeds and plants that do not make seeds.
• We call the subdivision of plants that make seeds phanerogams. We
call the subdivision that does not make seeds cryptogams.

• Phanerogams – Flowering and seed-bearing plants. E.g.

Gymnosperms, Angiosperms

• Cryptogams – Non-flowering and non-seed bearing plants. E.g.

Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta

6
Classification of Kingdom Plantae
• A plant kingdom is further classified into subgroups based on the
following criteria:
• Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body.
E.g. Root, Stem and Leaves.
• Vascular system: Presence or absence of a vascular system for the
transportation of water and other substances. E.g. Phloem and Xylem.
• Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the
seeds are naked or enclosed in a fruit.

7
8
Thallophyta
• Thallophytes lack a well-differentiated body
structure and the plant body is thallus like.

• Thallophyta includes plants with primitive and

simple body structures.
• The plant body is thallus, they may be
filamentous, colonial, branched or
unbranched.
• Examples include green algae, red algae and
brown algae. Common examples are etc.
Volvox, Fucus, Spirogyra, Chara, Polysiphonia,
Ulothrix,
9
 BRYOPHYTES
• Bryophytes do not have vascular tissues.
• The plant body has root-like, stem-like and leaf-like structures.
• Bryophytes are terrestrial plants but are known as “amphibians of the plant
kingdom” as they require water for sexual reproduction.
• They are present in moist and shady places.
• Bryophyta includes mosses, hornworts and liverworts. Some of the common
examples are Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum, Antheoceros, etc.

10
 Classifications of Bryophytes

• Bryophytes are classified into 3 classes

• Hepaticopsida (Liverwort) e.g. Marchantia, Riccia

• Bryopsida (Mosses): This is the largest class of bryophytes and they are commonly
called mosses e.g. Polytrichum, Sphagnum (peat moss)

• Anthoceroptosida (Hornwort) e.g. Anthoceros, Megaceros, Dendroceros,

Phaeceros.

11
Mosses Liverwort 12
BRYOPHYTES
• Bryophytes are found in moist humid and shady places such as damp rocks, logs,
swamps or marshes, streams, ponds, trunks of standing trees because they lack
vascular tissues.
• The bryophyte body is either a thallus (not differentiated into leaves, stems and roots)
or differentiated into simple leaves and stems.
• True roots are absent; they have “rhizoids” instead of roots which helps the plant to
anchor to surface and for water and nutrient absorption.
• They lack vascular tissues such as xylem and phloem
• Alternation of generation in which the haploid gametophyte generation is dominant.
The sporophyte is attached to and dependent on the gametophyte for its nutrition.
• Bryophytes are seedless plants and reproduce by means of spores
• Mosses release spores from their leaves which travels by water and make new mosses
in new locations.
• Water is very essential for mosses to grow and spread.. 13
Economic importance of bryophytes
• Bryophytes serve as primary producer in the ecosystem
• They help to prevent soil erosion because they are capable of holding the soil
together using their extensive carpets.
• Bryophytes help in rock weathering i.e. the process of soil formation
• They can serve as indicators of atmospheric and soil pollution.
• Bryophytes can serve aesthetic purposes as mosses are employed in Japanese
gardens.
• Bryophytes are used as seed beds in nurseries and greenhouses because they
have the ability to absorb and retain water. E.g. Sphagnum
• Formation of peat. Peat is a fossil fuel formed from Sphagnum (peat moss) and
is commonly used as fuels in Ireland and Scotland.
• Bryophytes are used as medicine. They are emerging sources of antibiotics
14
 Pteridophytes
• Pteridophytes are considered as the first plants to be evolved on land:
• They are cryptogams, seedless and vascular. They reproduce through spores.
• They contain vascular tissues but lack xylem vessels and phloem companion
cells.
• The plant body has true roots, stem and leaves: They have well-differentiated
plant body into root, stem and leaves.
• Sporangia are produced in groups on sporophylls: Leaves that bear the
sporangia are termed as sporophylls. The tip of the leaves tends to curl inwards
to protect the vulnerable growing parts.
• Sex organs are multicellular: The male sex organs are called antheridia, while
the female sex organs are called archegonia.
• They show true alternation of generations: The sporophyte generation and the
gametophyte generation are observed in Pteridophytes. The diploid sporophyte
is the main plant body. 15
DIVISIONS OF PTERIDOPHYTES

• Psilophyta (Whisk fern) E.g. Psilotum

• Lycophyta (club mosses) E.g. Lycopodium

• Arthrophyta (horse tails) E.g. Selaginella

• Filicophyta: Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum, Marsilea, Axolla

16
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PTERIDOPHYTES
• Pteridophytes have ornamental or aesthetic values in gardens and homes.
E.g. Psilotum, Dryopteris, Lycopodium, Selaginella

• They serve as food. E.g. Marsilea, Pteris

• Source of drugs. E.g. Dryopteris, Lycopodium, Equisetum

• Some pteridophytes can serve as indicator of element deposits. E.g. the

Equisetum is valuable in gold ore prospecting.

17
18
ASSIGNMENT

• Differentiate between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes

19
 SPERMATOPHYTA
Gymnosperms

• Gymnosperms have a well-differentiated plant body and vascular tissues. They

bear naked seeds, i.e. seeds are not enclosed within a fruit. Some of the
common examples of gymnosperms are Cycas, Pinus, Ephedra
• Gymnosperms means “naked seeds”.
• Gymnosperms are divided into 4 classes namely;
pinopsida
cycadopsida
gingkophyta
gnetophyta
20
• All gymnosperms are perennial woody plants apart from the cycads

• Majority are trees while some are shrubs

• The soft and highly parenchymatous wood in cycads is poorly lignified

• There are no herbaceous gymnosperms, compared to angiosperms

• They occupy fewer ecological niches

21
Conifers Gingkos

22
Cycads Gnetums

23
 Economic importance of gymnosperms
• Gymnosperms are grown widely as ornamentals e.g. Cycas, Pines, Giant sequoia
• They are effective wind breakers e.g. Pines
• Some gymnosperms such as yew and Junipers are low growing plants cultivated for ground cover.
Most of the commercial lumbers in the temperate regions are gotten from trunks of conifers
because of the straight, strong, light and easily worked wood. Examples include Pines, firs, spruce,
hemlock.
• The woods are used in building constructions, utility poles, plywood, masts in sailing vessels.
• Conifers produce resins which are used in production of paints, turpentine and varnishes.
Commercially useful oils are derived from some conifers which are used in production of air
freshener, disinfectants, scents in soaps and cosmetics. E.g. Junipers, pines, firs and spruce.
• Some gymnosperms are source of foods e.g. Pine seeds are eaten plain or to garnish bakery
products; Gingko seeds are also eaten, cones from Cycads are used as flours.
• Gingko species are planted on city roads as shade trees and also to reduce the effect of pollution.
Conifers are used in afforestation projects.
• Source of drugs. E.g. Taxol is derived from Taxus (Yew) which is used to treat cancer; ephedrine
from Ephedra is used to treat respiratory problems.
• Conifer forests of the world represent the largest terrestrial carbon sink.
• They are also of great economic value for timber and paper production; the wood of conifers is
known as softwood.
24
 ANGIOSPERMS
• Characteristics of Angiosperms
• They are the largest elongated evolved group of plants
• Angiosperms are the most advanced, diverse and successful group of plants
• They have well-developed plant body with true leaves, stems and roots.
• Angiosperms have their seeds enclosed within a fruit.
• They also have advanced vascular bundles
• They are generally called flowering plants because they have flowers.
• Pollination is by self or cross
• Roots may be tap root system or adventitious roots

25
• Angiosperms can be divided into two based on the type or number of
seed leaves (cotyledons) present namely:

• Monocotyledonous plants (Monocot): presence of one cotyledon in their

seeds. Monocots include plants such as orchids, palms, lilies and grasses

• Dicotyledonous plants (Dicot): Presence of two cotyledons in their seeds.

Examples Hibiscus, mango tree, beans, cassava.

26
S/N DICOTS MONOCOTS
1 Embryo: Have two cotyledons (seed One cotyledon (seed leaf) endosperm
leaves) endosperm present or lacking in frequently present
seed
2 Roots: Usually tap root with smaller Usually adventitious root
secondary roots
3 Growth form: may be herbaceous or Mostly herbaceous
woody
4 Leaves: usually net veined, usually Leaves usually parallel-veined, commonly
broad in shape long or linear shape

5 Vascular system: usually consist of Consist of numerous scattered bundles

ring of primary bundles with cambium without definite arrangement

27
Economic Importance of Flowering plants (Angiosperm)
• They are of great importance to human life and survival. Man depends on
flowering plants for major basic needs which are food, clothes, shelter and
health care. Food are obtained from agricultural or horticultural crops such
as cereals i.e. grass family (e.g. wheat, maize, etc.), legume(e.g. cowpea),
fruit crops (like orange), vegetable crops(e.g. Green amaranths)
• They also provide livestock feeds and habitats for terrestrial animals.
• They serve as raw materials for Agro-based industries e.g. wood for paper,
fiber (cotton and hemp) for clothing, medicines (e.g. Artemisin, codeine,
quinine and camphor), rubber for tyre, cocoa for beverages, oils, waxes,
spices, etc.
• They provide shelter e.g. wood for buildings.
• There are decorative and landscaping plants for beautification.
• They provide recreation centres or parks.
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 PLANT MINERAL NUTRITION
• Mineral nutrition is the study of inorganic elements that are essential for
plant growth.

• Plants take these minerals directly from the soil in solution and are therefore
called PRIMARY MINERALS.

• There are about 16 essential elements.

• Carbon, Oxygen and oxygen are non-mineral essential elements which
forms the organic compounds while the others such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulphur, calcium, Iron, copper, zinc,
boron, manganese, molybdenum forms the actual mineral nutrients.

29
 Grouped based on the amount required
Macronutrients (macro elements or major elements):
These elements are required in large quantities and usually participate in
plant body construction. Examples are Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O),
Nitrogen (N), potassium (K), Sulphur (S), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg),
Phosphorus (P) and Iron (Fe).

Micronutrients (micro elements/minor elements or trace elements):

These are required in minute/ small quantities and when concentrated in soils
form heavy metals and become toxic. Examples include Manganese (Mn),
Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine (Cl) and Boron (Bo).

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CRITERIA THAT INDICATES AN ELEMENT IS ESSENTIAL

Plants cannot complete lifecycle without that element.

The element cannot be replaced by another element.

The effect of the element must be direct

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 Nutrient deficiency in plant
• Nitrogen: Yellowing of older leaves, stunted growth

• Phosphorous: Stunted growth, old leaves turn dark green or reddish

• Calcium: leaf distortion, stunted growth premature shedding of fruits

• Potassium: Curling of leaves, yellowing of leaves

• Magnesium: Yellowing of older leaves, stunted growth

• Iron: Necrotic spot, chlorosis, poor fruit colour

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33
34
 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

• Respiration is a process which involves the intake of oxygen and chemically

brings about the oxidation and decomposition of organic compounds with
the release of energy.

• Equation:
• glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy 689 kcal)

35
 Types
Aerobic respiration: respiration that occur in the presence of oxygen.
• This results in complete oxidation of stored food and formation of carbon
dioxide and water as an end product. 38 ATP energy is produce/glucose

Anaerobic respiration: Occurs in the absence of oxygen. This results in

incomplete oxidation of stored food. The end products are carbon dioxide
and ethyl alcohol, and sometimes, organic acids like citric acid, malic acid
oxalic acid etc. 2 ATP energy is produce/glucose

36
• Example
• Anaerobic respiration in yeast is used during brewing of wine and beer and
bread-making.

• Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide

• C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2C02 + energy

37
Process of respiration
• In the first stage of the process, glucose is breakdown into two molecules of
pyruvic acid through the process called glycolysis. This takes place in the
cytosol of the cell.

• Following this occurring in the lumen of the mitochondria is a complex

oxidation of pyruvic acid to CO2 and H2O. This process is called Krebs cycle or
tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.

• The last process involved in respiration, which takes place in the inner matrix
of the mitochondria, is called oxidative phosphorylation. Here, oxygen is used
up and ATP synthesized.

38
 Significance of respiration
It releases energy which is consumed in various metabolic processes
essential for plant life and activates cell division’

It converts insoluble food into soluble form

It liberates carbon dioxide and plays a part actively in maintaining the
balance of carbon cycle in nature

It converts stored energy (potential energy) into usable form (kinetic
energy)

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Structure and functions of parts of flowers
• There is an immense variety of shape and structure among flowers but they
have certain features in common which are basic.
• Inflorescence: These are groups of flowers borne on the same stalk.
• Pedicels: It attached the flower to the stem. It is joined to a swollen portion
called the receptacle.
• The receptacle: This is the region of the flower stalk to which the other parts
of the flowers are attached. It carries the sepals, petals, stamen and pistil
• The sepal or calyx: In many flowers, the sepal is the outermost set of floral
parts. They are known collectively as the calyx which is usually arranged in a
ring or whorl.
• Sepals are green and look like small leaves. They enclosed and protect the
central region of the flower when it is in bud stage of development
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• Petals: These are found on the inner side of the sepals.
• They are arranged in rings or whorls.
• They are known collectively as corolla

• Androecium: This is the male reproductive part of a flower.

• It consists of the stamens which is made up of the anther and the filament.
• The stalk of the stamen is the filament which bears the anther that is made up of pollen
grains.

• Gynoecium: This is the female reproductive part of a flower.

• It consists of carpels which are collectively known as gynoecium or pistil.
• Each carpel may be either single or solitary.
• Each carpel consists of an expanded hollow based ovary above which is a narrow region
called style which end with stigma.
•

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42
The Gynoecium could be Apocarpus, syncarpus or unicarpellate

Apocarpus: This is when the carpels are separated on the gynoecium.

Syncarpus: This is when the carpels are fused
Unicarpellate: when the gynoecium consists of only one carpel

43
Types of Flowers based on symmetry

• Regular flower: (Actinomorphic). These are flowers which as a whole

can be cut into two halves along many vertical planes to produce
identical halves i.e. radially symmetrical e.g. Rose, sunflower and
hibiscus.
• Irregular flower: (Zygomorphic) Petals of Crotalaria and Caesalpinia
are of various sizes and shapes, some are fused. They can only be cut
into identical halves along only one vertical plane i.e. bilaterally
symmetrical

44
Types of Flowers based on floral part

• A perfect flower: This is the one which has both androecium and
gynoecium. It is also a balled bisexual flower or hermaphrodite.

• An imperfect flower: This one lacks either the androecium or the

gynoecium e.g. Guinea grass. It is also called a unisexual flower.

• Complete flower: This is the flower which has all the floral parts such
as sepals, petals, androecium gynoecium.
•

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Types of flowers based on the positions of ovary

• Hypogynous Flower: This is a flower with a conical-shaped receptacle with the

ovary sitting on the receptacle so that the other floral parts arise from below the
ovary. The ovary is said to be a superior ovary e.g. Hibiscus, Crotalaria, pride of
Barbados
•
• Perigynous Flower: This is a flower in which the receptacle is cup-shaped with the
ovary located at the centre of the cup. The other floral parts arise from the edge
of the cup just above the centre of the ovary. This type of ovary is said to be half
inferior e.g. Rose flower.
•
• Epigynous Flower: This is a flower in which the ovary is embedded in the
receptacle. The receptacle completely surrounds the ovary so that other floral
parts arise from above the ovary. This type of ovary is described as an inferior
ovary. E.g. flowers of guava, cana lily, sunflower etc.

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47
 Reproduction in plant
• Plant reproduction refers to the biological processes by which plants
produce offspring, ensuring the continuity of their species. It is a key for
genetic diversity, adaptation, and survival of plant species.

• Types of Reproduction
• Asexual Reproduction
•
• Sexual Reproduction
• a. Flowering plants: angiosperms
• b. Non-flowering plants: gymnosperms, ferns, mosses, and algae

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Reproduction in flowering plants
• Reproduction may either be sexual or asexual.
•
• Asexual reproduction in flowering plants
• Asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes.
Here one or more cell, tissue or organ is detached from a mother plant and
develop into a new individual of the same species. Only one parent is involved
and the offspring are genetically identical to the parent plants and each other,
except when mutations occur.
• Vegetative reproduction
• Vegetative reproduction is the major type of asexual reproduction found in
flowering plants. It takes place when any vegetative part (stem, root or tuber)
detaches from a plant and develop into a new plant. Example of vegetative parts
used in this type of reproduction include: stem cuttings, tubers, rhizomes, stolon,
corms, bulbs and suckers. Vegetative reproduction can be divided into two: 1)
Natural vegetative propagation and 2) Artificial vegetative propagation
49
 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
• Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes from different parents to
form a new individual.
• This results in offspring genetically different from the parent or parents.
• When the gametes fuse they form a zygote and the process is known as
fertilization. Sexual reproduction involves two fundamental processes:
• (1) Meiosis: which rearranges the genes and reduces the number of
chromosomes, and
• (2) Fertilization: which restores the chromosome to a complete diploid
number.
• In between these two processes, plant undergo alternation of generations,
with two different multicellular phases, a gametophyte and a sporophyte.

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Plant gametogenesis (sporogenesis)

• The process of gamete formation in plants is called Sporogenesis.

• There are two types of sporogenesis
• The male sporogenesis which is called microsporogenesis and the female
sporogenesis is called megasporogenesis.

• Among the diploid vegetative cells that make up the flowering or sporophyte
portion of the plant, some are induced to differentiate into megasporophyte
cells (female) and microsporophyte cells (male) which then undergoes
meiosis.

• The female cells are called megasporocytes while the male cells are called
microsporocytes.
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 Microsporogenesis
• Microsporogenesis is the process that leads to the formation of microspores,
which eventually develop into male gametophytes (pollen grains).

• This process takes place within the anthers of the flower.

• This begins in the microsporangia, specialized structures within the anthers of
the flower.

• The microsporocyte which is diploid undergoes two meiotic divisions to form a

group of four haploid cells known as a tetrad.

• Each of the cells in the tetrad undergoes maturation to become the pollen
grain or microspore. Each pollen grain contains two cells: one generative cell
that will divide into two sperm and a second cell that will become the pollen
tube cell.
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 Tetrad Pollen grain or
Microsporocyte (haploid cells) microspore (haploid)
(diploid)

Meiosis I Meiosis II

Pollen tube

Tube nucleus
Male nuclei

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 Megasporogenesis
• The megasporocyte which is also diploid undergoes two meiotic divisions to
form a group of four haploid megaspores.
• However, three of the megaspores degenerate and the remaining megaspore
undergoes maturation to become the embryo sac.
• The haploid nucleus undergoes three successive mitotic divisions resulting in
eight haploid nuclei.
• One of the nuclei becomes the egg nucleus, two of them become the polar
nuclei while the others become the synergids and the antipodal nuclei.

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 Degenerated
Megaspores megaspores
Megasporocyte (haploid cells)
(diploid)

Meiosis I Meiosis II
3 mitotic divisions
Embryo sac

Antipodal
Egg nucleus nuclei
haploid Polar
Synergids nuclei

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• At the time of fertilization, one of the sperm nuclei fuses with the egg
nucleus to form a diploid zygote.

• The second sperm nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid
endosperm which helps to nourish the developing embryo.

• The remaining haploid nuclei of the embryo sac play accessory roles in
fertilization and seed formation.

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57
 Double fertilization in Angiosperm reproduction
• Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary. One
sperm and the egg combine, forming a diploid zygote.
• Double fertilization
• In angiosperms, two fertilization events occur. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the
production of male and female gametes, the transfer of the male gametes to the female ovules is a
process called pollination.

• After pollination, a pollen tube grows from the pollen grain to the ovule. After the pollen tube
grows through the carpel's style, the sperm from the pollen grain migrate into the ovule to fertilize
the egg cell and central cell within the female gametophyte in a process termed double fertilization.

• One of the sperm cell fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote, and the other combines with two nuclei to
form a triploid cell, which develops into the endosperm. The resulting zygote develops into an
embryo.
• Plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate.
• Most flowers are monoecious or bisexual.
• Monoecious flowers are also known as “perfect” flowers because they contain both types of sex
organs.
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Life cycle of maize
59
Sexual Reproduction in Non-flowering Plants:
• Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms:
• Gymnosperms produce reproductive structures called cones, which are of
two types: male (pollen cones) and female (seed cones). Male cones contain
microsporangia, which produce microspores through meiosis. Each
microspore develops into a pollen grain.
• Female cones consist of ovules, which are megasporangia surrounded by
protective scales. Each ovule contains a megasporocyte that undergoes
meiosis to produce megaspores.
• Pollen is carried by the wind to female cones, Once a pollen grain reaches a
female cone, it settles on a specialized structure called the ovule.
• The pollen grain produces a pollen tube that extends down to the
megasporangium within the ovule.
• One of the two sperm cells in the pollen grain fertilizes the egg cell, forming
a diploid zygote. This process is similar to fertilization in angiosperms.
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• The second sperm cell combines with two other nuclei in the ovule to form a
triploid cell, which will develop into the nutrient-rich tissue known as the
endosperm.
• After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed, and the protective scales of
the cone enclose the developing seeds.
• The seed contains the embryo, which is the young sporophyte plant,
surrounded by a protective seed coat derived from the integuments of the
ovule.
• The endosperm provides nutrients for the developing embryo.
• As the seeds mature, the cone scales may open to release the seeds, allowing
them to disperse in the wind.
• Cycads and Ginkgo have flagellated motile sperm that swim directly to the egg
inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm with no
flagella that are moved along a pollen tube to the egg.
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 Sexual Reproduction in Ferns:
• Ferns reproduce via spores, which are produced in specialized structures called
sporangia.
• Spores are dispersed, and upon germination, they develop into a gametophyte.
Ferns exhibit a distinctive life cycle involving alternation of generations.
• The sporophyte, the dominant and visible phase, produces spores in sporangia
located on the undersides of fronds.
• These spores disperse and germinate into a small, heart-shaped gametophyte.
The gametophyte produces both male (antheridia) and female (archegonia)
reproductive structures.
• Water is essential for sperm cells to swim to the egg, facilitating fertilization.
The zygote develops into a new sporophyte, completing the cycle.

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63
 Sexual Reproduction in Mosses:
• Mosses also undergo alternation of generations but with a more prominent
gametophyte phase.
• Mosses have a dominant gametophyte stage, producing male and female
gametes.
• Fertilization results in the formation of a sporophyte. Spores are released
from sporangia on the sporophyte and disperse, germinating into a
gametophyte.
• The gametophyte produces male (antheridia) and female (archegonia)
structures.
• Sperm cells travel to the egg via water for fertilization.
• The zygote develops into a sporophyte, growing on the gametophyte and
releasing spores to continue the life cycle.
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65
Sexual reproduction in Algae:
• Sexual reproduction in algae varies across species.
• Some algae exhibit isogamy, where gametes are similar in size and structure,
while others display anisogamy or oogamy, involving different-sized gametes.
• Algal reproductive structures may be unicellular or multicellular, producing
gametes within specialized cells.
• Fertilization can occur in water, and zygotes often develop protective
structures.
• Some algae undergo alternation of generations, transitioning between
haploid and diploid phases, while others have a simpler life cycle.

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 GROWTH AND GROWTH REGULATION
Growth is the irreversible increase in size, shape, volume and weight of living
organisms.

PATTERNS OF GROWTH
Limited or determinate: growth that stops after a definite size, stage etc.
• Example: Plant organs such as leaves, fruits and flowers

Unlimited or indeterminate growth: growth that occurs continuously

throughout the lifespan of the plant.
• Example: Root and shoot of higher plant.
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 REGIONS OF GROWTH IN PLANT
Apical regions: located in the root and shoot apex. It leads to increase in
length

Intercalary meristems: Located between regions of permanent tissues e.g.

at nodes of many monocotyledons.
It leads to increase in length.

Lateral meristems: It is laterally situated in older parts of plants e.g. cork

cambium in the bark of a woody stem.
 It leads to increase in girth or width.

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 COURSE OF GROWTH
• The total period from initial to final stage of growth can be divided into 4
Lag period of growth: This is the initial stage of growth. The growth rate is
quite slow during this phase.
Log (Logarithmic) period of growth: The growth rate is exponential i.e.
maximum because the cell division and physiological processes are very
rapid.
Senescence period or steady period: the growth is almost complete and is
stationary. Growth rate is zero as the plant has reached maturity and begins
to senesce (age). If the growth rate is plotted against time, a “S” shaped
curve is obtained which is referred to as Sigmoid Curve or Grand Period
curve.
Decline period of growth: the growth rate slows down as metabolic
processes become slow as a result of some internal or external factors.
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70
 MEASUREMENT OF PLANT’S GROWTH
The growth of a plant can be measured using the following criteria
Increase in the length/ height of stems
Increase in the girth of stems and roots
Increase in weight
Increase in volume of fruits
Increase in area of leaves.
Increase in number of cells per unit area

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 FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH OF PLANTS
External factors
• These include all the factors which affect various physiological processes of
the plants directly or indirectly, thereby affecting the growth of the plant.
They include :
light (duration, quality and intensity),
Temperature,
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide,
Water
Food materials.

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Internal factors
• These are factors necessary for growth and influence the extent and timing
of growth. They include;

growth hormones such as auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins

• Plant hormones are produced naturally in higher plants and at low

concentrations regulate growth, development and even metabolism

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• Auxins:
Growth regulating organic compounds which are produced at the tips of
roots and stems and are transported to the region of elongation causing
shoot elongation.
It promotes cell growth and elongation of the plant.
It stimulates root formation.
It helps to initiate rooting in stem cuttings.
They promote the growth of adventitious roots.
They cause apical dominance.
It prevents dropping of fruits and leaves too early.
Examples are; Indole Acetic acid (IAA), Indole butyric Acid (IBA), Napthalene
Acetic acid (NAA) and Phenylacetic acid (PAA).

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• Gibberellins:

Stimulates growth in plants by cell division and cell elongation.

They help to break dormancy in buds and seeds.

They promote the development of flowers in some plants

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• Cytokinins:
Stimulates cell division and cell multiplication.

They are derivatives of Adenine and have an important role in shoot

induction (Lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation).

Promote lateral and axillary bud growth into branches.

It increases the resistance of plants to diseases

Examples are Benzyl adenine (BA), or 6- benzyl aminopurine (BAP), kinetin

and zeatin

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• Abscissic acids:

It is a growth inhibitor which stimulates the formation of abscisic layer in

leaves, flowers and fruits leading to leaf fall, flower fall and fruits dropping.
It also induces buds and seeds dormancy.
Regulates abscission and dormancy.
Inhibit plant growth, metabolism and seed germination.
It increases the tolerance of plants to different kinds of stress and it’s therefore
called “stress hormone”

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• Ethylene:

• It is a gaseous hormone.
• It can be a growth promoter or an inhibitor, but it is largely plant growth
inhibitor.
• It promotes or inhibits growth and senescence depending on its
concentration, timing of application and the plant species.
• It regulates both growth and senescence.
• It aids flower development and fruit ripening.
• It promotes quick ageing of plant organs.
• Inhibits stem elongation

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I WISH YOU SUCCESS

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