Developmental

Psychology
Biological
Beginnings

• Evolutionary Perspective
• Genetic Foundations of Development
• Reproductive Challenges and Choices
• Heredity-Environment Interaction: The Nature-Nurture
Debate
The Evolutionary Perspective
• Natural selection is the evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that are best
adapted are the ones that survive and leave the most fit offspring.
• Adaptive behavior is behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in its natural habitat (Mason & others,
2018).
• Evolutionary psychology Emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the
fittest” in shaping behavior (Bjorklund, 2018; Legare, Clegg, & Wen, 2018; Lewis & others, 2017).
• David Buss (2008, 2012, 2015) has been especially influential in stimulating new interest in how evolution
can explain human behavior.
• Evolution affects physical and behavioral changes.
• Why humans take longer to become reproductively mature than any other mammals?
• Why natural selection operates during the first half of life?
Criticism of Evolutionary Psychology:
1. One sided.
2. Not valuing societal/environmental factors.
3. Cannot be testes scientifically.
Genetic Foundations
of Development
• What is inherited is DNA. Everything else is developed. —J
ames Tanner British Pediatrician, 20th Century
THE COLLABORATIVE GENE
• Chromosomes - Threadlike structures that come in 23
pairs, with one member of each pair coming from each
parent. Chromosomes contain the genetic substance
DNA.
• DNA A complex molecule that contains genetic
information.
• Genes Units of hereditary information composed of DNA.
Genes help cells to reproduce themselves and help
manufacture the proteins that maintain life.
• Human Genome Project - efforts to map the human
genome—the complete genetic content of our cells.
Genetic Foundations
of Development
• Genome - wide association method - to identify genetic variations
linked to a particular disease, such as obesity, cancer, cardiovascular
disease, or Alzheimer disease (Yasukochi & others, 2018; Zhu & others,
2018).
• Linkage analysis - to discover the location of a gene (or genes) in
relation to a marker gene (whose position is already known), is often
used to search for disease-related genes (Burrello & others, 2017).
• Next generation sequencing - is a term used to describe the vast
increase in genetic data generated at a much-reduced cost and in a
much shorter period than in the past.
• Thousands Genome Project - This project has the goal of determining
the genomic sequences of at least 1,000 individuals from different ethnic
groups around the world (Li & others, 2017).
• Important discovery: humans have only about 30,000 genes (U.S.
Department of Energy, 2001). More recently, the number of human
genes has been revised further downward to approximately 20,700
(Ensembl Human, 2010; Flicek & others, 2013; Science Daily, 2008).
Further recent analysis proposes that humans may actually have fewer
than 20,000 protein-producing genes (Ezkurdia & others, 2014).
Scientists had thought that humans had as many as 100,000 or more
genes.
Genetic Foundations of Development
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES
• Genes are not only collaborative, but they are also enduring.
• Mitosis – Cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus duplicates itself with two new cells being formed, each
containing the same DNA as the parent cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes.
• Meiosis – A specialized form of cell division that occurs to form eggs and sperm (also known as gametes).
• Fertilization – A stage in reproduction when an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote.
• Zygote – A single cell formed through fertilization.
• Sources of Variability - Combining the genes of two parents in offspring increases genetic variability in the
population, which is valuable for a species because it provides more characteristics for natural selection to
operate on (Mason & others, 2018; Simon, 2017).
*Identical Twins and Fraternal Twins
*Gene mutations
*Increase of susceptibility genes and longevity genes
• genotype A person’s genetic heritage; the actual genetic material.
• phenotype The way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics.
Genetic Foundations of Development
GENETIC PRINCIPLES
• Dominant-Recessive Genes In some cases, one gene of a pair always exerts its effects; it is
dominant and overrides the potential influence of the other gene, called the recessive
gene.
• Sex-Linked Genes Most mutated genes are recessive. When a mutated gene is carried on the X
chromosome, the result is called X-linked inheritance.
• Genetic Imprinting Genetic imprinting occurs when the expression of a gene has different effects
depending on whether the mother or the father passed on the gene (Brooker & others, 2018; Simon,
2017).
• Polygenic Inheritance The term polygenic inheritance means that many different genes determine a
characteristic (Hill & others, 2018; Oreland & others, 2017).
Genetic Foundations of Development
CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE-LINKED ABNORMALITIES
• Chromosomal Abnormalities Sometimes a gamete is formed in which the male’s sperm and/or the female’s
ovum do not have their normal set of 23 chromosomes. The most notable examples involve Down syndrome and
abnormalities of the sex chromosomes
Genetic Foundations of Development
CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE-LINKED ABNORMALITIES
• Gene-Linked Abnormalities – abnormalities can be produced not only by an abnormal number of chromosomes
but also by harmful genes. More than 7,000 such genetic disorders have been identified, although most of them
are rare. Two widely studied gene-linked abnormalities are phenylketonuria and sickle-cell anemia.
Reproductive Challenges and Choices
PRENATAL DIGANOSTIC TESTS
• Ultrasound sonography - An ultrasound test is often conducted seven weeks into a pregnancy and at various times later
in pregnancy. A prenatal medical procedure in which high-frequency sound waves are directed into the pregnant
woman’s abdomen (Tamai & others, 2018).
• Brain-Imaging Techniques - The development of brain-imaging techniques has led to increasing use of fetal MRI to
diagnose fetal malformations (Cheong & Miller, 2018; Choudhri & others, 2018; Kang & others, 2017).
• Chorionic Villus Sampling - At some point between the 10th and 12th weeks of pregnancy, chorionic villus sampling
may be used to detect genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities such as those discussed in the previous section.
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a prenatal medical procedure in which a small sample of the placenta (the vascular
organ that links the fetus to the mother’s uterus) is removed (Carlson & Vora, 2017). Diagnosis takes about 10 days. There
is a small risk of limb deformity when CVS is used.
• Amniocentesis Between the 15th and 18th weeks of pregnancy, amniocentesis may be performed. Amniocentesis is a
prenatal medical procedure in which a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe and tested for chromosomal or
metabolic disorders (Jung & others, 2017).
• Maternal Blood Screening During the 15th to 19th weeks of pregnancy, maternal blood screening may be performed.
Maternal blood screening identifies pregnancies that have an elevated risk for birth defects such as spina bifida (a defect
in the spinal cord) and Down syndrome (Byeon, Ki, & Han, 2015; le Ray & others, 2018).
• Fetal Sex Determination - Being able to detect an offspring’s sex as well as the presence of various diseases and defects
at such an early stage raises ethical concerns about couples’ motivation to terminate a pregnancy (Browne, 2017).
Reproductive Challenges and Choices
INFERTILITY AND REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY
• infertility, which is defined as the inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular
intercourse without contraception. The cause of infertility can rest with the woman or the
man (Namgoog & Kim, 2018; Sunderam & others, 2017).
ADOPTION
• Adoptive parents' secure attachment increases the likelihood of their children having a secure attachment
pattern, especially the mother's secure attachment.
• Adopted children have a higher risk of externalizing, internalizing, and attention problems compared to non-
adopted children.
• Internationally adopted adolescents have a higher level of mental health problems compared to their non-
adopted counterparts.
• Despite the risks, many adopted children and adolescents adjust effectively, and their parents report considerable
satisfaction with their decision to adopt.
• This includes those who were adopted at older ages, transracially, and across national borders.
Heredity-Environment Interaction
BEHAVIOR GENETICS
• is the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences
in human traits and development (Charney, 2017; Machalek & others, 2017; Pinheiro & others, 2018;
Rana & others, 2018).
• twin study A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the
behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
• adoption study A study in which investigators seek to discover whether, in behavior and
psychological characteristics, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a
home environment, or more like their biological parents, who contributed their heredity. Another
form of the adoption study compares adoptive and biological siblings.
Heredity-Environment Interaction
HEREDITY – ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS
Heredity-Environment Interaction
THE EPIGENETIC VIEW AND GENE × ENVIRONMENT (G × E) INTERACTION
• epigenetic view Emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional
interchange between heredity and environment.
Heredity-Environment Interaction
GENE × ENVIRONMENT (G × E) INTERACTION
• Studies explore how heredity and environment interact in development
• Epigenetic mechanisms alter gene functioning as a result of environmental inputs
• Specific gene 5-HTTLPR interacts with stressful environments to predict depression
• Gene-environment interactions also play a role in attachment, parenting, and child-rearing
environments
• Gene × environment (G × E) interaction is the interaction of a specific measured variation
in DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment
• G × E interaction is a young science with difficulties in replicating results and weaknesses
Prenatal Development and Birth
• Prenatal Development
• Birth
• The Post-partum Period
 Prenatal Development

THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

• Typical prenatal development, which begins with fertilization and ends with
birth, takes between 266 and 280 days (38 to 40 weeks). It can be divided
into three periods: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.
1. The Germinal Period is the period of prenatal development that takes place
during the first two weeks after conception. It includes the creation of the
fertilized egg, called a zygote; cell division; and the attachment of the zygote to
the uterine wall.
*blastocyst The inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period.
These cells later develop into the embryo.
*trophoblast The outer layer of cells that develops in the germinal period.
These cells provide nutrition and support for the embryo.
 Prenatal
Development

2. The Embryonic Period is the period of prenatal development

that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception. During the
embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies,
support systems for cells form, and organs appear.
*amnion The part of the prenatal life-support system that consists
of a sac containing a clear fluid in which the developing embryo
floats.
*umbilical cord Part of the prenatal life-support system that
contains two arteries and one vein that connect the baby to the
placenta. placenta A prenatal life-support system that consists of a
disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from
the mother and offspring intertwine.
*organogenesis Organ formation that takes place during the first
two months of prenatal development.
Prenatal
Development
THE COURSE OF PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
3. The Fetal Period, lasting about seven
months, is the prenatal period between two
months after conception and birth in typical
pregnancies. Growth and development
continue their dramatic course during this
time.
Prenatal
Development
THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
• Brain Development - One of the most
remarkable aspects of the prenatal period is the
development of the brain (Andescavage &
others, 2017).
1. Neural Tube As the human embryo develops
inside its mother’s womb, the nervous system begins
forming as a long, hollow tube located on the
embryo’s back. This pear-shaped neural tube, which
forms at about 18 to 24 days after conception,
develops out of the ectoderm. The tube closes at
the top and bottom ends at about 27 days after
conception (Keunen, Counsell, & Bender, 2017).
Prenatal
Development
THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
2. Neurogenesis In a normal pregnancy, once the
neural tube has closed, a massive proliferation of new
immature neurons begins to takes place at about the
fifth prenatal week and continues throughout the
remainder of the prenatal period. The generation of
new neurons is called neurogenesis, a process that
continues through the remainder of the prenatal period
but is largely complete by the end of the fifth month
after conception (Keunen, Counsell, & Benders, 2017).
At the peak of neurogenesis, it is estimated that as
many as 200,000 neurons are generated every minute.
Prenatal Development
THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
3. Neuronal Migration At approximately 6 to 24 weeks after conception,
neuronal migration occurs. This involves cells moving outward from their
point of origin to their appropriate locations and creating the different
levels, structures, and regions of the brain (Keunen, Counsell, & Benders,
2017). Once a cell has migrated to its target destination, it must mature
and develop a more complex structure.
4. Neural Connectivity At about the 23rd prenatal week, connections
between neurons begin to occur, a process that continues postnatally
(Miller, Huppi, & Mallard, 2016). We will have much more to say about the
structure of neurons, their connectivity, and the development of the
infant brain in the chapter on “Physical Development in Infancy.”
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

teratogen From the Greek word tera, meaning “monster.”

Any agent that causes a birth defect. The field of study that
investigates the causes of birth defects is called teratology.
Time of exposure. Exposure to
Genetic susceptibility. The type or teratogens does more damage when it
Dose. The dose effect is rather severity of abnormalities caused by a occurs at some points in development
obvious—the greater the dose of an teratogen is linked to the genotype of than at others (Feldkamp & others,
agent, such as a drug, the greater the the pregnant woman and the genotype 2017). Damage during the germinal
effect. of the embryo or fetus (Lin & others, period may even prevent implantation.
2017). In general, the embryonic period is
more vulnerable than the fetal period.
 TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
PRESCRIPTION AND NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS
• Prescription drugs that can function as teratogens include
antibiotics, such as streptomycin and tetracycline; some
antidepressants; certain hormones, such as progestin and
synthetic estrogen; and Accutane (the trade name for
isotretinoin, a form of Vitamin A that is often used to treat acne)
(Brown & others, 2018; Dathe & Schaefer, 2018).
• Nonprescription drugs that can be harmful include diet pills
and high dosages of aspirin (Cadavid, 2017). Research
indicates that low doses of aspirin pose no harm for the fetus but
that high doses can contribute to maternal and fetal bleeding
(Osikoya & others, 2017).
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
• Caffeine - a large-scale study of almost 60,000 women revealed that maternal caffeine intake was linked to lower birth weight and babies
being born small for gestational age (Sengpiel & others, 2013).
• Alcohol - Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a cluster of abnormalities and problems that appear in the offspring of mothers who
drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy (Del Campo & Jones, 2017; Helgesson & others, 2018).
• Nicotine Cigarette smoking by pregnant women can also adversely influence prenatal development, birth, and postnatal development
(Shisler & others, 2017). Preterm births and low birth weights, fetal and neonatal deaths, respiratory problems, and sudden infant death
syndrome (SIDS, also known as crib death) are all more common among the offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy (Zhang &
others, 2017).
• Cocaine A research review concluded that cocaine quickly crosses the placenta to reach the fetus (De Giovanni & Marchetti, 2012). The
most consistent finding is that cocaine exposure during prenatal development is associated with reduced birth weight, length, and head
circumference (Gouin & others, 2011).
• Marijuana An increasing number of studies find that marijuana use by pregnant women also has negative outcomes for offspring (Ruisch
& others, 2018; Volkow, Compton, & Wargo, 2017). For example, researchers found that prenatal marijuana exposure was related to lower
intelligence in children (Goldschmidt & others, 2008). Research reviews concluded that marijuana use during pregnancy alters brain
functioning in the fetus (Calvigioni & others, 2014; Jaques & others, 2014).
• Heroin It is well documented that infants whose mothers are addicted to heroin show several behavioral difficulties at birth (Angelotta &
Appelbaum, 2017). The difficulties include withdrawal symptoms, such as tremors, irritability, abnormal crying, disturbed sleep, and
impaired motor control.
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
INCOMPATIBLE BLOOD TYPES
• Incompatibility between the mother’s and father’s blood types poses another risk to prenatal
development (Yogev-Lifshitz & others, 2016).
• Red blood cells can have different surface markers, creating blood groups (A, B, O, AB) and Rh-
positive or Rh-negative blood.
• If a pregnant woman is Rh-negative and her partner is Rh-positive, their fetus may be Rh-
positive, and the mother's immune system may produce antibodies that attack the fetus.
• This can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, anemia, jaundice, heart defects, brain damage, or death
soon after birth.
• The first Rh-positive baby of an Rh-negative mother is generally not at risk, but with subsequent
pregnancies, the risk increases.
• A vaccine called RhoGAM can be given to prevent the mother's body from making antibodies
that will attack future Rh-positive fetuses.
• Babies affected by Rh incompatibility can receive blood transfusions before or after birth.
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
• Many aspects of modern industry can harm the embryo or fetus.
• Specific hazards include radiation, toxic wastes, and chemical pollutants.
• X-ray radiation can affect the developing embryo or fetus, especially in the early weeks of
pregnancy.
• Women and their physicians should weigh the risks of an X-ray during pregnancy.
• Diagnostic X-rays of areas other than the abdomen, with the abdomen protected by a lead
apron, are generally considered safe.
• Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes, such as carbon monoxide, mercury, lead, fertilizers,
and pesticides, are also dangerous to unborn children.
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
OTHER PARENTAL FACTORS
1. Maternal Nutrition
• Developing embryo/fetus depends on mother for nutrition
• Good nutrition habits important for pregnant women
• Nutritional status of embryo/fetus determined by mother's total caloric intake, proteins, vitamins,
and minerals
• Children born to malnourished mothers more likely to be malformed
• Maternal obesity adversely affects pregnancy outcomes and offspring health
• Folic acid important for normal prenatal development and reducing risk of neural tube defects
and preterm birth
• Eating fish can be risky due to pollution and high mercury content in some species, which can
lead to adverse outcomes for the developing embryo/fetus
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
OTHER PARENTAL FACTORS
2. Maternal Age
• Adolescents and women 35 years and older are of special interest for harmful effects on the
fetus and infant.
• Infants born to adolescent mothers have double the mortality rate compared to infants born to
mothers in their twenties.
• Adequate prenatal care decreases the probability of physical problems for children born to
adolescent mothers.
• Pregnant women older than 35 have an increased risk of having a child with Down syndrome.
• Mothers 35 years and older are at increased risk for low birth weight, preterm delivery, and fetal
death.
• Very advanced maternal age (40 years and older) is linked to adverse perinatal outcomes.
TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
OTHER PARENTAL FACTORS
3. Emotional Stats and Stress
• Paternal exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides, and petrochemicals can cause
abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or childhood cancer
• Paternal smoking during the mother's pregnancy can cause problems for the offspring, such as
impaired male fertility, increased DNA damage, aneuploidy, mutations in sperm, and increased
risk of early pregnancy loss, leukemia, and spontaneous abortion
• Increasing paternal age decreases the success rate of in vitro fertilization, increases the risk of
preterm birth, spontaneous abortion, autism, and schizophrenic disorders, and may cause
random gene mutations in the offspring
• The father's relationship with the mother can influence prenatal and birth outcomes, and a
conflictual relationship with the mother is likely to bring adverse outcomes, such as increased
maternal stress levels.
PRENATAL CARE
• Prenatal care involves medical visits for screening and treatment, as well as educational, social,
and nutritional services.
• Exercise during pregnancy can benefit both the mother and the offspring by improving health
outcomes, reducing excessive weight gain, and promoting a positive mental state.
• Centering Pregnancy is an innovative program that provides complete prenatal care in a group
setting, with longer sessions and peer group support. It has been associated with higher rates of
breastfeeding and satisfaction with prenatal care, as well as reduced rates of preterm birth and
low birth weight.
• Information about pregnancy, labor, delivery, and caring for the newborn can be especially
valuable for first-time mothers, as well as women in poverty and immigrant women.
BIRTH PROCESS
• The birth process occurs in stages, takes place in different contexts, and in most cases involves
one or more attendants.
STAGES OF BIRTH:
First Stage: Second Stage: Third Stage (Afterbirth):
• Longest stage •Begins when baby's head moves •Shortest stage
• Uterine contractions start 15-20 through cervix and birth canal •Placenta, umbilical cord, and other
minutes apart, lasting up to a minute •Ends when baby completely emerges membranes are detached and
• Contractions cause cervix to stretch from mother's body expelled
and open •Mother bears down hard to push baby •Lasts only a few minutes
• Contractions become closer together out with each contraction
(2-5 mins) and more intense •Contractions come almost every
• Ends when cervix is dilated to 10 cm minute and last for about a minute
(4 inches) for baby to move from •Stage typically lasts 45 mins to an hour
uterus to birth canal
• First stage lasts 6-12 hours for first
child, shorter for subsequent children
BIRTH PROCESS
CHILDBIRTH SETTING AND ATTENDANTS
• Midwives - Midwifery is a profession that provides health care to women during pregnancy,
birth, and the postpartum period (Christensen & Overgaard, 2017; Cohen, Sumersille, &
Friedman, 2018; Faucher, 2018). Midwives also may give women information about reproductive
health and annual gynecological examinations. They may refer women to general practitioners
or obstetricians if a pregnant woman needs medical care beyond a midwife’s expertise and skill.
• Doulas - is a Greek word that means “a woman who helps.” A doula is a caregiver who provides
continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and
after childbirth (McLeish & Redshaw, 2018).
BIRTH PROCESS
METHODS OF CHILDBIRTH
1. Medication:
• Three basic kinds of drugs used during labor: analgesia, anesthesia, and oxytocin/Pitocin.
• Analgesia is used to relieve pain and includes tranquilizers, barbiturates, and narcotics.
• Anesthesia is used to block sensation or consciousness, with a trend away from general anesthesia.
• Epidural block is a regional anesthesia that numbs the lower body but increases likelihood of
instrument use during vaginal birth.
• Oxytocin/Pitocin promotes uterine contractions to shorten the first stage of labor, but benefits and
risks are debated.
• Predicting the effects of drugs on an individual woman and fetus is difficult, and dosage is a factor.
• It is important for the mother to assess her pain level and have a voice in deciding whether to receive
medication.
BIRTH PROCESS
METHODS OF CHILDBIRTH
2. Natural and Prepared Childbirth:
• Three basic kinds of drugs used during labor: analgesia, anesthesia, and oxytocin/Pitocin.
• Analgesia is used to relieve pain and includes tranquilizers, barbiturates, and narcotics.
• Anesthesia is used to block sensation or consciousness, with a trend away from general anesthesia.
• Epidural block is a regional anesthesia that numbs the lower body but increases likelihood of
instrument use during vaginal birth.
• Oxytocin/Pitocin promotes uterine contractions to shorten the first stage of labor, but benefits and
risks are debated.
• Predicting the effects of drugs on an individual woman and fetus is difficult, and dosage is a factor.
• It is important for the mother to assess her pain level and have a voice in deciding whether to receive
medication.
BIRTH PROCESS
METHODS OF CHILDBIRTH
3. Cesarean Delivery:
• Cesarean delivery involves the baby being removed through an incision in the mother's
abdomen.
• It is performed if the baby is in a crosswise position, if the baby's head is too large, if there are
complications, or if the mother is bleeding vaginally.
• Elective cesarean delivery is not recommended before 39 weeks of gestation unless there is an
indication of fetal lung maturity.
• The benefits and risks of cesarean deliveries are still debated.
• Cesarean deliveries are done for reasons such as failure to progress through labor, fetal distress,
and breech position.
BIRTH PROCESS
ASSESING THE NEWBORN
1. APGAR SCALE - A widely used method of assessing the health of newborns at one and five
minutes after birth. The Apgar Scale evaluates an infant’s heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone,
body color, and reflex irritability
BIRTH PROCESS
ASSESING THE NEWBORN
2. Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) A measure that is used in the first
month of life to assess the newborn’s neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people
and objects.
3. Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) An “offspring” of the
NBAS, the NNNS provides an assessment of the newborn’s behavior, neurological and stress
responses, and regulatory capacities.
BIRTH PROCESS
PRETERM AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT INFANTS
• low birth weight infants An infant that weighs less than 5 pounds 8 ounces at birth.
• preterm infants Those born before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time between
fertilization and birth).
• small for date infants Also called small for gestational age infants, these infants’ birth weights
are below normal when the length of pregnancy is considered. Small for date infants may be
preterm or full term.
POSTPARTUM PERIOD
• postpartum period The period after childbirth when the mother adjusts, both physically and
psychologically, to the process of childbirth. This period lasts for about six weeks or until her
body has completed its adjustment and returned to a near prepregnant state.
PHYSICAL ADJUSMENT:
• A woman's body goes through physical adjustments in the first days and weeks after childbirth.
• Fatigue is common and can affect the new mother's sense of well-being and confidence.
• Loss of sleep is a concern for the primary caregiver in the postpartum period.
• Loss of sleep can lead to stress, marital conflict, and impaired decision-making.
• Depressive symptoms may increase if sleep problems persist.
• After delivery, hormone production in a mother's body undergoes sudden and dramatic
changes when the placenta is delivered.
POSTPARTUM PERIOD
EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT:
• Emotional fluctuations are common for mothers in the postpartum period, which may decrease within several
weeks after delivery or last for many months.
• About 70% of new mothers in the US have postpartum blues, which may peak about three to five days after birth
and usually go away after one or two weeks, but some women develop postpartum depression.
• Postpartum depression involves a major depressive episode that typically occurs about four weeks after delivery
and may become worse without treatment. Estimates indicate that 10 to 14% of new mothers experience
postpartum depression.
• Risk factors for developing postpartum depression include a history of depression, depression and anxiety
during pregnancy, neuroticism, low self-esteem, postpartum blues, poor marital relationship, and a low level of
social support.
• Several antidepressant drugs and psychotherapy, especially cognitive therapy, are effective in treating
postpartum depression, and regular exercise may also help.
• A mother's postpartum depression can affect the way she interacts with her infant, compromising several
caregiving activities and safety practices.
• Fathers also undergo considerable adjustment in the postpartum period and may experience feelings of
depression when the mother develops postpartum depression.
• The father's support and caring can play a role in whether the mother develops postpartum depression, and
depressive symptoms in both parents are associated with impaired bonding with their infant during the
postpartum period.
POSTPARTUM PERIOD
BONDING
• Bonding is the formation of a physical and emotional connection between parents and newborn
shortly after birth.
• Hospital practices such as drugs given to the mother during delivery and separation of the
mother and newborn can interfere with bonding.
• Close contact between mothers and newborns in the first several days after birth is believed by
some physicians to be important for optimal development, but the significance of the first few
days as a critical period is challenged by some research.
• Nonetheless, early close contact between mothers and newborns may establish a climate for
improved interaction, particularly for preterm infants, adolescent mothers, and mothers from
disadvantaged circumstances.
• Many hospitals offer a rooming-in arrangement, but if parents choose not to use it, it is unlikely
to harm the infant emotionally.