Fuel and Lubricant PDF
Fuel and Lubricant PDF
Fuel and Lubricant PDF
Lubricants
TCL029
Student Guide
Caterpillar Service Technician Module
TCL029
Fuels and Lubricants
All rights reserved. Reproduction of any part of this work without the permission of the
copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information must be
addressed to the Caterpillar Learning Manager, Australia.
This subject materials is issued by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. on the understanding that:
Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd., its officials, author(s), or any other persons involved in the
preparation of this publication expressly disclaim all or any contractual, tortious, or other form
of liability to any person (purchaser of this publication or not) in respect of the publication and
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upon the whole or any part of the contents of this publication.
Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. expressly disclaims all and any liability to any person in
respect of anything and of the consequences of anything done or omitted to be done by any
such person in reliance, whether whole or partial, upon the whole or any part of the contents
of this subject material.
Acknowledgements
A special thanks to the Caterpillar Family for their contribution in reviewing the curricula for
this program, in particular:
1
Topic Diesel Fuel....................................................................9
Fundamentals of Diesel Fuel........................................................ 10
Fuel Properties............................................................................. 11
Abrasives...................................................................................... 31
Fuel Storage.................................................................................32
Distillate Fuels..............................................................................33
Fuel Standards.............................................................................33
Crude Oils.....................................................................................34
Blended (Heavy) Fuels.................................................................34
Fuel Publications Available From Caterpillar................................40
2
Topic Lubricants...................................................................43
Lubricant Specifications...............................................................44
American Petroleum Institute (API) CH-4....................................50
Engine Manufacturers Association (EMA) LRG-1........................ 51
Total Base Number and Fuel Sulphur Levels...............................53
Hydraulic Oil.................................................................................56
Transmission/Drive Train Oil........................................................58
Gear Oil........................................................................................59
Synthetic Base Stock Oils............................................................ 61
Re-refined Base Stock Oils.......................................................... 61
Aftermarket Oil Additives..............................................................62
Lubricating Grease.......................................................................62
Dry Film Lubricant........................................................................69
Cold Weather Lubricants..............................................................69
Topic 3
Scheduled Oil Sampling............................................87
Scheduled Oil Sampling Fluids Analysis Program......................88
Condition Monitoring....................................................................89
Limitations of Oil Sampling........................................................... 91
Where Can Oil Sampling Be Applied? ........................................ 91
The SOS Program........................................................................ 91
Wear Metal Analysis.....................................................................92
Oil Condition Analysis..................................................................94
Physical Analysis..........................................................................95
Analysis Reports........................................................................ 101
The SOS Process ..................................................................... 103
Objective:
This unit identifies the underpinning knowledge requirements for fuels and
lubricants used in Earthmoving and Heavy Road Transport Equipment.
Prerequisites:
BUS006 Workplace Occupational Health and Safety Procedures
Version: 4.1
Recommended Delivery
5. Resources:
– Fuel water separator
– Damaged Engine Valves
– Contaminated Diesel Fuel
– Differing Types of Oil
– Differing Types of Grease
– Hydraulic Brake Fluid
– Hydraulic fluid
– Damaged Engine Bearings / Crankshaft
– Damaged Engine Liners / Pistons
– Schedule Oil Sampling (SOS) Kit
TCL029
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Fuels & Lubricants
Module Outline Document
6. References:
– TCL029 Facilitator Guide
Revision
Nil
Assessment
This is an underpinning knowledge module. Learning Outcomes should be assessed
using formative and summative assessments. Evidence of achieving this module’s
learning outcomes, at a knowledge level, is attained by oral and written assessment. The
written assessment is closed book and a minimum standard of 80% is required.
There are no practical assessments for this module. The underpinning knowledge gained
from this module will be used in other modules in the Caterpillar Apprentice Service
Technician Training Program. Transfer of knowledge to skills, at a practical level, will be
assessed during all Service and Repair practical activities. Personnel conducting the
assessment must be qualified as a workplace assessor.
TCL029
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Fuels & Lubricants
Module Outline Document
TCL029
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Fuels & Lubricants
Module Outline Document
TCL029
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Fuels & Lubricants
Module Outline Document
TCL029
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Fuels & Lubricants
Module Outline Document
TCL029
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Fuels & Lubricants
Module Outline Document
TCL029
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
1 Diesel Fuel
Topic
Internal combustion engines impose exacting demands on fuel. The fuel should
be simple, easily forming into an ignitable mixture (burn readily) without any
residue, low in weight and create large power outputs per unit volume. Fuel
should also be safe, easy to store and capable of being transported in vehicles.
Fuel produces power in a diesel engine when it is atomised and mixed with
air in the combustion chamber. Pressure caused by the piston rising in the
cylinder causes a rapid temperature increase. When fuel is injected, the fuel/air
mixture ignites and the energy of the burning fuel is released to force the pistons
downward and turn the crankshaft. A perfect fuel would burn completely, leaving
no residue or smoke products, however, there is no perfect fuel.
Diesel fuel provides the highest heat value (energy) per unit of weight, of
commonly available fuels, i.e. approximately 15% more than petrol, 37% more
than butane and 50% more than propane. This gives significant advantages
when using diesel fuel.
Fuel quality affects the performance and maintenance of any diesel engine.
Combustion Ignition (CI) engines across the full range will run on a wide variety
of fuels. These fuels can be obtained from petroleum distillates or certain
vegetable oils. Most high speed CI engines used in the automotive industry
require fuel from a limited range of light petroleum distillates.
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Fuel Properties
Fuel quality (Figure 2) can significantly affect the performance and maintenance
of any diesel engine. It is important to understand basic fuel properties to be
able to judge fuel quality. The Following properties have an impact on the
Operation of a diesel engine and its fuel handling and fuel treatment systems:
Specific Gravity (density)
Viscosity
Cloud Point
Pour Point
Boiling Curve and Vapour Pressure
Cetane Number or Index
Impurity Composition
Flash Point
Air Requirements
Carbon Residue.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (SG) of diesel fuel is the weight of a fixed volume of fuel
compared to the weight of the same volume of water (at the same temperature).
The higher the specific gravity, the heavier the fuel. Heavier fuels have more
energy or power (per volume) for the engine to use.
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Specific gravity can be measured with a special fuel hydrometer (Figure 3). The
reading on the hydrometer is an American Petroleum Institute (API) scale and is
inverse to the specific gravity. That is, the higher the API number, the lighter the
fuel. For most Caterpillar diesel engines an API reading of 35 would be optimum.
Lighter fuels like kerosene might have a measurement of 40-44 API.
The hydrometer floats in the fuel. You can note the point at which the liquid level
intersects the hydrometer scale and read the API fuel gravity.
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Engine Effects
Light Fuels
Lighter fuels like kerosene will not produce rated power. When comparing fuel
consumption or engine performance, always know the temperature of the fuel meas-
ured for correct gravity and density.
Engine fuel settings should not be adjusted to compensate for a power loss with
lighter fuels (with a density number higher than 35 API). Fuel system component life
can be decreased with very light fuels because lubrication will be less effective (due
to low viscosity).
Lighter fuels may also be a blend of ethanol or methanol (alcohol) with diesel fuel.
Blending of alcohol or gasoline into a diesel fuel will create an explosive atmosphere
in the fuel tank. In addition, water condensation in the tank can cause the alcohol to
separate and stratify (form layers) in the tank. Caterpillar recommends against such
blends.
Heavy Fuels
A heavy fuel tends to create more combustion chamber deposit formations which
can cause abnormal cylinder liner and ring wear. This problem is most noticeable in
smaller, high speed engines.
Steps to Correct Specific Gravity
Blending is the only way to correct fuel density problems.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. High viscosity means the
fuel is thick and does not flow as easily. Fuel with the wrong viscosity (either too
high or too low) can cause engine damage.
Engine Effects
High viscosity fuel will increase gear train, cam, and follower wear on the
fuel pump assembly because of the higher injection pressures needed. Fuel
atomizes less efficiently and the engine will be more difficult to start.
Low viscosity fuel may not provide adequate lubrication to plungers, barrels and
injectors, and its use should be evaluated carefully.
Steps to Correct Viscosity Problems:
− The viscosity of fuel will vary with the fuel temperature. Heating or
cooling can be used to adjust viscosity somewhat.
− Blending fuels is another way to adjust viscosity.
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The Caterpillar 3500 and 3600 Families of Engines can run on a blend of heavy
and distillate fuel. Viscosity is a key factor. Heavy fuel must be diluted or heated
until it reaches the required viscosity level before it reaches the fuel system.
Unless the engine has extremely low RPM, there is little economic benefit to
trying to treat fuel with a higher viscosity.
Steps to Correct Viscosity Problems
To handle high viscosity fuel, some additional installation requirements may be
needed, depending on the exact viscosity. The installation may require:
− Fuel tank and fuel line heating
− Centrifuging and back flush filtering
− Externally driven fuel transfer pumps
− Additional fuel filtering
− Washing of the turbocharger exhaust turbine. (3600 Family Engines).
Cloud Point
The cloud point of a fuel is that temperature at which a cloud or haze appears in
the fuel. This appearance is caused by the temperature falling below the melting
point of waxes or paraffins that occur naturally in petroleum products.
Engine Effects
The fuel’s cloud and pour points are determined by the refiner. Cloud point is
most important because it is at this temperature that fuel filter plugging begins to
occur and stops fuel flow to the engine.
Three steps can be taken to cope with high cloud point fuels.
1. Use a fuel heater when the outside temperature is below the cloud point of the
fuel. Since the cloud point is also the wax melting point, when fuel temperature
is maintained above the cloud point, the wax will remain melted in the fuel. The
heater should warm the fuel before it flows through the filter(s). Fuel heaters often
use the engine coolant to heat the fuel and prevent wax particles from forming.
When the ambient temperature is low enough to require the use of a fuel
heater, start and run the engine at low idle until the fuel temperature is high
enough to prevent wax formation in the engine fuel filter circuit. Otherwise,
high fuel rates with cold fuel will increase the risk of plugging.
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NOTE:
The fuel should not get too warm, because fuel above 52°C (125°F) will affect the
power output of the engine. Never exceed 75°C (165°F) with straight distillate fuel.
The high fuel temperatures also affect the fuel viscosity. When the fuel viscosity
falls too low, pump damage may occur.
2. High cloud point fuels can be diluted with a low cloud point fuel like kerosene.
3. The fuel manufacturer can also add flow improvers (wax crystal modifiers) to
the fuel. These do not change the cloud point of the fuel but they do keep the
wax crystals small enough to pass through the fuel filter.
Caterpillar does not recommend the use of after market fuel flow improvers
because of occasional compatibility problems.
For heavy fuels and blended fuels, see the “Blended [Heavy] Fuels” section of
this Learning Outcome.
Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is that temperature which is 3°C (5°F) above the
temperature at which the fuel just fails to flow or turns solid. Usually the pour
point is also determined by the wax or paraffin content of the fuel.
Steps to Overcome a High Pour Point Temperature
− The pour point can be improved with flow improvers or the addition of
kerosene. Fuel heaters cannot normally solve problems related to a
high pour point temperature.
Water
Water can become a contaminant if it is introduced into the fuel during shipment
or is the result of condensation during storage.
Engine Effects
Excessive water in fuel can cause fuel pump damage in those fuel systems that
use fuel oil to lubricate the pump (sleeve metering fuel systems).
Salt water is the greatest single source of fouling deposits and corrosion,
especially in high temperature areas of marine engines. Salt water can cause
fuel injector and piston ring groove deposits and wear in fuel system plunger and
barrel assemblies.
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Water Separation
Water separators are critical to fuel treatment. Any water in the fuel can cause
failure due to corrosion. Separators must be used on engines with sleeve
metering fuel systems (where fuel lubricates the fuel pump). There are two types
of water separators – the sediment type and the coalescing type.
Figure 4
The sediment type (Figure 4) is used when the water separator is installed
ahead of the fuel pump. For sediment to settle correctly, the fuel tank should be
in a location that is not subject to violent motion.
A sediment water separator does not have a filtering media in the element. It
does not normally need scheduled element replacement. The element may need
to be replaced if it is coated inside with dirt.
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The coalescing type (Figure 5) of separator must be used if the water in the fuel
is mixed or broken into small particles which do not settle. This separator is used
if particles are so fine they make the fuel cloudy.
A coalescing type separator will separate all water from fuel. It can be put
anywhere in the fuel line, such as next to the components that need the most
protection from water. The elements are composed of two-stage paper media
that are replaceable. You can tell the element is plugged when there is a lack of
fuel pressure.
Sediment
Sediment consists of such things like rust, scale, weld slag, dirt and other debris
that is often created or enters fuel tanks and causes problems. Most sediment
can be removed by settling, straining/filtration, or centrifuging. Fuels with a
higher viscosity (thicker) and higher specific gravity (heavier) often have more
sediment because the settling process is slower. As sediment increases, the
amount of usable energy in the fuel decreases.
All fuel should be clean before it reaches the fuel system in the engine. For most
distillate fuels, this cleaning process consists of a primary and secondary filter.
For heavy fuels, the process is much more complex.
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Figure 6 – Nozzle Orifice Wear. Cross section of nozzle with 3500 hours
and poor fuel maintenance. Photographic magnification 50X.
If the sediment or water for distillate fuels exceeds 0.05%, consider other
sources for fuel, or special filtration, centrifuging or settling procedures. Fuel
should be tested often for both sediment and water.
Sediment will gradually be caught in the fuel filter, but this will cause added
expense in more periodic filter changes. Very small sediment will get through
the filters and can result in fuel system wear. It is important to remove as much
sediment as possible before the fuel goes into your engine. This will reduce
the ash and particulate contamination which causes deposits, corrosion and
abrasive wear.
Allow time for sediment to settle to the bottom of the tank. The engine will use
the cleaner fuel at the top and the sediment can be drained from the bottom.
However, as the specific gravity becomes higher, the settling method of
removing sediment becomes less effective.
Engine Effects
Fibres cannot be removed except by filtering. Sludge will rapidly foul the
centrifugal purifiers. Both of these contaminants will clog strainers and fuel
filters. If fuel with sludge is used in the engine, it will cause filter fouling.
The only solution to a sludge or fibre problem is to replace (or clean) the filters
often until the contaminating fuel supply is completely used, then clean the fuel
tank and use clean fuel.
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Sludge causes:
Rapid strainer and separator plugging
Injection pump sticking
Injector deposits
Exhaust valve deposits
Turbocharger turbine deposits.
Once sludge is encountered, there are only two choices to make and both are
expensive. Either continue to burn the fuel (with higher maintenance and filter
costs), or switch fuel supply tanks, dispose of the bad fuel, and clean the fouled
tank.
Vapour Pressure
All liquids can vaporize or turn into a gaseous state when heated. If the vapour
pressure becomes too great, there can be an interruption of fuel supply to the
fuel pump. In this case, the vapour will displace the liquid fuel.
Lighter fuels and crude oils will have greater vapour pressures than heavier
fuels. An air eliminator, or vapour trap, can be used to minimise the effect of
interrupted fuel supply due to vapour lock.
The vapour is highly volatile. Safe adequate tank venting is required to eliminate
the possibility of damage to the fuel tanks, and reduce the possibility of
explosion. A vapour pressure over 20psi (140kPa) will require adequate venting.
All tanks must be adequately vented and fumes disposed of properly
Asphaltenes
Asphaltenes are components of asphalt that are insoluble in oil and hot
heptanes (alkali present in petroleum spirit), but are soluble in carbon disulphide
and benzene (a volatile liquid hydrocarbon present in coal tar and petroleum).
These are hard and brittle and are made up of long molecules with high weight.
In high concentrations, asphaltenes can cause filter plugging. They often contain
heavy metals such as nickel, iron and vanadium. An exhaust side turbine wash
is required to remove deposits. Asphaltenes are not present in distillate fuels.
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Micro-organisms in Fuel
All water and fuel offer a medium for bacterial growth. These simple life forms
live in the water and feed on fuel.
Engine Effects
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Many types of engine parts are of copper or copper alloys. It is essential that
any fuel in contact with these parts be non-corrosive to them. There are certain
sulphur derivatives in the fuel that are likely sources of corrosion.
The copper strip corrosion test is a widely accepted procedure to evaluate the
corrosive properties of oils and fuels to copper.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S), a poisonous gas, is present in some crude oil
and residual fuels. Damage to engines can occur if the hydrogen sulphide
concentration is high enough. Hydrogen sulphide content must be considered
in addition to the normal sulphur recommendations. Water vapour, which is
a product of internal combustion, can mix with hydrogen sulphide to make
a stronger, liquid corrosive-sulphuric acid (H2S04). Internal components,
particularly valve guides, piston rings, and cylinder liners, become worn more
quickly if sulphuric acid is present. Engine service life is shortened.
Steps to Help Prevent Hydrogen Sulphide Damage
− Engine oils recommended by Caterpillar have special additives in them
to neutralise these types of acid products, but sometimes this is not
enough. If analysis of the fuel shows the concentration of hydrogen
sulphide to be greater than 0.05% of the total fuel volume, then the
coolant temperature, as measured at the engine outlet, must be kept at
a minimum of 88°C (190°F). This higher temperature will decrease the
amount of water that condenses on the cylinder walls.
Fuel Sulphur
Sulphur is an element which occurs naturally in all crude oils. Heavy fuels
usually have a high sulphur content. Distillate fuels are usually lower in sulphur
content because the sulphur can be reduced or eliminated during the refining
process. Sulphur over 0.5% can severely reduce engine life unless proper steps
are taken.
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Engine Effects
When fuel sulphur damage occurs, there will be very little initial change in
engine power. Corrosive wear will lead to excessive oil consumption and blowby,
causing a premature, expensive overhaul.
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NOTE:
The best way to determine the TBN of an oil is to have an oil testing lab perform
an analysis. When time delays are unacceptable, a portable test kit is available.
Vanadium
Vanadium is a metal present in some heavy fuels. It is impractical to remove or
reduce this element at the refinery.
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Engine Effects
Vanadium in the fuel quickly corrodes hot components. It will often first appear in
the form of molten slag on exhaust valve seats (Figure 10).
Vanadium can also damage fuel injector tips and turbocharger turbine
components.
Steps to Help Prevent Vanadium Corrosion Damage
− Vanadium compounds must reach their melting point to become active.
The best corrosion control is to limit exhaust valve temperatures by
limiting the temperature of the exhaust gas. Cooler temperatures allow
an engine to tolerate more vanadium in the fuel.
Engine derating is one method of reducing exhaust valve temperatures.
Other measures (usually requiring engine design changes) are:
Using special heat resistant materials
Rotating exhaust valves (standard on Caterpillar Engines)
Special cooling of high temperature parts
Blending the fuel with low vanadium fuel will reduce the effects.
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Engine Effects
Sodium acts as a catalyst for vanadium corrosion. When sodium and vanadium
combine, they react to form compounds which melt within normal engine
operating temperatures.
Carbon Residue
The maximum carbon residue content allowable in the fuel depends on the
speed of the engine. In a higher speed engine, the combustion time is shorter
and more carbon residue can deposit. Generally, the carbon content should be
less than 3.5%.
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Engine Effects
High carbon levels can cause incorrect combustion. Hot spots on the liners, and
a burned oil film can also result. This can cause piston scuffing, cylinder liner
wear, stuck rings, turbocharger deposits and engine deposits.
Deposits cause engine fouling and abrasive wear. Deposits can form on the fuel
injection nozzles, pistons, valves and turbocharger.
Carbon can also create sludge in the fuel centrifuge (if equipped) and
prematurely plug the fuel filter. When the carbon content of the fuel is high, it is
important to clean the centrifuge and replace the fuel filters more often.
Ash
Ash consists of metal and other contaminants that cannot be burned in the
engine. These contaminants form yellow–to-beige coloured deposits on hot
metal surfaces (Figure 12).
Engine Effects
Ash deposits can cause localized overheating of metal surfaces, such as the
exhaust valve seat, eventually causing a valve failure. Ash in the fuel and ash
deposits can also result in abrasive wear of cylinder liners, piston rings, valve
seats and injection pumps, injectors and turbocharger.
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Aromatics
Aromatics are large cyclic chemical structures in the fuel that are hard to burn.
Fuels high in aromatics can create high exhaust smoke and generally have
lower natural cetane. Aromatics naturally occur in petroleum. They are called
aromatics because many of their derivatives have sweet or aromatic odours.
Olefins
Other types of hydrocarbons are formed during the petroleum refining
process. Olefins, for example, are a series of unsaturated, relatively unstable
hydrocarbons with at least one double bond in the molecular structure. The
double bond is chemically active and provides a focal point for the addition of
other reactive elements, such as oxygen. Due to the ease of oxidation, olefins
are undesirable in petroleum solvents and lubricating oils. Examples of olefins
are: ethylene and propylene.
Burning Characteristics
Crude oil is generally subdivided into products by different boiling temperatures
through a distillation process. Liquid petroleum fuels are examples of some of
the products made by this process. The process is started when crude oil is
heated in a large kettle. As the temperature rises the crude oil changes from a
liquid to a gas and rises in a large column positioned over the kettle. Products
such as gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuel are cooled back to a liquid at
different levels in the column by cooling the gas (condensation). These fuels are
collected at this point and drained off. Each of these fuels are made of several
different hydrocarbon sizes, and through a more careful distillation could be
separated further. This is done in the laboratory on small samples which show
percent of gasoline, diesel fuels, and other heavier materials that were in the
final product.
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This is known as a distillation curve (Figure 13). It will determine the burning
characteristics of the fuel, and will give an indication of the fuel’s ability to start
the engine, the power, the fuel economy emissions, and deposit formation.
The fuel supplier should know the cetane number or index of each fuel shipment.
Pre-combustion chamber fuel systems require a minimum cetane number of
35. Direct injection engines require a minimum cetane number of 40 for good
starting characteristics.
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Engine Effects
Fuel with a low cetane number (rating) usually causes an ignition delay in the
engine. This delay causes starting difficulties and engine knock. Ignition delay
also causes poor fuel economy, a loss of power and sometimes engine damage.
A low cetane number fuel can also cause white smoke and odour at start-up on
colder days. Engines running on fuels with low cetane numbers may need to be
started and stopped using a good distillate fuel.
Blended fuels or additives can change the cetane number. The cetane number is
difficult and expensive to establish for blended fuels due to the complexity of the
required test.
Using a cetane improver additive can often reduce white smoke during engine
start-up in cold weather. It increases the cetane number of diesel fuel which
improves ignition quality, and makes it easier for fuel to ignite and burn. The
cetane number sensitivity can also be reduced in an engine by raising the inlet
air temperature, if practical.
Flash Point
The flash point is the temperature at which fuel vapours can be ignited when
exposed to a flame. It is determined by the type of fuel and the fuel/air ratio. It is
important for safety reasons not for engine operating characteristics.
The minimum flash point for most diesel fuels is about 38°C (100°F).
WARNING:
For safety, maintain storage, settling and service fuel tanks at least 10°C (18°F)
below the flash point of the fuel. Know the flash point of the fuel for safe storage,
and handling, especially if you are working with heavy fuels that need heating to a
higher temperature to flow readily.
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Air
Air can be dissolved in fuel, and it can also be drawn into the fuel lines by a leak
on the suction side.
Engine Effects
Air in the fuel will cause starting problems, “misfiring”, low power and smoke
problems. Air can also cause excessive white smoke in some engines.
Abrasives
Catalytic ‘Fines’
Catalytic ‘Fines’ are small, hard particles which originate at the refinery. They are
usually composed of aluminium and silicon particles.
Aluminium and Silicon particles are contaminants from the catalytic cracking
process and can cause very rapid abrasive wear. They are usually present in
residual and blended fuels. Silicon particles can also be introduced through
improper handling and storage.
Engine Effects
Catalytic ‘Fines’ will damage your engine if they are larger than 1 or 2 microns.
These abrasive fines can damage pumps, injectors, piston rings and cylinder
liners.
Steps to Remove Catalytic ‘Fines’ from Fuel:
− Proper fuel treatment methods (centrifuging and filtration) will remove
these particles.
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Fuel Separation
When fuel is made, it must remain stable in storage. If not properly made,
incorrect stability additives are used, or if fuel gets old, it can change its
characteristics of being totally mixed to separating into components like
asphaltenes (tar like substance). This will cause rapid fuel filter plugging and low
engine power. To minimise the occurrence of fuel separation, use good quality
fuel with the correct additives from a reputable supplier, and minimise the length
of time the fuel is stored. Do not store fuel for over a year.
Fuel Storage
Diesel fuel is more prone to oxidative attack in storage and to thermal
degradation in use than gasoline because of more sulphur and nitrogen and
higher molecular weight components with higher distillation end points. The
sulphur removal process helps stabilise the fuel by reducing sediment forming
products. But the use of cracked stocks (more unstable) has created the need
for additional treatment.
Commercial diesel fuels will usually contain a variety of additives that improve or
add desirable properties. Fuel stability additives are extensively used in diesel
fuels to prevent oxidative breakdown of the fuel into gums and sediment during
storage.
But the fuel still has a storage life, which is usually limited to about one year.
Care should also be used to prevent water and other contaminants from getting
into the storage tanks to reduce the effectiveness of built-in resistance.
Galvanised containers, pipes, etc. should never be used in the handling of diesel
fuels. The zinc reacts with the diesel fuel and forms a sludge.
It is good policy for a diesel engine operator to refuel the tank at the end of
the days operation and first thing in the morning drain off contaminants before
starting the engines.
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Distillate Fuels
Description
Distillate fuels are refined from crude oil. Distillate fuels which meet Caterpillar
requirements are the preferred fuels for Caterpillar diesel engines and are more
expensive.
Experience has proven that distillate fuels meeting basic specifications will result
in optimum engine performance and durability.
Fuel Standards
Worldwide Fuel Standards 1
Table 2
The fuels recommended for use in Caterpillar diesel engines are normally
No. 2-D diesel fuel and No. 2 fuel oil, although No. 1 grades are also acceptable.
Table 2 lists worldwide fuel standards which meet Caterpillar requirements.
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Also, aviation kerosene-type fuels may be used as an engine fuel provided they
meet the acceptable limits. Table 3 lists some of the acceptable kerosine-type
fuels.
The major concern with these aviation fuels is the fuel viscosity. These
kerosene-type fuels for low temperature operation will have lower viscosity and
will not properly lubricate the fuel system components.
Fuel consumption and/or peak output will also be affected. The kerosene-type
fuels have less energy per unit volume than diesel fuels and therefore will
produce less peak power or will require more fuel volume to do an equivalent
amount of work.
Crude Oils
Description
“Crude oil” is used to describe oils/fuels that are not yet refined, and are
basically the same as they were originally pumped from the ground. Certain
types of crude oils can be burned in Caterpillar Engines. See the “Petroleum
Engines Application and Installation Guide,” Form LEBW5119, for more
information and permissible specifications.
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Because heavy fuel is the heavy residue left over from the refining process,
it has concentrated contaminants. In the best situation, using heavy fuel will
increase the workload of the operating personnel. In the worst situation, heavy
fuel could cause extremely short engine and component life. For an engine
to operate successfully on heavy fuels, it must have a thorough maintenance
program and high quality fuel treatment equipment.
Also, other fuel saving methods should be investigated. The following is a list of
some fuel saving alternatives.
More modern, fuel-efficient engines
Lower speed. (Engines can operate at 1200 rpm, instead of 1800 rpm; 1000
rpm, instead of 1500 rpm; etc.)
More efficient propeller (larger wheel with reduced pitch) or more efficient
generator or other driven unit
Waste heat recovery
Lighter blends
Use of natural gas engines instead of diesel
Crude oil instead of diesel fuel.
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Fuel Blending
Many fuel characteristics can be tailored by blending different fuels. A blended
fuel can help improve engine starting and warm-up, reduce deposits and wear,
improve emissions and sometimes have an effect on power and economy.
In general, lighter fuels are cleaner and help engine starting. Heavier fuels have
higher heating values, (per volume), better cetane quality.
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(All “Engine Data Sheets” are included in the Caterpillar “Engine Technical
Manual”, Form LE000002 [Volume I].)
Mixing Used Crankcase Oil with Diesel Fuel
LEKQ3255 (Engine Data Sheet 62.0)
Fuel Recommendations for Caterpillar Diesel Engines
LEKQ3363 (Engine Data Sheet 60.1)
Alcohol Fuels for Caterpillar Diesel Engines
LEHQ0287 (Engine Data Sheet 61.2)
Fuel Heaters for Cold Weather Operation
LEHQ0362 (Engine Data Sheet 64.5, for No. 1 and No. 2 diesel fuel only)
Installation of 8N9754 Fuel Heater Group
SEHS7653-02 (Special Instruction)
Fight Fuel Sulphur, Your Diesel's Silent Enemy
SEBD0598
Analysing Fuel Nozzle and Fuel Line Failures
SEBD0639
Oil And Your Engine SEBD0640
Using Diesel Fuel Thermo-Hydrometers
SMHS9224 (Special Instruction)
Cat@ 3600 Family of Heavy Fuel Burning Engines
LEDM8037 (Sales Brochure)
Using 2P8278 Fuel Flow Tube to Cheek for Entrained Air in Diesel Fuel
SMHS9208 (Special Instruction)
Heavy Fuel Utilisation with 3500 and 3600 Series Engines
LEKQ6107 (Engine Data Sheet 61.0)
Heavy Fuel Contaminant Levels for 3500 and 3600 Engines
LEKQ6108 (Engine Data Sheet 61.1)
Sizing Fuel System Components for Heavy Fuels
LEKQ6109 (Engine Data Sheet 61.3)
Heavy Fuel Operating Procedures for 3500 and 3600 Engines
LEKQ61 10 (Engine Data Sheet 61.4)
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Fuel Water Separator for use with 3208 and 3300 Engines equipped with
Sleeve-Metering Fuel System
LEKQ 3 3 8 3 (Engine Data Sheet 64. 1)
Fuel Conservation Practices
LEKQ4487 (Engine Data Sheet 60.2)
Petroleum Engines Application and Installation Guide
LEBW5119 (April, 1985 version).
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a non-toxic, biodegradable replacement for petroleum diesel.
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oil, recycled cooking oil and tallow. Chemically
biodiesel is described as a mono alkyl ester. Through a process called
esterification, oils and fats are reacted with methanol and a sodium hydroxide
catalyst to produce fatty acids along with the co-products: glycerin, glycerin
bottoms, soluble potash and soaps. Biodiesel belongs to a family of fatty acids
called methyl esters which are defined by the medium length, C16-18 fatty acid
linked chains. These linked chains help differentiate Biodiesel from regular
petroleum diesel.
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2 Lubricants
Topic
Lubricant Specifications
Introduction
Bearing failure, piston ring sticking, and excessive oil consumption are classic
symptoms of oil-related engine failure. How are they avoided? There are
numerous ways, three of the most important being Scheduled Oil Sampling
(S•O•SSM), regular maintenance of the lubrication system, and the use of correct
lubricants. Following these recommendations can mean the difference between
experiencing repeated oil related engine failure and benefiting from a productive
and satisfactory engine life. This topic tells the story of oil; what it is composed
of and what its functions are, how to identify its contamination and degradation,
typical consequences, and some preventive measures to help protect the engine
against the effects of oil related engine failure.
General Information
The information that is provided is the latest recommendations for Caterpillar
engines, and for Caterpillar engine compartments. Special lubricants are
required for some machine compartments, and it will be necessary to continue
to use these special products.
Gear Oil
Gear lubricants are classified by the API service classification, and by the SAE
viscosity grade that is defined in “SAE J306”.
Grease
The classifications of grease are based on the “ASTM D217” worked penetration
characteristics. These characteristics for grease are given a defined consistency
number.
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Terminology
Certain abbreviations follow the nomenclature of “SAE J754”. Some
classifications follow “SAE J183” abbreviations, and some classifications follow
the “EMA Recommended Guideline on Diesel Engine Oil”.
Caterpillar Fluids
Caterpillar fluids have been approved by Caterpillar in order to increase the
performance and life of Caterpillar components.
Caterpillar fluids that are currently used for engines and machines and are
offered by only Caterpillar dealers. Caterpillar fluids are also offered for
continued refills.
Engine Oil
Applications
D300, 3000, 3100, 3176, 3196, 3200, 3300, 3400 and 3500 series of diesel
engines.
Function
Engine oil performs several basic functions in order to provide adequate
lubrication. It works to keep the engine clean and free from rust and corrosion.
It acts as a coolant and sealant; and it provides an oil film cushion that keeps
metal-to-metal contact to a minimum, thereby reducing friction and wear. But
these are only the basic functions of oil. It is the particular demands of a given
application and the special conditions under which an oil is used that largely
determine the numerous additional functions oil must perform. These additional
functions make choosing the correct oil for the job vital.
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Base Stocks
Lubricating oil begins with base oil or base stock. Base stocks are mineral
(petroleum) or synthetic origin, although vegetable stocks may be used
for specialised applications. The base stock provides the basic lubricating
requirements of an engine. However, unless it is supported with additives,
base oil will degrade and deteriorate very rapidly in some operating conditions.
Depending on the type of base stock, petroleum, synthetic or others, different
additive chemistries are used.
Mineral Oils. Mineral stocks are refined from petroleum crude oils. The crude
oil source and the refining process will determine the base stock characteristics.
The crude oils used for diesel engine lubricants are primarily made up of
paraffin, napthene, and aromatic compounds. The crude oils with higher paraffin
content are most frequently used in blended engine oils.
Mineral base stocks are most prevalent for diesel engine oil formulation because
they exhibit proven characteristics and are readily available at a reasonable cost.
Synthetic Oils. Synthetic base stocks are formed by processes that chemically
react materials of a specific chemical composition to produce a compound
with planned and predictable properties. These base stocks have viscosity
indexes much higher than HVI mineral base stocks, while their pour points
are considerably lower. These characteristics make them valuable blending
components when compounding oils for extreme service at both high and low
temperatures. The main disadvantage of synthetics is the significantly higher
price and the somewhat limited supply. The group of synthetic oils known as
esters causes greater seal swelling than mineral oils. The possible use of
ester synthetic oils requires that component design be carefully considered
for seal and ester oil compatibility. The use of synthetic base stocks lubricants
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Additives
Additives strengthen or modify certain characteristics of the base oil. Ultimately,
they enable the oil to meet requirements beyond the abilities of the base oil.
Detergents help keep the engine clean by chemically reacting with oxidation
products to stop the formation and deposit of insoluble compounds. The
detergents in use today are metallic salts called: sulphonates, phenates,
phosphonates or salicylates.
Alkalinity Agents help neutralise acids. The detergents are also strong acid
neutralisers, changing combustion and oxidation acids into harmless neutralised
salts.
Viscosity Index Improvers help prevent the oil from becoming too thin at high
temperatures. Viscosity index improvers (VI improver) are chemicals which
“improve” (reduce) the rate of viscosity change with temperature change.
Chemicals used as VI improvers are polyisobutenes, polymethacrylates,
styrene-based polyesters, styrene-based copolymers and ethylene propylene
copolymers.
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Viscosity
Viscosity is one of the more critical properties of oil. It refers to its resistance to
flow. Viscosity is directly related to how well an oil will lubricate by forming a film
to separate surfaces that would contact one another. Regardless of the ambient
temperature or engine temperature, an oil must flow sufficiently to ensure an
adequate supply to all moving parts.
The more viscous (thicker) an oil is, the thicker the oil film it will provide.
The thicker the oil film, the more resistant it will be to being wiped or rubbed
from lubricated surfaces. Conversely, oil that is too thick will have excessive
resistance to flow at low temperatures and so may not flow quickly enough to
the parts requiring lubrication. It is therefore vital that the oil has the lowest
temperatures at which the engine is expected to operate.
Each of the viscosity grades or numbers has limits on the viscosity of the oil
at given temperatures. For viscosity grades specified with W the oil viscosity
is defined by both viscosity at 100°C and at the maximum low temperature for
cranking and pumping. In other words, the oil’s viscosity has been tested to
verify the oil’s flow under specified low temperatures. Therefore the W in an oil
viscosity grade is commonly understood to mean that the oil is suitable for winter
service. For grades without the W, the oil viscosity is defined at 100°C only.
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Table 7 indicates the viscosities for the various oil viscosity grades.
NOTE:
1. cP = 1mPa s: 1 cSt = 1mm2/s
A. All values are critical specifications as defined by ASTM D 3244
(see J300 text)
B. ASTM D 5293
C. ASTM D 4684: The presence of any yield stress detectable by this method
constitutes a failure regardless of viscosity
D. ASTM D 445
E. ASTM D 4683, ASTM D 4741, CEC-L-36-A-90
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Three new engine tests were developed for the API CH-4 oil. The first test
specifically evaluates deposits on pistons for engines with the two-piece steel
piston. This test (piston deposit) also measures the control of oil consumption.
A second test is conducted with moderate oil soot. The second test measures
the following criteria: wear of piston rings, wear cylinder liners, and resistance
to corrosion. A third new test measures the following characteristics with high
levels of soot in the oil: wear the valve train wear, resistance of the oil in plugging
the oil filter, and control of sludge.
In addition to the new tests, API CH-4 oils have tougher limits for viscosity
control in applications that generate high soot. The oils also have improved
oxidation resistance. API CH-4 oils must pass an additional test (piston deposit)
for engines that use aluminium pistons (single piece). Oil performance is also
established for engines that operate in areas with high sulphur diesel fuel.
All of these improvements allow the API CH-4 oil to achieve optimum oil
change intervals. API CH-4 oils are recommended for use in extended oil
change intervals. API CH-4 oils are recommended for conditions that demand
a premium oil. Your Caterpillar dealer has specific guidelines for optimising oil
change intervals.
(API) CG-4
API CG-4 oils were developed primarily for diesel engines that use a
0.05 per cent level of fuel sulphur. However, API CG-4 oils can be used with
higher sulphur fuels. The TBN of the new oil determines the maximum fuel
sulphur level for API CG-4 and API CF-4 oils.
API CG-4 oils are the first oils that are required to pass industry standard tests
for foam control and viscosity shear loss. API CG-4 oils must also pass tests that
were developed for corrosion, wear and oxidation.
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(API) CF-4
These oils service a wide variety of modern diesel engines. API CF-4 oils
provide more stable oil control and reduced piston deposits in comparison to
API CF and the obsolete CE and CD classifications of oil. API CF-4 oils provide
improved soot dispersion in comparison to API CF and obsolete CD oils. The
API CF-4 classification was developed with a 0.40 percent sulphur diesel fuel.
This represents the type of diesel fuels that are commonly available worldwide.
NOTE:
Do not use single grade API CF oils or use multigrade API CF oils in Caterpillar
Direct Injection Commercial Diesel Engines or in Caterpillar Direct Injection
Machine Diesel Engines.
Some commercial oils that meet the API classifications may require reduced
oil change intervals. To determine the oil change interval, closely monitor the
condition of the oil and perform a wear metal analysis. Caterpillar’s SOS oil
analysis program is the preferred method.
NOTE:
Failure to follow these oil recommendations can cause shortened engine service
life due to deposits and/or excessive wear.
LRG-1 oils will meet the needs of high performance Caterpillar diesel engines
that are operating in many applications. The tests and the test limits that are
used to define LRG-1 are similar to the new API CH-4 classification. Therefore,
these oils will meet the requirements of the low emission diesel engines.
LRG-1 oils are designed to control the harmful effects of soot with improved
wear resistance and with improved resistance to plugging of the oil filter. These
oils will also provide superior piston deposit control for engines with either two-
piece steel pistons or aluminium pistons.
All LRG-1 oils must complete a full test program with the base stock and with
the viscosity grade of the finished commercial oil. The use of “API Base Oil
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Interchange Guidelines” are not appropriate for LRG-1 oils. This feature reduces
the variation in performance that can occur when base stocks are changed in
commercial oil formulations.
LRG-1 oils are recommended for use in extended oil change interval programs
that optimise oil life. These oil change interval programs are based on oil
analysis. LRG-1 oils are recommended for conditions that demand a premium
oil.
Multigrade oils provide the correct viscosity for a broad range of operating
temperatures and can be used in other diesel engines and in gasoline engines.
See the engine manufacturer’s guide for the recommended specifications.
Compare the specifications to the specifications of Caterpillar multigrade Diesel
Engine Oil. The current industry standards for Caterpillar Diesel Engine Oil are
listed on the product label and on the data sheets for the product.
Commercial Oils
The performance of commercial diesel engine oils is based on the classifications
of the American Petroleum Institute (API). These API classifications are
developed in order to provide commercial lubricants for a broad range of diesel
engines that operate in various conditions:
EMA LRG-1 multigrade oil (preferred oil)
API CH-4 multigrade oil (preferred oil)
API CG-4 multigrade oil (preferred oil)
API CF-4 multigrade oil (acceptable oil).
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Figure 14
The Total Base Number (TBN) for an oil depends on the fuel sulphur level. For
direct injection engines that use distillate fuel, the minimum TBN of the new oil
must be 10 times the fuel sulphur level. The TBN is defined by “ASTM D2896”.
The minimum TBN of the oil is five (5) regardless of fuel sulphur level. Figure 14
demonstrates the TBN.
Use the following guidelines for fuel sulphur levels that exceed 1.5 percent:
Choose an oil with the highest TBN that meets one of these classifications:
− EMA LRG-1
− API CH-4
− API CG-4
− API CF-4.
Reduce the oil change interval. Base the oil change interval on the oil
analysis. Ensure that the oil analysis includes the condition of the oil and a
wear metal analysis.
Excessive piston deposits can be produced by an oil with a high TBN. These
deposits can lead to a loss of control of the oil consumption and to the polishing
of the cylinder bore.
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NOTE:
Operating Direct Injected (DI) diesel engines with fuel sulphur levels over 1.0
per cent may require shortened oil change intervals in order to help maintain
adequate wear protection.
Figure 15 – TBN
• (Y) TBN by “ASTM D2896”
• (2) Change the oil when the TBN deteriorates to 50 percent of the original TBN.
The Total Base Number (TBN) for an oil depends on the fuel sulphur level. For
precombustion chamber engines that use distillate fuel, the minimum TBN of the
new oil must be 20 times the fuel sulphur level. The TBN is defined by “ASTM
D2896”. The minimum TBN of the oil is five (5) regardless of fuel sulphur level.
Figure 15 demonstrates the TBN.
Use the following guidelines for fuel sulphur levels that exceed 1.5 percent:
Choose an oil with the highest TBN that meets one of these classifications:
− EMA LRG-1
− API CH-4
− API CG-4
− API CF-4.
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Reduce the oil change interval. Base the oil change interval on the oil
analysis. Ensure that the oil analysis includes the condition of the oil and a
wear metal analysis.
Excessive piston deposits can be produced by an oil with a high TBN.
These deposits can lead to a loss of control of the oil consumption and to
the polishing of the cylinder bore.
NOTE:
Operating PC engines at fuel sulphur levels over 1.0 percent may require
shortened oil change intervals to maintain adequate wear protection.
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Hydraulic Oil
Applications
Hydraulic Systems
Hydrostatic Transmissions
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Commercial Oils
If Caterpillar oils cannot be used, the following commercial classifications can be
used in hydraulic systems and in hydrostatic transmission systems:
CH-4 engine oils that have a minimum zinc additive of 0.09 per cent
(900 ppm)
CG-4 engine oils that have a minimum zinc additive of 0.09 per cent
(900 ppm)
CF-4 engine oils that have a minimum zinc additive of 0.09 per cent
(900 ppm)
CF engine oils that have a minimum zinc additive of 0.09 per cent (900 ppm)
Figure 16 – Machines with this symbol are filled with biodegradable hydraulic oil.
This symbol is located on the hydraulic tank.
The maximum recommended water content for hydraulic system that are filled
with Caterpillar Biodegradable Hydraulic Oil (HEES) is 0.10 per cent. If the water
levels exceed 0.10 per cent, the water should be removed or the oil should be
replaced.
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NOTE:
This oil is formulated for transmissions and drive trains only, and should not be
used in engines. Shortened engine life will result.
Do not use the Caterpillar Gear Oil or commercial gear oil in the machines that
are listed above. The gear oil can cause seals to fail. The seals can also leak.
The gear oil may not be compatible with friction materials. The oil can reduce the
efficiency of the transmission and the brake performance.
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Gear Oil
Applications
Direct Drive Transmissions for Pavement Profilers
Differentials and Final Drives for Wheel Tractor-Scrapers, Articulated Trucks
except for the E Series II Articulated Trucks, Wheel Type Excavators, certain
Backhoe Loaders, and Pavement Profilers
Certain Vibratory Compactor Drum Bearings.
When the use of gear oil is specified, use Caterpillar Gear Oil in order to
maximise the component life.
NOTE:
Caterpillar Gear Oil (GO) is not the same as Caterpillar Transmission/Drive Train
Oil, and does not meet Caterpillar’s specifications for TO-4 oil. Caterpillar GO or
commercial gear oils should not be used in compartments which specify TO-4 oil.
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This oil is also used in Challenger Agricultural Tractors for the implement
hydraulic system and for the steering control mechanism. Many agricultural
tractors have hydraulic systems that are common with the transmission and with
the drive train. By using Caterpillar Multipurpose Tractor Oil, it is possible to
interchange hydraulically actuated tools. This oil provides the performance that
is required of these multifunction compartments that use a single fluid.
NOTE:
Caterpillar Multipurpose Tractor OIl (MTO) is not the same as Caterpillar
Transmission/Drive Train Oil, and does not meet Caterpillar’s specifications for
TO-4 oil. Caterpillar MTO should not be used in compartments which specify
TO-4 oil.
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Synthetic base oils generally perform better than conventional oils in the
following two areas:
Synthetic base oils have improved flow at low temperatures, especially in
arctic conditions.
Synthetic base oils have improved oxidation stability, especially at high
operating temperatures.
Some synthetic base oils have performance characteristics that enhance the
service life of the oil. However, Caterpillar does not recommend automatic
extending of the oil drain intervals for any type of oil. Oil drain intervals for
Caterpillar diesel engines can only be adjusted after an oil analysis program that
contains the following data:
Oil condition and wear metal analysis (Caterpillar SOS Oil Analysis)
Trend analysis
Fuel consumption
Oil consumption.
The process that is used to make re-refined oil should adequately remove all
wear metals and all additives that are in the used oil. Vacuum distillation and the
hydrotreating of used oil are acceptable processes that are used for producing a
re-refined base oil. Filtering is inadequate for the production of high quality,
re-refined base oils from used oil.
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There are no industry standard tests that evaluate the performance or the
compatibility of aftermarket additives in finished oil. Aftermarket additives may
not be compatible with the finished oil’s additive package, which could lower the
performance of the finished oil. The aftermarket additive could fail to mix with
the finished oil. This could produce sludge. Caterpillar discourages the use of
aftermarket additives in finished oils.
Lubricating Grease
Caterpillar provides greases in order to cover a variety of applications and
extreme temperature conditions.
NOTE:
Some greases may not be used with other greases. When a commercial grease is
used, ensure that the grease is compatible with the grease that is currently used
in the system. If the commercial grease is not compatible, the system must be
purged. If any questions arise concerning the compatibility of a grease, consult
the supplier.
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Multi-purpose Greases
Multi-purpose Lithium Complex Grease (MPGL)
NOTE:
If MPGM is not available, use a multipurpose type grease which contains three to
five percent molybdenum.
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The Water and Temperature Resistant Grease is designed for use whenever the
following conditions are a concern:
Water washout
Severe corrosion
High operating temperatures.
The Water and Temperature Resistant Grease provides extreme pressure
protection, antiwear protection, rust protection and corrosion protection. The
Water and Temperature Resistant Grease is an environmentally friendly grease
which does not contain the following materials:
Antimony
Sulphur
Barium
Zinc
Lead
Phosphorous materials.
The Water and Temperature Resistant Grease has excellent shear stability.
Water and Temperature Resistant Grease can also resist breakdown in the
presence of water. The water and Temperature Resistant Grease works well in
the following applications:
Construction
Agricultural
Automotive
Industrial
Marine.
Normal operating temperatures for this product are -40 to 204°C
(-40 to 400°F).
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Desert Gold will protect equipment against heavy shock loads. Desert Gold
protects against corrosion in extreme heat, in moist conditions, or in dusty
conditions. This product has excellent characteristics of adhesion and of
stability. Desert Gold provides longer protection than other greases. Desert
Gold is an environmentally friendly grease which does not contain the following
materials:
Antimony
Sulphur
Barium
Zinc
Lead
Phosphorous materials.
Normal operating temperatures are -6 to 230°C (21 to 450°F). Desert Gold
can operate at higher temperatures for short time periods. Desert Gold has
additional extreme pressure protection for highly loaded pin joints.
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Arctic Platinum is designed for long life lubrication of the following components:
horizontal pivot bearings, lower link bearings, steering cylinders, kingbolt
bearings, upper hitch link bearings, and ejector carrier roller bearings. This
grease is extra tacky for retention on excavator car body bearings. Arctic
Platinum has additional extreme pressure protection for highly loaded pin joints.
Most brake fluids used are glycol based (not petroleum based) and are
‘hygroscopic’, which means that they absorb moisture, whether it be from within
the system or from the atmosphere if exposed.
Properties of a brake:
Viscosity. This must be suitable for all climatic conditions, so that the fluid
will flow readily at low temperatures and will not thin out excessively at high
temperatures.
Suitable boiling point. Considerable heat is generated in the braking system
and the fluid must be capable of withstanding this without boiling. If the
fluid boiled, some of the liquid in the system would turn to gas. This would
produce a dangerous condition. It would be similar to having air in the
system, because the gas would compress when the brakes were applied.
Control of rubber swell. Unsuitable fluid would cause the rubber seals to
swell. A chemical additive modifies this tendency and controls the swelling
effect. A limited swelling is allowed, as this gradually compensates for wear
of the seals.
Prevention of corrosion and attack. The fluid must have properties that
prevent corrosion of the metal parts and attack on the rubber seals. It
must also act as a lubricant to the moving parts of the master and wheel
cylinders.
Compatibility. A brake fluid should be compatible with fluids of other
manufacture; that is, one brand of fluid should readily mix with another.
Set standards are instigated to which glycol-based fluids must conform. These
include the boiling point of the fluid as well as other performance requirements.
This information is usually available from the label of the fluid container. Fluids
of the same type, which meet the same standards, can be mixed. Glycol-based
fluid and silicone fluid should never be mixed.
Care must be taken to avoid contamination of the fluid. Containers used for
brake fluid must be perfectly clean, and should not have previously been used
for oil, kerosene or any other mineral oil product. Even small traces of these will
cause the rubber seals to swell and deteriorate.
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Glycol based fluid should be changed at intervals no longer than twelve months
to ensure that moisture content is kept to a minimum and therefore high boiling
point maintained. If hydraulic brake systems are left exposed to atmosphere for
a period of time, the fluid should be replaced and the system bled. If there is
any doubt as to the age or condition of the brake fluid, it should be tested and if
necessary, a report submitted.
DOT5 brake fluid, however, is a Synthetic (Silicon) based fluid. This type of fluid
does not have the same moisture absorbing problems as glycol based fluids and
has a very high boiling point, giving it a longer operation and shelf life. The cost
of silicon based fluids and the performance characteristics place DOT5 fluids
into a limited application.
NOTE:
Do not use in compartments that use wet brake systems.
Do not use in compartments where hydraulic oil or TO-4 fluids are recommended.
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If the viscosity of the oil is changed for colder weather, also change the filter
element. If the filter is not changed, the filter element and the filter housing can
become a solid mass. Drain all hydraulic cylinders and lines. After changing the
oil, operate the equipment in order to circulate the thinner oil.
When an engine is started and operated in ambient temperatures that are below
-20°C (-4°F), use base oils that can flow in low temperatures. These oils have
lubricant viscosity grade of SAE 0W or of SAE 5W.
When an engine is started and operated in ambient temperatures that are below
-30°C (-22°F), use a synthetic base stock multigrade oil. The oil should have a
lubricant viscosity grade of 0W or 5W. Use an oil with a pour point that is lower
than -50°C (-58°F).
NOTE:
Using oils that are not recommended as first choice oils could result in shortened
life of the engine.
First Choice
Use an oil with an EMA LRG -1 Recommended Guideline or use a CH-
4 oil that is API licensed with an SAE 0W20, SAE 0W30, SAE 0W40,
SAE 5W30, or SAE 5W40 lubricant viscosity grade. A CG-4 oil that is
API licensed with an SAE 0W20, SAE 0W30, SAE 0W40, SAE 5W30, or
SAE 5W40 lubricant viscosity grade may also be used. A CF-4 oil that
is API licensed with an SAE 0W20, SAE 0W30, SAE 0W40, SAE 5W30,
or SAE 5W40 lubricant viscosity grade may also be used.
Second Choice
Use an oil that contains the CH-4, CG-4, or CF-4 additive package
although the oil has not been tested for the requirements of the API
license. The oil must have an SAE 0W20, SAE 0W30, SAE 0W40, SAE
5W30, or SAE 5W40 lubricant viscosity grade.
Transmission/Drive Train Oils
NOTE:
Use of oils that are not recommended as first choice oils could result in shortened
life to the transmission and final drive.
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First Choice
Use an oil that meets the following requirements: formulated from a full
synthetic base stock without the viscosity index improvers that meet the
performance requirements of the TO-4 specification and requirements
for SAE 30 lubricant viscosity grade. Typical lubricant viscosity grades
are SAE 0W30, SAE 5W30 and SAE 0W20.
Second Choice
Use an oil with a TO-4 type additive package and a lubricant viscosity
grade of SAE 0W30, of 5W30, or SAE 0W20 but have not been tested
against the TO-4 specifications.
Third Choice
Use API CF/TO-2 oils with an SAE 0W20, 0W30, or 5W30 lubricant
viscosity grade.
NOTE:
For maximum service life, use an oil with the highest lubricant viscosity grade
that is allowed for the ambient temperature. Refer to the tables for Lubricant
Viscosities for Ambient Temperatures in order to obtain the recommended oil
viscosity.
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Table 8
Note:
(1) First Choice: Oils of full synthetic base stock without viscosity index
improvers that meet the performance requirements of the TO-4 specification
for the SAE 30 viscosity grade. Typical lubricant viscosity grades are SAE
0W20, SAE 0W30, and SAE 5W30. Second Choice: Oils that contain a TO-4
additive package and a lubricant viscosity grade of SAE 0W20, SAE 0W30,
or SAE 5W30.
(5) Certain Wheel Type Excavators require the addition of Caterpillar Limited Slip
(LS) additive. Refer to the machine’s Operation and Maintenance Manual.
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Table 9
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(1) First Choice: Oils of full synthetic base stock without viscosity index
improvers that meet the performance requirements of the TO-4 specification
for the SAE 30 viscosity grade. Typical lubricant viscosity grades are SAE
0W20, SAE 0W30, and SAE 5W30. Second Choice: Oils that contain a TO-4
additive package and a lubricant viscosity grade of SAE 0W20, SAE 0W30,
or SAE 5W30.
(2) Except Off-Highway Trucks. For models 772 through 797 use SAE 30
viscosity grade or TMS for 0 to 50°C (32 to 122°F).
(3) Except for the hydraulic drive winch gear case. Do not use SAE 50 viscosity
grade for the hydraulic drive winch gear case. Instead, use SAE 30 viscosity
grade for 0°C (32°F) to 43°C (110°F) or TMS for -10°C (14°F) to 50°C (122°F).
(5) Commercial Biodegradable Hydraulic Oil (HEES) must meet the Caterpillar
BF-1 specification.
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Figure 17
The lubrication system for each engine may differ slightly; however, most
principles are the same. The lubrication system for the 3408 Engine is similar
to other engine lubricating systems. As shown in the schematic, the oil pump
sends oil through the oil cooler and then through the oil filters. The bypass
valves for the oil cooler or oil filters protect the system if there is a reduction
in the oil flow. When the engine is started with cold oil, or if the cooler or filter
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becomes plugged, the bypass valves assure a constant flow of oil to the engine
oil passage.
Oil from the filter flows into the block oil manifold. This oil then flows into the
various block oil passages to lubricate and cool the various engine components;
then it returns to the oil pan.
Bearings
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Figure 20 – Seized bearing which is the final stage of lack of lubrication damage
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In the second stage of damage, scuffing, the aluminium in the centre of the
bearing is displaced. The final stages of failure result in total seizure.
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In all three stages the rotating journal displaces some of the bearing material
from the crown toward the mating face of each bearing half. The amount of
displaced material will depend on how severe the lack of lubrication is.
Contamination in the oil causes abrasion and results in scratching the bearing
surface by wiping away some of the oil film (Figure 24). Particles of iron, steel,
aluminium, plastic wood, cloth, etc. can also attack the journal surface. As the
bearing and journal surfaces wear, clearances increase and oil film thickness
changes, resulting in uneven support of the surfaces.
Excessively dirty oil can cause damage even after changing oil. Some old
abrasives may remain embedded in the bearings and cause the bearings to
act like a grinder on the crankshaft. See the next section, “Minimising the
Occurrence of Oil-related Engine Failure,” for examples of crankshaft damage
Crankshafts
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The oil that flows to the bearings forms an oil film between the crankshaft journal
and bearing. Rotation of the crankshaft journal tends to force oil between the
journal and the bearing and, during normal operation, prevents metal-to-metal
contact as the pressurized oil develops.
Contaminated oil also causes excessive wear of the crankshaft. This is almost
always a result of abrasives/contamination embedded in the bearing.
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Piston scuffing, which appears in streaks on the skirt, particularly in the pin bore
area, and little or no scuffing on the first land, may be caused by inadequate
liner lubrication. Breakdown of oil film can produce seizure marks.
Piston rings can show wear in the ring groove. Some ring groove wear is normal,
but neglected oil changes will cause severe ring “lock-up” that occurs when the
ring catches in a worn groove and prevents full expansion.
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Figure 31
The heavy first and second land deposits indicate the oil can no longer keep
the piston clean (Figure 31). The extreme degradation and deterioration of the
oil may be due to extended oil change intervals or improper oil performance
classification selection.
Valves
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Most oil-related valve failures result from deposit formation or oil starvation.
The usual cause of valve stem seizure (Figure 33) is deposit collection between
the valve stem and guide. Seizure is indirectly caused by the accumulation of
deposits-contamination in the oil. More specifically, deposits accumulate from
the decomposition of lubricating products into oxidized residue and the normal
wastes generated from the combustion process. The progressive buildup of
these deposits acts to accelerate bell mouthing of the guide.
Valve stem scuffing and/or seizure can also be caused by lack of lubrication to
the valve and valve guide.
Valve seat carbon deposits can create problems if the deposits are excessive.
Some lubrication is necessary to prevent extreme wear of the valve seat
and the insert in the head. But excessive deposit formation can lead to thick
carbon build-up on the valve seat that will then break up and flake out, allowing
combustion gas leakage. This hot gas leakage (guttering (Figure 32)) allows high
temperature across the valve face with cracking and/or melting of the valve.
This type of valve failure can exist in liquid and gas fuelled engines. The carbon
formation tendency of the oil and the Sulphated ash level of the oil affect the
carbon formed on the valve seat.
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3 Scheduled Oil Sampling
Topic
Figure 34
This topic outlines the purpose and gives an overview of the Caterpillar oil
analysis program. Of particular importance are the methods to take a good
sample and these will be discussed. A good sample, which is not contaminated
with outside factors, is critical to the accuracy of the results and therefore the
success of the program (Figure 34).
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Condition Monitoring
Examples of condition monitoring activities are:
Inspection routines
Operator comments
Vibration Analysis
Onboard Monitoring Systems (VIMS)
SOS Fluids Analysis.
The SOS program is a part of an overall machine condition monitoring program.
It needs to be used in conjunction with other condition indicators. Some of
these condition monitoring activities are listed above. They will play a part in
maximising equipment life by making correct repair decisions at the right time,
based on the indications found.
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Figure 35
The following elements are considered in the wear element analysis part of the
program:
Copper
Iron
Chromium
Lead
Aluminium
Silicon
Sodium
Molybdenum.
Measurement of the quantities of these elements present in the oil sample is
conducted on an ICP Spectrometer (ICP is Inductive Coupled Plasma Electron
Emission Spectrometer) (Figure 35).
The machine measures metal particles in oil up to a size of 8 microns and the
results are given in ppm (parts per million).
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Wear Combinations
Indicators Secondary Problem Areas
Indicators
Sodium Silicon & Copper Cooling system
Silicon Iron & Chrome Dirt ingestion
Lead Iron & Copper Bearing distress
Iron Chrome & Aluminium Piston, rings & liners
Table 10
Figure 36
Wear in a compartment will produce many different particle sizes however and
many will be produced which are small enough to remain in the oil. The larger
ones are often removed by filters or screens.
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Figure 37
The FT-IR process sends a beam of light through a film of used oil (Figure 39)
and compares the light transmitted at certain wavelengths to the same oil
when new. This allows for measurement of the relative quantity of the following
products in the oil:
Soot
Sulphur
Oxidation
Nitration.
The results are quoted in percentages and Caterpillar has developed percentage
limits for an acceptable sample.
FT-IR analysis requires that a reference oil be submitted by the user as new
oils vary.
Excessive amounts of the products mentioned above in the oil are detrimental
as they cause wear to take place more rapidly than normal. Quantities of all of
these products will be present in used diesel engine oil. Oxidation products can
occur in any compartment. Soot, Nitration and Sulphur only occur in engines.
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The following table gives an indication of some of the causes and potential
problem resulting from oil deterioration.
Physical Analysis
Figure 38
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Water can find it’s way into the oil through oil coolers and water pump seals.
Water causes the oil to emulsify and resultant dramatic loss of lubrication ability.
Fuel finds its way into engine oil through leaking fuel pump seals and results in
dilution hence loss of viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of the oil thickness and is
used to determine whether the oil is too thick or too thin.
Particle count, quantifier and filtergram are used to analyse harmful debris.
The sputter test (Figure 39) involves placing a drop of oil on a hotplate that is
heated and maintained at an exact temperature. If water is present, the oil will
bubble and sputter.
Any amount of water greater than 0.5% is considered excessive and results in an
alert.
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Figure 40
Seta-Flash test (Figure 40) is used to determine if the oil contains fuel
(fuel dilution).
The oil is heated to a prescribed temperature in a closed cup and then subjected
to a flame. Fuel vapours driven off by the heat will flash if the dilution exceeds
4%, and an alert will be given.
Particle Counter
Figure 41
Figure 41 shows the Hyac Royco particle counter used by many Caterpillar
Dealers.
The machine on the right consists of rollers to keep the particles in suspension
immediately prior to testing.
A measured quantity of oil (100 ml) is drawn into a syringe. All of the sample is
pushed through a laser beam. The computer counts the particles of different
size ranges. This machine looks at all physical particles, even ones that may not
be damaging, including water and air bubbles hence the need for the particle
quantifier test.
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Particle Quantifier
Figure 42
The particle quantifier (Figure 42) gives an indication of the quantity of ferrous
particles in the oil sample. Non magnetic particles such as Silicon and copper
are lost.
The machine uses magnetic resonance and gives a result in index number that
is an arbitrary number to allow comparison between samples.
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Viscometer
Figure 43
The viscometer (Figure 43) measures the resistance to flow of the oil. Units of
measure are centistokes and this is measured at specified temperature of either
40˚C or 100˚C. The measure of viscosity is the time taken for a specified amount
of oil, at a specified temperature, to flow through an orifice with a specified
diameter.
Oil viscosity can get too low or too high in use. For example, high quantities of
soot will increase viscosity, fuel dilution will lower it.
Oil transfer between compartments can cause viscosity changes when the two
oils have different viscosity such as brake cooling oil and rear axle housing oil in
Off Highway trucks.
Filtergram
Figure 44
A filtergram (Figure 44) is used for further analysis when a sample shows a high
particle count. The filtergram collects the particles from the oil and a microscope
can the be used so that the source can be determined.
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When viewed under a microscope, even new oil contains particles as shown in
Figure 45 above.
The picture below shows some silica (dirt) which are the round shaped particles
and some general debris
The particles recovered on a filtergram are too big for the wear metal analysis
part of the SOS program. Microscopic examination (Figure 46) can identify metal
shavings, dirt, and the colour of the metal particles can be used to determine the
metal and therefore the source.
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Analysis Reports
The SOS Report
There are two aspects of an SOS Report:
1. Short term
Figure 47 an example of the short term SOS report. There are comments
(interpretation) given for each current sample based on that analysis of that
sample. The result is either good or no good. There is no trend analysis.
The basic machine data at the top right hand side of the report is essential for
the success of the program and needs to be supplied with each sample and
must be accurate.
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Figure 48
Some compartments have oil analysis done each 250 machine hours but the oil
is not changed when the sample is taken.
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Figure 49
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