Human Dentition Notes

Human dentition
Human teeth is a part of the skeletal system. It is also considered as an

associated structure of the digestive system as it helps in mastication of food. It
functions in grasping food, chewing food, articulation of speech and also
influence facial appearance. Human teeth is classified as heterodont, diphyodont
and thecodont type. It is called heterodont as there are different morphological
types of teeth like incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars compared to the
homodont teeth of lower vertebrates where all teeth are alike except for size.
Since teeth erupts twice in our life time the condition is referred as diphyodont.
Two generations or sets of teeth erupts in life time. Most deciduous teeth
emerge by the 3rd year of life. There are about 20 deciduous teeth with the
dental formula 2I,1C,2PM/ 2I,1C,2PM in each half of the upper and lower jaw.
They are also referred as primary/temporary/ milk/ lacteal teeth. Deciduous
teeth are replaced by their successors which represent successional teeth of
permanent dentition. The dental formula of permanent teeth is 2I,1C,2PM,
3M/2I,1C,2PM, 3M in each half of the upper and lower jaw. Permanent do not
have predecessors in deciduous dentition. The permanent molars are just
additional teeth. They are added as posterior teeth of the deciduous dentition
series with delayed development and eruption. From the ontogenic
(development)perspective, permanent dentition thus includes 2 types of teeth-
successional and additional. As the teeth are embedded in the sockets of the
upper and lower jaws, the condition is known as thecodont.
Structure of a tooth:
Other mammals
A tooth consists of enamel, dentin, cementum and pulp tissue. The portion of a
tooth exposed to the oral cavity is known as the dental crown, and the portion
below the dental crown is known as the tooth root. The dental pulp cavity exists
in the centre of the tooth, through which the dental pulp, called the nerve, runs.
In order to receive an impact on the tooth and to absorb and alleviate the force
on the jaw, the surface of the tooth root area (cementum) and the alveolar bone
are connected by a fibrous tissue called the periodontal ligament. The tooth is
supported by the tissue consisting of the alveolar bone, gums and the
periodontal ligament.
● Enamel: The hardest bodily tissue covering the surface of the dental crown. It is
as hard as crystal (7 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness).
● Dentin: The tissue that forms the tooth from the dental crown to the tooth root,
situated inside the enamel and cementum. It is softer than the enamel. A small
tube filled with tissue fluid, called the dentinal tubule, runs inside the dentin.
● Cementum: The tissue covering the surface of the tooth root. It connects the
alveolar bone with the tooth by the periodontal ligament. Its hardness is similar
to bone.
● Dental pulp: The tissue is called the nerve. Blood vessels and the lymph vessels,
as well as nerve fibers, are located in the dental pulp, supplying nutrients to the
dentin.
● Periodontal ligament: Tissue consisting mainly of the fibrous tissue that
connects the tooth root and the alveolar bone. It prevents force applied to the
tooth from being directly imposed on the alveolar bone while chewing food.
● Alveolar bone: The jaw bone supporting the tooth; the tooth is planted into this
bone. When a large part of the alveolar bone is destroyed by periodontal
disease or other causes, the tooth becomes loose.
● Gingiva: The soft tissue covering the alveolar bone. It is generally called
“gum”.
● Gingival sulcus: The small space between the tooth and the gums. Even people
with healthy teeth usually have a depth of 1 to 2 mm in this space. When this
space deepens due to inflammation, it is called the periodontal pocket or
gingival pocket.
Forensic significance of dentition:

From the dentition, age at death can be determined. Growth and development
rate is more predictable in sub-adults than adults, so estimating the age of death
for a sub-adult is more precise. In adults, this estimation is based on
degenerative changes of the skeleton, so the estimated age at the time of death is
broader. In sub-adults, the most important aspects analysed for determining the
age of bones are the stage of tooth formation, the presence of permanent and
deciduous teeth, the length of the bones, the stage of bone formation and
epiphyseal fusion.
Teeth begins to form before birth and continues to develop until 18-21 years of
age. Primary teeth begin to erupt at 6 months of age and most deciduous teeth
appear by the 3rd year of age. Permanent incisors and 1st permanent molars
emerge b/w 6-8 years of age. Canines, premolars and 2nd molar emerge b/w 10-
12 years of age. 3rd molar (wisdom tooth) although emerge by 18 years of age,
can also form later in life. If wisdom teeth are seen in the early stage of
development, the person was likely 18 years of age. On the other hand, if the
wisdom teeth are fully formed the person was likely older than 18 years of age.
Thus, by observing the stage of tooth formation and the presence of mixed
dentition the forensic anthropologists can estimate the age of the remains.
Bite marks:
“The criminal may lie through his teeth though the teeth themselves cannot lie”.
Bite marks analysis is based on the principle that ‘no two mouths are alike’.
Bite marks are thus, considered as valuable alternative to fingerprinting and
DNA identification in forensic examinations.
A bite mark is a mark created by teeth either alone or in the combination with
other oral structures. In other words, a bite mark may be defined as a mark
having occurred as a result of either a physical alteration in a medium caused by
the contact of teeth, or a representative pattern left in an object or tissue by the
dental structures of an animal or human.
Bite marks may be found virtually on any part of the human body. The common
sites of bite marks are face, neck, arm, hand, finger, shoulder, nose, ear, breast,
legs, buttocks, waist, and female genitals.
In cases of sexual assault, face, lips, breasts, shoulder, neck, thigh, genitals and
testicles are mostly involved.
Bite mark impression can be left on skin, chewing gum, pencils, pens and may
also be found on musical instruments, cigarettes, cigar, food material like
cheese, fruit, potato, and chocolate etc. These are encountered in a number of
crimes especially in homicides, quarrels, abduction, child abuse cases, sexual
assaults, during sports events and sometimes intentionally inflicted to falsely
frame someone. While bite marks on the body are intentionally caused, those
found on food articles are usually unnoticeably left by the offenders at the scene
of crime. In order to identify the offender, the dental casts of suspected persons
are prepared using dental material and matched. Bite marks if analysed properly
can prove the involvement of a particular person or persons in a particular
crime.
Classification:
Bite marks can be broadly classified as non-human (animal bite marks) and
those inflicted by humans. Based on the manner of causation, the bite marks can
be non-criminal (such as love bites) as well as criminal which can further be
classified into offensive (upon victim by assailant) and defensive (upon
assailant by victim) bite marks.
There are seven types of bite marks,
Haemorrhage (a small bleeding spot), Abrasion (undamaging mark on skin),
Contusion (ruptured blood vessels, bruise), Laceration (near puncture of skin),
Incision (neat punctured or torn skin), Avulsion (removal of skin), and Artefact
(bitten-off piece of body).
These further can be classified into four degrees of impressions- Clearly defined
that results from the application of significant pressure, obviously defined
which is the effect of first degree pressure, quite noticeable due to violent
pressure and Lacerated when the skin is violently torn from the body.
The following classes that are of proven significance in practical application
regarding bite marks are:
Class I: It includes diffused bite marks, which is having limited class
characteristics and lacks individual characteristics. Such as bruise, diffused bite
mark, a smoking ring or, a faint bite mark.
Class II: This pattern of injury referred to as a single arch bite or the partial bite
mark as it has some individual and some class characteristics.
Class III: This classification includes both individual as well as class
characteristics. This bite has great evidentiary value and used mostly for the
comparison purposes. The main sites for this type of bite on the body are
buttocks, shoulder, an upper arm or the chest. The pressure and deep penetration
of tissue is held to record the lingual surface of anterior teeth.
Class IV: Mainly, avulsion or laceration of the tissues is caused by the bite. In
this class, class characteristics and individual characteristics are not present.
This type of bite is commonly found where there is avulsion of an ear or finger.

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Human dentition

Human teeth is a part of the skeletal system. It is also considered as an

Forensic significance of dentition:

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