HOW DO ORGANISMS

REPRODUCE?
 BASIS OF SEXUAL ASEXUAL
COMPARISON REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION

Involvement of one
Involves only one
Meaning or two organisms or
organism.
individuals.

Organisms Involved Two parents One parents

Gamete formation
Gamete Formation Does not occur
occurs

Sex organs are No formation of sex

Sex organs
formed organs

Zygote forms
The zygote does not
Zygote through a fusion of
form.
gametes.

Higher invertebrates
Found in Lower organisms
and all vertebrates

Takes many months Completes in a very

Time Period
to complete. short period of time.
 BASIS OF SEXUAL ASEXUAL
COMPARISON REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION

Fertilization Occurs Does not occur

The offspring inherits Offspring inherits

Inheritance characteristics of characteristics of one
both parents. parent

Involvement of germ Involvement of somatic

Cells
cells of parents cells of parents

Meiosis and mitosis

Only the mitosis type of
Cell division type of cell division
cell division occurs
occurs

Offspring One or more Two or more.

Progenies will be
Progeny and parent will
Progeny genetically
be genetically similar
differenced parents
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Method of
What happens? Organisms
Reproduction

Binary Fission When the fission results in two daughter cells, it is binary Binary Fission- Paramecium,
& fission and when fission results in many daughter cells, it is Amoeba
Multiple Fission called multiple fission. Multiple Fission- Plasmodium

Fragmentation Organisms that are fragmented result in each fragment Spirogyra

growing into an individual organism.

Regeneration Regeneration occurs when an organism only re-grows a lost Hydra, and Planaria
limb or any other part of the body.

Budding A bud (outgrowth) develops due to repeated cell division, and Hydra, Yeast
develop into tiny individuals, mature, detach from the parent
body, and finally becomes new independent individuals.

Spore Formation The parent plant generates, which individually grows in a Rhizopus, Penicillium fungus.
plant. These spores are microscopic, round and grow in
suitable conditions.

Vegetative In many plants, new plants develops from the vegetative parts Potatoes, Ginger etc.
Propagation such as: by roots, stem, leaves etc.
Multiple
Fission
FRAGMENTATION
REGENERATION
BUDDING
SPORE FORMATION
 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION & TISSUE CULTURE

Buds are produced in

the notches along
the leaf margin of
Bryophyllum fall
on the soil and
develop into new
plants

● Tissues are removed

from the growing tip
of a plant to grow new
plants.

● The removed cells

grow to become
Callus.

● Callus is then
transferred to another
medium with
hormones to grow.
 REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF PLANT

● Stamens & pistil are the reproductive parts of a

flower which contain the germ-cells.

● Stamens are the male reproductive parts of a flower

● Pistil or Carpel is the female reproductive part of a

flower.
 DOUBLE FERTILISATION

Syngamy can be defined as the process of fusion of egg

nucleus with male gamete to form a diploid zygote. (2n).

Triple fusion can be defined as the fusion involving two polar

nuclei and a sperm nucleus that occurs in double fertilization
in a seed plant, giving rise to a triploid nucleus called the
primary endosperm nucleus, which later develops into the
endosperm.

PEC- Function- to provide nourishment to the plant

 FERTILISATION IN HUMAN BEINGS

1. The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during

sexual intercourse.

2. They travel upwards & reach the oviduct where they

may encounter the egg (INSEMINATION).

3. The fertilised egg (zygote) starts dividing and form a

ball of cells or embryo.
4. The embryo is
implanted in the
lining of the uterus
where they
continue to grow
and develop organs
to become foetus.
(GESTATION)

5. The embryo gets

nutrition from the
mother’s blood with
placenta.
 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

An infection transmitted through sexual contact, caused

by bacteria, viruses or parasites.
Examples: Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital herpes,
Chlamydiasis, Hepatitis-B, and HIV. etc.

PREVENTION:

● Avoid sex with unknown partners or multiple

partners.

● Using condom always.

● In case, of doubt concerning doctor for early

detection.

● Getting complete treatment for diagnosed disease.

List three techniques to prevent pregnancy. Which of them
is not meant for males? How does their use have a direct
effect on the health and prosperity of a family.
7

Methods developed to prevent pregnancy are:

a) Barrier method, i.e., use of condoms, diaphragm,etc.

b) Chemical method, i.e., use of oral pills or vaginal pills.

c) Surgical method, i.e., vasectomy and tubectomy.

Out of these methods, chemical method is not meant for

males.

Effect on health and prosperity of the family :

- Helps to keep control over number of children in a

family, which helps in family planning.

- The helps to avoid unwanted pregnancy.

Explain the difference between Mitosis & Meiosis.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

1. One division. 1. Two divisions.

2. No of chromosomes 2. No. of chromosomes

remains the same. is halved.

3. Two daughter cells 3. Four daughter cells

are formed. are formed.

4. Daughter cells are 4. Daughter cells are

genetically identical. genetically different
from the parent cells.

5. It takes place in both 5. It takes place only in

Haploid cells and diploid cells.
diploid cells.
What happens to human egg when it is not fertilised?

a) The uterus prepares itself every month to receive

fertilized egg.

b) The lining becomes thick and spongy, required to

support the embryo.

c) When fertilization had not taken place, this thing

is not needed any longer.

d) Endometrium lining slowly breaks and comes out

through the vagina as blood and mucous.

e) The cycle takes around 28 days every month &

called menstruation.
OUR ENVIRONMENT
 TERMS DEFINITION

The non-living components of an ecosystem include the physical environment the soil, water and air
Abiotic
along with the inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, etc.

A community of organisms (like plants & animals), which is made up of many different inter-dependent
Biotic
population

Food Chain A food chain is a linear chain in which the energy flows from one organism to the next.

Trophic level Position an organism occupies in the food chain. The producers form the first trophic level.

A group of several interconnected food chains, where an organism gets food from more than one group
of organisms. instead of a straight line food chain, the relationship can be shown as a series of
Food web
branching lines called a food web.

Biological Biological magnification is increase in the concentration of a chemical per unit weight of the organisms
Magnification with the successive rise in trophic level.
 PRODUCERS CONSUMERS DECOMPOSERS

1. All green plants Those organisms These are

and certain which are unable to microorganism which
blue-green algae synthesise their own feed on decaying and
which can food & consume the dead organic matter.
produce food by food produced by
the process of producers or eat
photosynthesis. other organisms as
food.

2. These are the They can be Micro-organisms which

source of classified variously break down the
nutrition for rest as: complex organic
of ecosystem. compounds into simple
They take up CO2 Herbivores; inorganic substances.
and release Carnivores;
oxygen in turn Omnivores;
into environment, Parasites Examples: Fungi, and
thus balance the bacteria
composition of
air.
 Loss of energy in an ecosystem: The 10% Law

● When one form of energy is changed to another, some

energy is lost to the environment in forms which cannot
be used again.

● The green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem capture

about 1% of the energy of sunlight that falls on their
leaves and convert it into food energy.

● When green plants are eaten by primary consumers, a

great deal of energy is lost as heat to the environment,
some amount goes into digestion and in doing work and
the rest goes towards growth and reproduction.

● An average of 10% of the food eaten is turned into its

own body and made available for the next level of
consumers.

● Therefore, 10% can be taken as the average value for

the amount of organic matter that is present at each
step and reaches the next level of consumers.
Only 10% of the energy is passed on
from one trophic level to another.
OZONE LAYER
Importance of Ozone:

- The ozone layer protects the Earth from harmful

ultraviolet rays (UV rays) which comes from the Sun.

- Without the Ozone layer, life on Earth would be very

difficult as human will start to severe diseases like skin
cancer and other genetic disorders.

- Even plants cannot live and grow in heavy ultraviolet

radiation, nor can the planktons that serve as food for
most of the ocean life.

Ozone depletion:

Ozone depletion occurs when chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and

gases which are found in aerosol spray cans and refrigerants,
etc, are released into the atmosphere.

CFCs and halons cause chemical reactions that break down

ozone molecules and leads to reduce ozone ultraviolet
radiation-absorbing capacity.
 METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL

‘Disposal of waste’ means ‘to get rid of waste’. The disposal of

waste should be done in a scientific way. There are different
methods of waste disposal/ The method to be used depends
on the nature of the waste.
Distinguish between biodegradable and
non-biodegradable pollutants.

Biodegradable Pollutants Non-Biodegradable

Pollutants

- These pollutants can be - These pollutants cannot

broken down into be broken down into
non-poisonous substances non-poisonous substances
in nature by action of by microorganisms.
microorganisms.

- They get recycled thus, do - They cannot be recycled

not need any dumping thus, require dumping
sites. site.

- These are generally - These are generally

obtained from living obtained from non-living
things. things.

- They cause minimum - They cause environmental

environmental pollution. pollution.
Describe how decomposers facilitate recycling of matter in
order to maintain balance in the ecosystem.

● Decomposers recycle energy from the dead organic

matter back to the ecosystem.

● These microorganisms breakdown the complex

organic substances of dead organisms into simple
inorganic substances that go into the soil and are
used up once more by the plants.

Decomposers thus, help in recycling of matter.

HEREDITY AND
EVOLUTION
Variation refers to the differences in the characters or traits
among the individuals of a species.

Variations are beneficial to the species because:

1. They enable the organisms to adapt themselves

in changing environment.
2. Variations form the basis of heredity.
3. They form the raw materials for evolution and
development of new species.

Reasons : Mutation (genetic changes), environmental

changes, changes occur during DNA copying, etc.
What is the difference between inherited and acquired
traits?

ACQUIRED TRAITS INHERITED TRAITS

● The traits that are ● Transferred from

acquired by an organism parents to offspring.
over the period of its
lifetime are termed as
acquired characters.

● No change in gene or
DNA. ● Occur due to change
in genes.
● Cannot pass from one
generation to another. ● Pass from one
generation to
another.
● Eg: Dancing, Swimming,
etc. ● Eg: Height, Skin,
Colour, etc.
 CROSS

MONOHYBRID CROSS:

● Crosses that study the inheritance pattern of a single

gene controlling one character

● 3 : 1 is monohybrid phenotypic ratio.

● Genotype ratio = 1 : 2 : 1

DIHYBRID CROSS:

● Two characters are considered while crossing.

● A cross in which inheritance of two pairs of contrasting

characters is simultaneously studied.

● Phenotypic Ratio (F1 Generation) : 9 : 3: 3 : 1

 MENDEL LAWS OF INHERITANCE

LAW OF DOMINANCE (FIRST LAW):

● Each character is controlled by a pair of genes.

If the pairs are heterozygous, one will always dominate

the other.

● When parents with pure, contrasting traits are crossed

together, only one form of trait appears in the next
generation. The hybrid offspring will exhibit only the
dominant trait in the phenotype.

● In this explanation, both TT and Tt are tall plants, while

only tt is a short plant. In other words, a single copy of
‘T’ is enough to make the plant tall, while both copies
have to be ‘t’ for the plant to be short.

● Traits like ‘T’ are called dominant traits, while those

that behave like ‘t’ are called recessive traits.
 MENDEL LAWS OF INHERITANCE

LAW OF SEGREGATION (SECOND LAW):

● This law explains that the pair of alleles segregate from

each other during meiosis cell division (gamete
formation) so that only one allele will be present in each
gamete.

This law is based on four basic concepts:

- A gene exists in more than one form of an allele

(different forms of given gene- T, t).

- When gametes are produced by meiosis, the allelic pairs

separate, leaving each gamete with a single allele.

- Every organism inherits two alleles for each trait.

- The two alleles of a pair are different, i.e., one is

dominant and one is recessive.
 MENDEL LAWS OF INHERITANCE

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT (SECOND

LAW):

It states that the:

● Assortment of each pair of traits is independent

of the other.

● In other words, during gamete formation, one

pair of trait segregates from another pair of
traits independently. This gives each pair of
characters a fair chance of expression.

● We can say that the allele of a gamete which is

received for one gene does not influence the
allele received for another gene.
How is the sex of the child determined during the
fertilisation step in human beings? Explain.

● Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes

(including 1 pair of sex chromosome).

● A male has one X chromosome and one Y

chromosomes, whereas female has two X
chromosomes.

● Sex of a child depends on the two conditions which

takes place during fertilisation. The two conditions
are:
●
● If a sperm carrying X chromosomes fertilises an ovum
which carries X chromosome, then the child born will
be girl. - (XX)

● If a sperm carrying Y chromosomes fertilises an ovum

which carries X chromosome, then the child born be a
boy. (XY)
 TERMS DEFINITION

Chromosomes A thread-like structure in the nucleus of the cell. It appears during cell division and it carries genes.

A functional unit of heredity. Present on chromosomes of cell nucleus. It is a piece of DNA that codes
Gene
for one polynucleotide (protein)

An inherited character, i.e. feature, which is normally inherited and has its detectable variant too. Here
Traits
tall and dwarf are traits of a character.

Allele One of the different forms of a particular gene, occupying the same position on a chromosome.

Genotype Genetic makeup of the organism.

Phenotype Is the physical appearance of the organism.

Homozygous When both the alleles of a gene are the same in the genotype, for example, TT, tt.

Heterozygous When both the alleles of a gene are different in the genotype, for example, Tt.

F1 Generation Generation produced as a result of cross fertilization.

F2 Generation Generation produced as a result of selfing or self-fertilization of F1 generation.

How does the creation of variations in a species
promote survival?

11
- The changes in the environment brings out variations
in the species.

- All the variations in the species do not have equal

chances of survival in the environment.

- The survival of the variations depends upon the nature

of variation.

- Variations enable stability to the population of various

species by preventing them from getting wiped out
during adverse conditions. Thus, variations help a
species in survival.