Process Improvement Tools
Process Improvement Tools
Process Improvement Tools
IMPROVEMENT TOOLS
1 Process Analysis
a. Process analysis is a means of linking a firm's internal processes to its overall strategy.
b. Types of Process
1) Continuous, such as candy bars produced by machinery
2) Batch, such as beer brewing
3) Hybrid, in which both continuous and batch processes are used
4) Make‐to‐stock, such as automobile assembly
5) Make‐to‐order, such as deli sandwich making
c. Process Interdependence
1) The degree of interdependence among the stages in a process is referred to as "tightness."
2) A tight process is one in which a breakdown in one stage brings the succeeding stages to a halt. This is
characteristic of continuous processes that do not have buffer work‐in‐process inventories.
3) A loose process is one in which subsequent stages can continue working after a breakdown in a previous stage.
This is characteristic of batch processes and any others with extensive work‐in‐process inventories.
d. Bottlenecks
1) Very few processes run at the precise same speed in every stage.
2) One part of the process is almost always the slowest, referred to as the "bottleneck." If capacity is added at
that point, the bottleneck simply shifts to the next slowest operation.
3) The bottleneck issue only arises when demand for the firm's product is sufficient to absorb all of the output.
When a production line is running at less than full capacity, bottlenecks can be avoided.
2. Process Value Analysis
a. Process value analysis is a comprehensive understanding of how an organization generates its output. It involves
a determination of which activities that use resources are value‐adding or nonvalue‐adding and how the latter
may be reduced or eliminated.
1) This linkage of product costing and continuous improvement of processes is activity‐based management (ABM).
ABM redirects and improves the use of resources to increase the value created for customers and other
stakeholders.
ABM encompasses activity analysis, cost driver analysis, and quality performance measurement.
2) Kaizen is the Japanese word for the continuous pursuit of improvement in every aspect of organizational
operations.
For example, a budget prepared on the kaizen principle projects costs based on future improvements.
The possibility of such improvements must be determined, and the cost of implementation and the
savings therefrom must be estimated.
b. An activity analysis determines what is done, by whom, at what cost in time and other resources, and the value
added by each activity.
1) A value‐added activity is necessary to remain in business. For example, a manufacturer would deem the
conversion of raw materials into saleable products a value‐added activity.
Such an activity may be mandated (e.g., a regulatory requirement) or discretionary. The latter produces
some changes not otherwise achievable that enables other activities to occur.
2) A value‐added cost is incurred to perform a value‐added activity without waste. Most types of direct labor
would be considered value‐added cost because the costs are being incurred to directly produce the product.
3) A nonvalue‐added activity is unnecessary and should be eliminated. The act of generating nonsalable final
products is a nonvalue‐added activity.
An example of a nonvalue‐added activity is where inventory has to be moved long distances from one
work station to another in a production process. Similarly, inventory that has to wait in line before being
processed is a waste. This is why just‐in‐time inventory systems have proved popular, because JIT
eliminates much of the waste in a production process.
4) A nonvalue‐added cost is caused by a nonvalue‐added activity or inefficient performance of a value‐added
activity. The costs of raw materials and direct labor expended on products that fail inspection would be considered
non value added costs.
Thus, managing the causes of cost results in elimination of unnecessary activities as well as greater
efficiency of activities.
c. Financial and nonfinancial measures of activity performance address efficiency, quality, and time. The purpose
is to assess how well activities meet customer demands.
To satisfy customer needs and wants, activities should be efficient (a favorable input‐to‐output ratio) so
that customers are willing to pay the prices charged.
Activities should produce defect‐free output (high quality), and that output should be produced in a
timely manner (with less resource usage and in response to customer requirements).
d. The selection of value‐added activities in each place of the value chain reflects the firm's determination of its
competitive advantage and its choice of competitive strategy.
For example, different design strategies require different activities and costs. A firm might choose to be
the low‐cost producer of an undifferentiated product rather than compete on the basis of superior
product quality.
e. One aspect of process analysis is the management of time. Product development time is a crucial factor in the
competitive equation. A company that is first in the market with a new product has obvious advantages.
Reducing development time is also important because product life cycles are becoming shorter.
Companies need to respond quickly and flexibly to new technology, changes in consumer tastes, and
competitive challenges.
3. Business Process Reengineering (BPR)
a. BPR is a complete rethinking of how business functions are performed to provide value to customers, that is,
radical innovation instead of mere improvement, and a disregard for current jobs, hierarchies, and reporting
relationships.
Technological advances have increased the popularity of business process reengineering.
b. A process is how something is accomplished in a firm. It is a set of activities directed toward the same objective.
Reengineering is process innovation and core process redesign. Instead of improving existing procedures, it finds
new ways of doing things. Thus, reengineering should be contrasted with process improvement, which consists
of incremental but constant changes that improve efficiency.
Accordingly, BPR techniques eliminate many traditional controls. They exploit modern technology to
improve productivity and decrease the number of clerical workers. Thus, the emphasis is on developing
controls that are automated and self‐correcting and require minimal human intervention.
c. The emphasis therefore shifts to monitoring internal control so management can determine when an operation
may be out of control and corrective action is needed.
Most BPR techniques also assume that humans will be motivated to work actively in improving
operations when they are full participants in the process.
d. Monitoring assesses the quality of internal control over time. Management considers whether internal control
is properly designed and operating as intended and modifies it to reflect changing conditions. Monitoring may be
in the form of separate, periodic evaluations or of ongoing monitoring.
Ongoing monitoring occurs as part of routine operations. It includes management and supervisory
review, comparisons, reconciliations, and other actions by personnel as part of their regular activities.
4. Benchmarking
a. Benchmarking is the process of measuring the performance of a system or component or process against a
known set of standards or criteria. It is describes as techniques for helping companies to improve the effectiveness
of productivity management and business process reengineering.
Benchmarking involves continuously evaluating the practices of best‐in‐class organizations and adapting
company processes to incorporate the best of these practices. It analyzes and measures the key outputs
of a business process or function against the best and also identifies the underlying key actions and root
causes that contribute to the performance difference.
Benchmarking is an ongoing process that entails quantitative and qualitative measurement of the
difference between the company's performance of an activity and the performance by the best in the
world. The benchmark organization need not be a competitor.
b. The first phase in the benchmarking process is to select and prioritize benchmarking projects.
An organization must understand its critical success factors and business environment to identify key
business processes and drivers and to develop parameters defining what processes to benchmark.
The criteria for selecting what to benchmark relate to the reasons for the existence of a process and its
importance to the entity's mission, values, and strategy. These reasons relate in large part to satisfaction
of end users or customer needs.
c. The next phase is to organize benchmarking teams.
A team organization is appropriate because it permits an equitable division of labor, participation by
those responsible for implementing changes, and inclusion of a variety of functional expertise and work
experience.
2) Team members should have knowledge of the function to be benchmarked, respected positions in
the company, good communication skills, teaming skills, motivation to innovate and to support cross‐
functional problem solving, and project management skills.
d. The benchmarking team must thoroughly investigate and document internal processes.
The organization should be seen as a series of processes, not as a fixed structure. A process is "a network
of related and independent activities linked by the outputs they exchange." One way to determine the
primary characteristics of a process is to trace the path a request for a product or service takes through
the organization.
2) The benchmarking team must also develop a family of measures that are true indicators of process
performance and a process taxonomy, that is, a set of process elements, measures, and phrases that
describes the process to be benchmarked.
e. Researching and identifying best‐in‐class performance is often the most difficult phase.
The critical steps are setting up databases, choosing information‐gathering methods (internal sources,
external public domain sources, and original research are the possible approaches), formatting
questionnaires (lists of questions prepared in advance), and selecting benchmarking partners.
f. The data analysis phase entails identifying performance gaps, understanding the reasons they exist, and
prioritizing the key activities that will facilitate the behavioral and process changes needed to implement the
benchmarking study's recommendations.
Sophisticated statistical analysis and other methods may be needed when the study involves many
variables, testing of assumptions, or presentation of quantified results.
g. Leadership is most important in the implementation phase of the benchmarking process because the team
must be able to justify its recommendations.
Moreover, the process improvement teams must manage the implementation of approved changes.
5. Balanced Scorecard
a. The balanced scorecard approach employs multiple measures of performance to permit a determination as to
whether the organization is achieving certain objectives at the expense of others that may be equally or more
important.
For example, an improvement in operating results at the expense of new product development would
be apparent using this approach.
b. The scorecard is a goal congruence tool that informs managers about the nonfinancial factors that top
management believes to be important.
As mentioned previously, measures may be financial or nonfinancial, internal or external, and short term
or long term.
c. The balanced scorecard facilitates best practice analysis.
Best practice analysis is a method of accomplishing a business function or process that is considered to
be superior to all other known methods. A lesson learned from one area of a business can be passed on
to another area of the business or between businesses.
Thus, the whole concept of benchmarking is aimed at identifying best practices.
d. A typical scorecard includes measures in four categories:
Financial
Customer
Learning, growth, and innovation
Internal business processes
6. Costs of Quality
a. Cost of quality describes four categories of costs of quality: prevention, appraisal, internal failure, and external
failure. The organization should attempt to minimize its total cost of quality.
b. Conformance costs include prevention and appraisal, which are both financial measures of internal
performance.
Prevention attempts to avoid defective output. These costs include preventive maintenance, employee
training, review of equipment design, and evaluation of suppliers.
Appraisal encompasses such activities as statistical quality control programs, inspection, and testing.
c. Non conformance costs include costs of internal failure (a financial measure of internal performance) and
external failure costs (a financial measure of customer satisfaction).
Internal failure costs occur when defective products are detected before shipment.
Examples are scrap, rework, tooling changes, downtime, redesign of products or processes, lost
output, re inspection and retesting, expediting of operations after delays, lost learning
opportunities, and searching for and correcting problems.
The costs of external failure or lost opportunity include lost profits from a decline in market share as
dissatisfied customers make no repeat purchases, return products for refunds, cancel orders, and
communicate their dissatisfaction to others.
Thus, external failure costs are incurred for customer service complaints; rejection, return, repair, or recall of
products or services; warranty obligations; products liability claims; and customer losses.
Environmental costs are also external failure costs, e.g., fines for non adherence to environmental law and loss of
customer goodwill.
To minimize environmental damage and its resulting costs, the International Organization for
Standardization has issued ISO 14000 series of standards to promote the reduction of environmental
damage by an organization's products, services, and operations and to develop environmental auditing
and performance evaluation systems.