THE FOOD HYGIENE HANDBOOK

2nd typing, final.

Introduction
Every year thousands people suffer from food-borne illness, usually involving severe diarrhea,
vomiting and stomach cramps, as a result of eating or drinking contaminated or poisonous food.
Many attacks go unreported and it is estimated that one person in fifty will be effected annually.
Some of these, especially the very young, the elderly or the infirm will die.

The cost of food poisoning can be high, not only to the country through working days lost, but
also to employers and employees engaged in food handling. The owners of premises implicated
in food poisoning will lose business and employees may lose their jobs. Food handlers who
contravene food legislation may be prosecuted and an outbreak of food poisoning could cost
firms responsible thousands of pounds in damage claims. Negligent food handlers may poison
themselves or even worse be responsible for the death of a person consuming food which they
have prepared.

Rigorous enforcement of existing food hygiene legislation is important but is not, in itself,
sufficient to prevent food poisoning. Food poisoning is normally caused by negligence or
ignorance and consequently most experts in food hygiene believe that a reduction in the current
depressing statistics can only be achieved by the education of food handlers. One mistake by an
untrained food handler in the most modern food premises can cause a serious outbreak of food
poisoning.

To be effective, principles of food hygiene should be taught systematically as an important part

of early training. Hygiene should become a way of life for all food handlers as soon as they
embark on their careers as, once ingrained, bad habits are most difficult to change.
At the end of each section a number of key questions are asked. If you can answer these
questions you will be well on the way to passing any of the current basic hygiene examinations.
More importantly, if you apply this knowledge in your food business and operate in accordance
with the principles laid down in this booklet you should not be responsible for causing a food
poisoning outbreak.

After reading this book you should:

1. Know the causes of food poisoning

2. Know how to prevent food poisoning
3. Be aware of the standards of personal hygiene required by food handlers
4. Know how to use refrigerators and freezers correctly
5. Understand stock rotation
6. Know how to dispose of waste safely and properly
7. Know the common pests found in food premises and how they can be controlled
8. Understand the correct cleaning procedures
9. Understand how food legislation affects you
Food Hygiene
Defining food hygiene

Food hygiene is more than just cleanliness; it includes all practices involved in:

1. Protecting food from risk contamination, including harmful bacteria, poisons and foreign
bodies
2. Preventing any bacteria present multiplying to an extent which would result in the illness
of consumers or the early spoilage of the food
3. Destroying any harmful bacteria in the food by thorough cooking or processing

The cost of poor hygiene

1. Food poisoning outbreaks and sometimes death

2. Food contamination and customers complaints
3. Pests infestations
4. Waste food due to spoilage
5. The closure of food premises by local authority action
6. Fines and costs of legal action taken because of contraventions in hygiene legislation, or
because of the sale of unfit or unsatisfactory food
7. Civil action taken by food poisoning sufferers
8. Loss of production and food which has to be destroyed
9. Decontamination cleaning and replacement of damaged equipment

All of these factors will contribute to a lowering of profits. If the commercial viability of the
premises is threatened, employees may loss overtime, bonuses or even their jobs. It is therefore
in the best interests of everyone involved in the preparation and handling of food to observe the
highest standards of food hygiene.

The benefits of good hygiene

1. Satisfied customers, a good reputation and increased business

2. Compliance with the law
3. Increased shelf-life of food
4. Good working conditions, higher staff morale and lower staff turnover, which promote
increased productivity

All of these factors will contribute to higher profits.

Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic organisms, often referred to as germs, which are found everywhere,
including on and in man, on food, in water, soil and air.

Most bacteria are harmless and some are essential, for example for breaking down decaying
matter, or in cheese and yoghurt manufacture. However, a small number of bacteria cause food
spoilage and some, known as pathogens, are responsible for causing illness. Several food
poisoning bacteria produce toxins (poisons) either in the food or inside the body.

The number of bacteria present in food may be used to determine whether or not the food has
been handled correctly.

It is impracticable to operate a food business without food poisoning bacteria being present at
one time or another. It is therefore essential that they are denied the conditions which would
allow them to reproduce to a level where they present a risk to customers.

Requirements for bacterial growth

Bacteria responsible for causing food poisoning need the following conditions to enable them to
grow and, in some cases, produce toxins.

Warmth

The best temperature for the growth of most food poisoning bacteria is 37°C (body temperature),
although they can grow quite quickly between 20°C and 50°C. To prevent their growth we must
ensure that the temperature of food is kept below 5°C or above 63°C. The temperature range of
5°C to 63°C is often referred to as the “danger zone”.

Food poisoning bacteria reproduce rapidly in warm food rooms, but most will not grow in a
refrigerator (1°C to 4°C) and none in frozen food (-18°C), although many will survive and
reproduce on thawing.

Some bacteria are able to produce spores which protect them against adverse conditions such as
high temperatures, drying and disinfection. Spores are a resting phase and they do not multiply.
When favourable conditions return the spore releases the bacterium which can then start to grow
and multiply.
Food and moisture

High protein foods are preferred, especially meat, poultry and dairy produce. Foods such as dried
egg or milk powder do not provide the conditions necessary for growth. However, once water or
milk is added to the powder, any bacteria present will start growing. It is essential, therefore, to
use such food as soon as possible after adding water.

Other foods which do not support bacterial growth are those containing high concentrations of
sugar, salt, acid or other preservatives.

Time

Given the right conditions of food, moisture and warmth, some bacteria can divide into two
every ten minutes. This process is known as binary fission. If there is sufficient time, a few
bacteria can multiply to such an extent that there are enough present to cause food poisoning. For
this reason it is essential that high-risk foods are not left in the danger zone for longer than is
absolutely necessary.

High-risk foods

High-risk foods are usually considered as those which support the multiplication of harmful
bacteria and are intended for consumption without treatment such as cooking, which would
destroy such organisms. These foods are usually proteins and require refrigerated storage. They
must always be kept apart from raw foods. Examples include:

1. All cooked meat and poultry

2. Cooked meat products including gravy and stock
3. Milk, cream, artificial cream, custards and dairy produce
4. Cooked eggs and products made from eggs, for example, mayonnaise
5. Shellfish and other seafoods
6. Cooked rice

All of the above are frequently implicated in outbreaks of food poisoning, especially poultry, raw
egg products and cooked meat. Unfortunately contaminated food usually looks, tastes and smells
completely normal and cannot be detected without laboratory examination.

What are bacteria, toxins and spores?

Where are food poisoning bacteria found?

What types of bacteria are important to the food industry?

What are the requirements for bacterial growth?

What are high-risk foods?

Food poisoning and food-borne diseases

Food poisoning

Food poisoning is an unpleasant illness which usually occurs within 1 to 36 hours of eating
contaminated or poisonous food. Symptoms normally last from 1 to 7 days and include one or
more of the following; abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea and fever.

Food poisoning may caused by:

1. Bacteria or their toxins

2. Viruses
3. Chemicals such as insecticides and weedkillers
4. Metals such as lead, copper and mercury
5. Poisonous plants such as deadly nightshade and toadstools

Bacterial food poisoning is by far the commonest and in some instances may result in death. A
large number of bacteria are usually involved and this requires them to multiply within the food.

Common food poisoning bacteria

Salmonella

Source Raw foods, especially meat, poultry, milk and eggs, carriers, pets, rodents,

birds, flies, terrapins and sewage.

Onset period 6 to 72 hours (usually 12 to 36 hours).

Symptoms Abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting and fever which usually lasts for 1 to

7 days.

Mode of spread Direct contact with contaminated raw food or indirectly via work surfaces,

to high-risk food utensils, wiping cloths and hands. The liquid from thawing poultry and

meat is particularly hazardous. Pests, droppings and urine can all

contaminate food. Undercooking and/or warm storage of poultry and meat

will allow survival and multiplication of salmonella if present.

Control Strict personal hygiene, segregate work areas, surfaces, utensils and

operatives handling raw and high-risk food.

Separate areas for thawing and cooling food.

Thorough cooking of food (to the centre).

Refrigerated storage.

Improve farm and slaughter-house hygiene.

Safe sewage disposal and chlorination of water.

Excluding pests and pets.

Training of food handlers and strict temperature control.

Important Some types of salmonella can cause food poisoning with very small

characteristics numbers.

Responsible for >95% of reported cases of food poisoning.*

*Excluding campylobacter

Clostridium perfringens

Source Animal and human excreta, soil (on vegetables), dust, raw meat/poultry,

flies, cockroaches and other insects.

Onset period 8 to 22 hours (usually 12 to 18 hours).

Symptoms Abdominal pain and diarrhea, vomiting is rare. Illness usually lasts 12 to

48 hours.

Mode of spread Direct contact with contaminated raw meat or vegetables or indirectly via

to high-risk food work surfaces, equipment, wiping cloths and hands. Inadequate cooking

(or reheating) followed by slow cooling is the major problem.

Control Strict personal hygiene and good hygiene practices.

Separation of raw and high-risk foods.

Strict temperature control especially thorough cooking and rapid cooling.

Training of food handlers.

Important Produces spores which protect the bacteria at high temperatures.

characteristics Can multiply every 10 minutes at around 45°C.

Does not like oxygen.

Responsible for < 5% of reported cases of food poisoning.

Staphylococcus aureus

Source Human nose, mouth, skin, boils and cuts.

Raw milk from cows or goats.

Onset period 1 to 6 hours.

Symptoms Abdominal pain, vomiting, prostration and subnormal temperatures.

Usually lasts 6 to 24 hours.

Mode of spread Usually via the hands after touching the nose, mouth, hair, septic cuts or

to high-risk food spots.

Control Avoid handling food directly.

Good personal hygiene especially regarding handwashing.

Use of waterproof dressings.

Exclude operatives with boils and septic cuts or who are sneezing and
coughing.

Rapid cooling and refrigeration of high-risk foods.

Training of food handlers.

Important Produces a toxin (poison) is difficult to destroy by normal cooking

characteristics temperatures.

Responsible for < 1% of reported cases of food poisoning.

Food-borne diseases

Other bacterial illnesses which can be transmitted via food include typhoid, paratyphoid,
tuberculosis, dysentery and brucellosis. However, unlike bacterial food poisoning, only small
numbers of bacteria are required to cause the illness; a multiplication of bacteria within the food
is not necessary.

The bacteria responsible are found, among other places, in man’s intestines and the chain of
infection is the same as that involved in food poisoning, i.e.

BACTERIA IN FAECES → TRANSFERRED VIA HANDS OR SEWAGE → TO FOOD

→ CONSUMED → ILLNESS IN MAN

Two types of bacteria causing food-borne disease which are of particular note are campylobacter,
which is responsible for more cases of illness than salmonella, and listeria which is able to
multiply below 3°C, albeit very slowly.

What are food poisoning and food-borne diseases?

What are the sources, causes and symptoms of food poisoning?

Food contamination
To prevent the consumption of unsound and unsafe food it is essential that contamination of
high-risk food is kept to a minimum.

There are three types of contamination of high-risk food:

(1) Bacterial contamination – which usually occurs within food premises because of
ignorance, inadequate space, poor design or because of food handlers taking short cuts.
Contamination of this sort is the most serious and may result in food spoilage, food
poisoning or even death.
(2) Physical contamination – by foreign bodies which may be dangerous, for example glass
or nails, but is normally unpleasant and a nuisance.
(3) Chemical contamination – from pesticides, waste or cleaning chemicals. Food should
never be stored in empty food containers.

Sources of food poisoning bacteria

(1) The person People commonly harbor food poisoning bacteria in nose, mouth, intestine
and also on the skin. Food may be contaminated directly by the hands, sneezing or
coughing, or indirectly by sewage contaminated water. All water used in food premises
should be suitably treated, for example by chlorination. The Aberdeen typhoid outbreak
was due to cans of Argentinian corned beef which had been cooled in sewage-polluted
water.
(2) Raw food Raw food is particularly hazardous, especially red meat, poultry (up to 80% of
frozen birds may carry salmonella), untreated milk, eggs and shellfish such as oysters.
Raw food should always be kept separate from high-risk food. The liquid from defrosting
foods, especially frozen poultry, must not be allowed to contaminate wiping cloths, high-
risk food or equipment used for high-risk food.
Soil harbours harmful bacteria, and care must be taken when bringing vegetables into
food rooms.
(3) Insects Several insects may transmit food poisoning bacteria to food. Flies and
cockroaches present the greatest hazard because of their feeding habits and the sites
which they visit. Flies often land on animal faeces where they pick up large numbers of
bacteria on their hairy bodies. In addition they defecate and vomit previous meals back
onto the food as they feed.
Careless use of insecticide may result in dead insects ending up in food.
Cockroaches often live in sewers and commonly feed on infected waste. They hide in the
most inaccessible places in food rooms and may carry food poisoning organisms on their
legs and bodies to food and equipment on which they walk.
 (4) Rodents Both rats and mice commonly excrete organisms such as salmonellae.
Contamination of food may occur from droppings, urine, hairs and gnawing. Food-
contact surfaces on which rodents have walked must be disinfected before use. Food
suspected of being contaminated by rodents must be destroyed.
(5) Dust There are always large numbers of bacteria in dust and floating about in the air.
Open food should always be covered when cleaning is carried out, especially dusting and
sweeping.
(6) Refuse and waste food Waste and unfit food must not allowed to accumulate in food
rooms. Care must be taken to avoid contamination of food from waste either directly or
indirectly. Food operatives must wash their hands after handling refuse. Refuse
receptacles are a favourite breeding place for flies and must always have tight-fitting lids
which are replaced after use.
(7) Animals and birds Both domestic and wild animals are known to carry harmful bacteria
on their bodies and in their intestines. Furthermore, dirt can be transferred to food from
their feet, and hairs and feathers may end up in the food. Pets must always be kept out of
food rooms. Terrapins are occasionally implicated in cases of food poisoning through
contact with infected water. Other incidents have occurred because of contamination of
food by bird droppings.

Vehicles and routes of bacterial contamination

Sometimes, harmful bacteria pass directly from the source to high-risk food, but, as bacteria are
usually static and the sources may not be in direct contact with food, the bacteria rely on other
things to transfer them to food. These things are known as vehicles and the main ones are:

1. Hands
2. Cloths and equipment
3. Hand-contact surfaces
4. Food-contact surfaces

Indirect contamination using an intermediate vehicle is by far the commonest, for example the
passage of the bacteria from the intestine of a food handler to food via the hands, after using the
toilet. Where contamination is passed from raw food to high-risk food via, for example a
worktop, this is known as cross-contamination. The path which bacteria use to transfer from the
source to the food is known as the route.
Physical contamination

Foreign bodies found in food may be brought into food premises with the raw materials or
introduced during storage, preparation, service or display.

Although there are many different types of foreign bodies, it is essential that managers are aware
of those commonly found in their particular sector of the food industry and that they exercise all
due diligence to secure their removal or prevent their introduction. Food handlers must observe
all company rules and take appropriate precautions to ensure that they are not responsible for the
contamination of food. Foreign bodies which often result in food complaints include:

1. Bolts, nuts, wire, staples and other pieces of metal – often found after maintenance and
repair work.
2. Cardboard, string and polythene – often introduced from packaging.
3. Rodents, rodent hairs, insects, feathers and droppings
4. Sweet papers and cigarette ends
5. Items from personnel such as earrings, fingernails, hair, buttons, pentops, soiled bandages
and plasters.
6. Glass
7. Cleaning materials
8. Mould
9. Wood splinters
10. Grease and oil
11. Flaking paint or rust

Food must not be exposed to the risk of contamination.

Open food exposed for sale must be covered or effectively screened from contamination.

Food must not be placed lower than 45.5cm (18″) from the ground in any yard or forecourt.

Unfit food must be kept separate from fit food.

It is an offence to sell food which is unsafe or not of the nature, substance or quality demanded
by the purchaser.

What are food contamination and what types exist?

What are the sources, vehicles and routes of contamination?

List examples of physical contaminants?

The prevention of food poisoning
In most cases of food poisoning a chain of events takes place and, if we are to reduce the
incidence of illness, this chain must be broken.

There are three main ways of breaking the food poisoning chain:

1. Protecting food from contamination.

2. Preventing any bacteria within food from multiplying.
3. Destroying those bacteria present within the food.

Protecting food from contamination by:

1. Keeping food covered wherever possible.

2. Not using unsuitable, defective or dirty equipment.
3. Not using dirty wiping cloths. Disposable cloths are preferable.
4. Only handling food when unavoidable. Tongs, plates and trays should be used in
preference to hands.
5. Separating raw and cooked food at all stages of preparation, storage and distribution. The
same equipment and working surface must not be used to handle raw and high-risk foods.
6. Preventing insects, animals and birds from entering food rooms or coming into contact
with food.
7. Storing food in rodent-proof containers and ensuring that the lids are tightly replaced
after use.
8. Maintaining the highest standards of personal hygiene at all times.
9. All food handlers wearing suitable protective clothing.
10. Not handling parts of crockery or cutlery that come into contact with food, for example
knife blades or inside glasses and cups.
11. Removing unfit or waste food and refuse promptly and keeping them apart from high-risk
food.
12. Keeping food and equipment off the floor.
13. Ensuring that the liquid from thawed frozen meat and poultry does not come into contact
with high-risk food or surfaces and equipment used for high-risk food.
14. Using the correct cleaning and disinfection procedures.
15. Not using wash-hands basins for washing food or food equipment and not using foods
sinks for hand washing.
16. Purchasing food from reputable sources.
Preventing any bacteria within food from multiplying by:

1. Storing food out of the danger zone. Food should be kept below 5°C, for example in a
refrigerator, or kept above 63°C, for example in a bain marie.

2. Ensuring that during preparation, food is within the danger zone for as short a time as
possible. High-risk food must not be left in the ambient temperatures of kitchens or
serving areas, unless in the course of preparation or needed for immediate consumption.

3. Using suitable preservatives such as salt and sugar.

4. Not allowing dried foods to absorb moisture.

Destroying those bacteria within food by:

1. Thorough cooking.

2. Heat processing such as pasteurization, sterilization or canning.

A combination of a suitable temperature and sufficient time is always required to destroy

bacteria. The time and the temperature required will depend on the particular organism. For
example, spores of Clostridium perfringens are much more heat resistant than Salmonella
bacteria.

Pasteurization of milk can be as low as 63°C for 30 minutes, whereas the canning of vegetables
requires 121°C for three minutes. Cooking temperatures of 75°C should normally be achieved at
the centre of food to ensure safety.

How can the food poisoning chain be broken?

How can the contamination of high-risk food be prevented?

How can temperature be used to prevent food poisoning?

The storage, temperature control, preparation, cooking and preservation of
food
Food storage

Correct storage of food is fundamental to the hygienic operation of any food business. Failure to
ensure satisfactory conditions of cleanliness, temperature, humidity and stock rotation can result
in problems of unfit or spoiled food, including mould, discolouration, staleness and insect and
rodent infestations.

Storage conditions should ensure that the nutritional value, appearance, taste and fitness of food
are of the highest standard. Storage areas must not be overloaded and the available space must be
taken into account when purchasing food.

All deliveries should be checked for freshness, temperature, colour, odour, contaminaton,
infestations and satisfactory packaging and labeling. Any problems should be notified to the
supervisor. As far as practicable, external packaging should not be brought into food preparation
areas.

Dry-food stores

Rooms used for the storage of dried and canned foods should be dry, cool, well-it, ventilated,
vermin-proof and kept clean and tidy. Food should be stored away from the walls and pipes
affected by condensate and off the floor on suitable shelves such as tubular stainless steel racks,
or in mobile bins. Spillages should be cleared away promptly. All goods should be inspected
before placing in storage. Problems encountered include soiled delivery trays, infestations,
damaged and leaking cartons, rusty cans and out-of-date stock. If possible, fruit and vegetables
should be stored in dry, cool, well-ventilated areas, preferably separate from other food. Fruit
should be examined regularly as mould spreads rapidly.

Canned foods

The risk from canned foods is very small compared with the number produced and this safety
record will continue it:

1. Blown cans are not used.

2. Badly-dented, seam-damaged, holed or rusty cans are rejected.

3. Stock rotation is carried out.

The shelf-life of canned foods

Months

Rhubarb, pasteurized solid meat packs (refrigerated) 9

Fruit juice, prunes, milk products 12

New potatoes, blackberries, raspberries, plums 18

Vegetables, baked beans, soups, ready-meals 24

Solid-pack cold meat products and fish in oil 60

After the above times the food will not present a health risk but there may be changes in
colour, texture, and flavor.

The storage of perishable food

High-risk and perishable foods may be contaminated by harmful bacteria which can multiply
to dangerous levels if not stored under refrigeration.

The recent trend to remove additives means that some foods must now be stored under
refrigeration when previously they didn’t need to be, for example opened bottles of tomato
sauce.

High-risk food must be kept below 5°C or in some cases 8°C

The correct use of refrigerators

The common food poisoning organisms are incapable of multiplying and producing poisons
at temperatures below 5°C. Furthermore, the spoilage of food by bacteria and mould is
reduced. As can be seen from the “ten main reasons for food poisoning”, temperature control
is the single most important factor in preventing food poisoning. Therefore, it is essential for
food handlers to receive clear instructions on the use of refrigerators to ensure that they
operate effectively.
Siting

Refrigerators should be sited in well-ventilated areas away from heat sources and the rays of
the sun.

Construction

Refrigerators should be constructed to facilitate easy cleaning. Internal linings and shelves
should be impervious and non-corroding. Door seals must be maintained in good condition
and the unit should be serviced regularly.

Operating temperature

Units should normally operate between 1°C and 4°C. A thermometer should be permanently
positioned in the warmest part of the refrigerator and the temperature checked at least three
times a day.

Defrosting and cleaning

Defrosting and cleaning should be carried out frequently in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. Units which defrost automatically should still be cleaned at least
weekly. Bicarbonate of soda (one tablespoon to a gallon of water) may be used, but perfumed
cleaning agents must not.

Packing and stock rotation

Refrigerators must not be overloaded, and food should never be placed in front of cooling
units. Only perishable foods should be stored in the refrigerator. This includes vacuum packs
and pasteurized cans of meat. Stock rotation is essential to avoid spoilage.

Hot food

Hot food must never be placed directly into a refrigerator if this would raise the temperature
of food already being stored above 5°C. It will also encourage condensation and
consequently contamination. Joints of meat should, if possible, be kept below 2 ½ Kgs (6 lbs)
to facilitate cooling within 1 ½ hours prior to refrigeration.

Contamination and covering of food

Raw food must always be kept apart from high-risk food. Separate refrigerators are preferred,
although, if in the same unit, the raw food must always be placed at the bottom. Food should
be covered to prevent drying out, cross-contamination and absorption of odour.
Open cans of food

To avoid the acid attack on opened and part-used cans, they should not be stored in
refrigerators, especially such food as fruit, fruit juice or tomatoes. The unused contents
should be emptied into a suitable container such as a covered plastic bowl.

Staff training and responsibilities

All food handlers must receive instruction on the correct use of the refrigerator and, in
particular, be told to keep the door open for the minimum amount of time. The temperature
of refrigerated deliveries should be checked on arrival.

Freezers and frozen food

Commercial freezers should operate at -18°C or slightly below. At this temperature food will
keep for a reasonable time with no bacterial growth. However, spores and pathogens will
survive and if the temperature rises above -10°C, spoilage organisms, especially moulds and
yeast, begin to cause problems.

Staff must be trained to use freezers and handle frozen food correctly. The temperature, and
packaging, of deliveries of frozen food should be checked before unloading. If the
temperature is around -18°C the food should be transferred to the freezer as quickly as
possible. Deliveries above -12°C are unacceptable. New stock should always be placed
below existing food. Food must not be stored above the freezer load line and must not be
kept for longer than recommended by the manufacturer, as the quality gradually deteriorates.
Suitable packaging is essential to avoid freezer burn.

A general guide for food kept at -18°C is:

Months

Vegetables, fruit, most meat up to 12

Pork, sausages, offal, fish, butter and soft cheese up to 6

 Thawing of frozen food

Most food taken from the freezer can be cooked immediately, but poultry and large joints
must be completely thawed before cooking. The manufacturer’s instructions should always
be followed. Thawing of raw meat/poultry must take place in an area entirely separate from
other foods which may be exposed to risk of contamination from thawed liquid. This area
must never be used for cooked food which is cooling prior to refrigeration. Thawing is best
carried out at 10°C to 15°C or in a thawing cabinet.

Thawing can also be achieved using clean cold running water, below 15°C or in an
appropriate microwave oven, although extreme care is necessary because of the risk of
uneven heating.

Thawing times in refrigerators vary considerably depending on the temperature, for example
a 1.1Kg bird takes around 70 hours at 1°C, 40 hours at 5°C and 13 hours at 10°C to reach
0°C. Before using a refrigerator for thawing, it is essential to know the temperature of the
refrigerator and the time a specific frozen chicken or other food product takes to thaw at that
temperature. Extreme care must also be exercised to avoid cross-contamination.

Rules for handling frozen poultry

1. Keep separate from other foods

2. Thaw completely in a cool room. Poultry will be ready for cooking when the body is
pliable, the legs are flexible and the body cavity is free from ice crystals

3. Remove giblets

4. Once thawed, keep in the refrigerator and cook within 24 hours

5. Cook thoroughly and cook the stuffing separately

6. All utensils and surfaces used for the preparation of raw meat and poultry must be
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before being used for high-risk food

7. Eat straight after cooking or, if the bird is to be carved cold, cool it quickly and store in
the refrigerator. As with all meats refrigerated storage is essential within one and a
half hours

8. Avoid handling the cooked bird

…………………………………………….. biger size

 THAWING AND Oven ready Approx. thawing Min. cooking time at
dd weight time at room 180°C/350°F Gas 4.
COOKING Kg (lbs) temp. hours (in oil) hours
TIMES OF
2.25 (5) 15 2½
FROZEN 4.5 (10) 18 3½
POULTRY 6.75 (15) 24 4¾
9.0 (20) 30 5¾

These are minimum times. The bird is cooked when the juices run clear.

Stock rotation

Satisfactory rotation of stock, to ensure that older food is used first, is essential to avoid spoilage.
Stock rotation applies to all types of food. Daily checks should be made on short-life perishable
food stored in refrigerators, whereas weekly examination of other foods may suffice.

Stock which is undisturbed for long periods will encourage rodent and insect infestations. Good
stock rotation has the added advantage of assisting in the maintenance of the correct levels of
stock.

Stock rotation has been much easier since the advent of open-date coding. Food handlers should
adopt their own code to identify the date of delivery of products not requiring a “use-by” date.
Remember the rule: “First in, first out”.

Most food must be labelled to indicate the “use-by” or “best before” date, together with details of any special
storage conditions, for example keep under refrigeration.

Food preparation

The observance of good hygiene practices during food preparation is an important element in
preventing food poisoning. Raw food and high-risk food should be prepared in different areas
with separate, clean equipment. Raw food should be washed thoroughly in a separate sink which
is not used for washing utensils etc. and is positioned to avoid cross-contamination of high-risk
food or clean utensils/equipment. Disposable wiping cloths should be used.

The handling of food should be minimized and it must not be left in warm, humid atmospheres.
Food handlers should work in a logical, planned manner ensuring that working surfaces are kept
as tidy as possible. Spillages and waste food should be cleared away promptly.
Cooking

Thorough cooking is important to destroy harmful bacteria, although some will produce toxins
which will withstand boiling for at least 30 minutes. Spores may also survive cooking. Although
some processed, canned and bottled food may only require reheating to make the food palatable,
raw and most frozen and chilled food will require thorough cooking. A minimum centre
temperature of 75°C will usually be required and this should be checked with a probe
thermometer. After cooking, the food should be eaten as soon as possible. Food being reheated
for immediate consumption should be heated to at least 82°C and this is a legal requirement in
Scotland.

Microwave cooking

Microwave ovens are a safe and effective method of cooking and heating food provided that
instructions are followed. The destruction of food poisoning organisms is based on combination
of high temperatures and sufficient time and it is essential to know the power (wattage) of the
oven to ensure adequate time is allowed to achieve the temperatures to ensure the safety of the
food. Food should usually be heated throughout to 75°C and this should be checked in several
places, using a probe thermometer, to guard against the possibility of cold spots. Stirring of
liquids may be required and standing time may also be necessary on completion of cooking.

If food is to be kept hot prior to serving, it must be maintained above 63°C

Serving

Serving utensils must be stored properly, especially ice-cream scoops. Food placed on tables,
such as bread rolls, must not be re-used. All plates and utensils must be clean and dry, and those
parts likely to come into contact with high-risk food should be kept in clean containers, covered
where necessary.

Customers should not be able to handle open food. Food should be pre-wrapped, covered or
protected with sneeze screens. High-risk food should be kept in refrigerated display units.
Counters in retail outlets should not be used for food storage or preparation.
Cooling

Food which is to be refrigerated should be cooled quickly and placed in the refrigerator within
1 ½ hours of cooking. It is better to use smaller joints of meats as they cool more rapidly. Liquids
should be poured into clean, shallow pans and stirred frequently. Cooling is best carried out
using a blast chiller, a cold room or an iced water bath.

Rewarming of refrigerated meat dishes is bad practice. If food is reheated, it must be cooked
thoroughly, to a core temperature of at least 82°C, for immediate consumption. Any reheated
food must be discarded, not used later.

The time between: refrigeration and cooking (or processing); cooking and eating; cooking and
refrigeration; refrigeration and serving; must be kept as short as possible.

Food preservation

Preservation is the treatment of food to prevent or delay spoilage and destroy or inhibit the
growth of pathogenic organisms which would render the food unfit. Often a combination of
techniques is used, for example cooking followed by refrigeration. Food may be preserved by the
use of:

1. High temperatures (pasteurization, sterilization, cooking and canning)

2. Low temperatures (refrigeration and freezing)

3. Dehydration (the removal of moisture)

4. Chemicals (salt, sugar, acids and sulphur dioxide)

5. Vacuum packing (sous vide)

6. Physical methods (irradiation and smoking)

Why is correct storage and stock rotation of food important?

What are the essential features of a dry-food store?

What are the important rules regarding the safe use of refrigerators?

What are the important rules relating to the storage of frozen food?

What are the risks associated with the thawing of frozen food?

What are the main risks involved with the preparation, cooking, serving and cooling of food?

What are the main ways of preserving food?

Personal hygiene
Most people carry some type of food poisoning organism at one time or another, and food
handlers have a moral and legal responsibility to observe high standards of personal cleanliness
to ensure that they do not contaminate food.

Hands and skin

As the hands are in direct contact with food, they are the main route for transferring food
poisoning bacteria. Hands must be kept very clean at all times. The correct hand washing
procedure is essential. A non-hand operated warm water spray is preferred. Alternatively the
wash hand basin should be filled with hand hot water. The hands should be wet and a liquid soap
applied. A good lather is required and the wrists, forearms and in between the fingers should all
receive attention. Where necessary, for example after visiting the toilet or handling raw food, a
clean nailbrush should be used to scrub the nails. The hands should be rinsed and dried. Efficient
drying of hands may be achieved by using disposable paper towels, which can be used to turn off
the tap, hot air dryers or continuous roller towels.

Food handlers must wash their hands regularly throughout the working day and especially:

1. After visiting the w.c.

2. On entering the food room and before handling any food or equipment.

3. In between handling raw and cooked food.

4. After combing or touching the hair.

5. After eating, smoking, coughing or blowing the nose.

6. After handling waste food or refuse.

7. After handling cleaning chemicals.

As fingernails may harbor bacteria, they must be kept short and clean. Nail varnish may
contaminate food and should not be used. People who continually put their fingers in their
mouth, for example nail biters, should not be employed as food handlers. Licking the fingers
before picking up sheets of wrapping paper is particularly bad habit.
The nose, mouth and ears

Up to 40 per cent of adults carry staphylococci in the nose and mouth. Coughs and sneezes can
carry droplet infection for considerable distance and persons with bad colds should not handle
open food. Disposable single-use paper tissues are preferable to handkerchiefs. Picking or
scratching the nose is not acceptable.

As the mouth is likely to harbor staphylococci, food handlers should not eat sweets, chew gum,
taste food with the finger or an unwashed spoon or blow into glasses to polish them. Apart from
being aesthetically unacceptable, spitting can obviously result in food contamination and is
illegal.

Discharges from the ears, eyes and nose may contaminate food and employees must report these
ailments to their supervisor. Medical clearance to start work will normally be required.

Cuts, boils, whitlows and septic spots

Cuts, spots and sores provide an ideal place for bacterial multiplication. To prevent
contamination of food by harmful bacteria and blood, these lessons should be completely
covered by waterproof dressings, preferably coloured blue or green to aid detection if they
became detached. Cuts on fingers may need the extra protection of waterproof fingernails.
Waterproof dressings will also assist in preventing cuts going septic.

Jewellery and perfume

Food handlers should not wear earrings, watches, jeweled rings or brooches, as they harbor dirt
and bacteria. Furthermore, stones and small pieces of metal may end up in the food and result in
a customer complaint.

Strong-smelling perfume or aftershave should not be worn by food handlers, as it may taint
foods, especially those with a high fat content.

The hair

Hair is constantly falling out and, along with dandruff, can result in contamination of food.
Furthermore, the scalp often contains harmful bacteria and must be shampooed regularly. Food
handlers should wear suitable head covering which completely encloses the hair. Hair-nets worn
under turbans, helmets and hats are recommended. Combing of hair and adjustments to head
covering should only take place in cloakrooms and should not be carried out whilst wearing
protective clothing, as hairs may end up on the shoulders and then in the product.
Smoking

It is illegal to use snuff and tobacco, including cigarettes, pipes or cigars, in food rooms or whilst
handling open food. Not only is this to prevent cigarettes ends and ash contaminating food but
also because:

1. People touch their lips whilst smoking and they may transfer harmful bacteria to food.

2. Smoking encourages coughing and droplet infection.

3. Cigarette ends contaminated with saliva are placed on working surfaces.

4. An unpleasant environment may be created for non-smokers. The only places to smoke in
a food premises should be the rest room.

Protective clothing

Persons handling open food, other than raw vegetables and drinks, must wear clean and washable
overclothing, preferably light-coloured without external pockets. Press studs or velcrose
fastening are preferable to buttons. Protective garments should be appropriate for the work being
carried out and should completely cover ordinary clothing. Jumper and shirt sleeves must not
protrude and, if short-sleeved overalls are worn to prevent slipping and to protect the feet.

Staff must be aware that protective clothing is worn to protect the food from risk contamination
and not to keep their own clothes clean. Dust, pet hairs and woolen fibres are just a few of the
contaminants carried on ordinary clothing. Protective clothing should not be worn outside the
food premises, not used to travel to and from work and not worn during lunch time sporting
activities such as football.

Outdoor clothing and personal effects must not be brought into food rooms unless stored in
suitable lockers. Protective clothing should not be hung in sanitary accommodation.

General health and reporting of illness

Food handlers should be in good health in all aspects from oral hygiene to general fitness. Any
food handlers suffering from diarrhoea, vomiting or a food-borne infection must not handle food.
They must notify their supervisor who must contact the local authority so that environmental
health officers can carry out investigations. Food handlers who have consumed a meal known to
have caused food poisoning or live in the same household as a confirmed case or have suffered
from diarrhoea or vomiting whilst abroad should also report to the supervisor. Food handlers
who excrete food poisoning organisms must not resume food handling duties without medical
clearance.

Person with skin infections, sores, heavy colds and ear or eye discharge should be excluded until
medical clearance has been obtained.
Hygiene education

All food handlers must receive the appropriate food hygiene education and training to ensure that
they are aware of the dangers of poor food hygiene and so that they have the knowledge to break
the chain of events resulting in outbreaks of food poisoning.

Food handlers must:

Keep themselves and their clothing as clean as practicable

Cover cuts and abrasions with a waterproof dressing

Wear clean and washable overclothing

Report to the person carrying on the food business if they are suffering from a food-borne
illness

Food handlers must not:

Use tobacco or snuff whilst handling open food or in a room containing open food

Expose food to risk of contamination

Spit

Why is personal hygiene important in preventing food poisoning?

When must food handlers wash their hands?

How can food handlers contaminate food?

When should food handlers report illness to their supervisor?

What are the important properties of protective clothing?

The construction and design of food premises

Site selection

The selection of a suitable site is most important when planning food premises. Consideration
must be given to the provision and availability of services, i.e. electricity, gas, water supply and
effluent disposal and the accessibility for delivery and refuse collection. The possibility of
flooding and pollution must also be considered.

Design of food premises

After obtaining planning permission, the following design principles should be followed:

1. Cross-contamination should be eliminated; clean and dirty processes must be separated.

Work areas should be colour coded.

2. Work flow should be continuous and progress in a uniform direction from raw material to
finished product.

3. Suitable and sufficient facilities for personal hygiene, cleaning and disinfecting
equipment and washing food must be provided, together with adequate supplies of hot
and clean, wholesome cold water. Hot water should be around 60°C, cold water less than
10°C and warm water from spray taps around 49°C. Wash hand basins should be
positioned close to work stations.

4. Adequate refrigeration, cooking and cooling facilities must be provided. Flexible gas
pipes should be used to allow movement of equipment for cleaning. Electrical supplies
should be fitted with accessible cut out switches. Trailing wires must be avoided.
Waterproof sockets are preferred.

5. The premises must be capable of being thoroughly cleaned.

6. Insects, rodents and birds must be denied access.

7. Suitable staff facilities must be provided including appropriate sanitary conveniences,

separated from food rooms by ventilated spaces. Public sanitary accommodation must be
provided in restaurants, cafes and public houses.

8. Adequate drainage capable of removing peak loads quickly without flooding must be
provided.
 9. Suitable and sufficient ventilation is necessary to ensure reasonable working conditions
and reduce temperatures and humidities. Steam and heat producing appliances require
suitable canopies.

10. High standards of lighting are necessary to facilitate cleaning and provide safe and
satisfactory working conditions. Lighting systems should not produce shadows or glare
and fluorescent tubes should be protected by diffusers.

Construction details

Ceilings

Ceilings should be smooth, fire resistant, durable, light-coloured, coved at wall joints and easy to
clean.

Wall finishes

Finishes should be smooth, impervious, non-flaking, durable, light-coloured and capable of

being thoroughly cleaned. Surfaces may need to be resistant to spoilages, chemicals, grease, heat
and impact. Internal walls should be solid, as cavities provide harbourage for pests.

Floor surfaces

Surfaces should be durable, non-absorbent, anti-slip, without crevices and capable of being
effectively cleaned. They may need to be resistant to acids, grease and salts, and should slope
sufficiently for liquids to drain to trapped gullies. The angle between walls and floors should be
coved.

Windows and doors

Windows, if present, should be fixed on north-facing walls to reduce glare and solar heat gain. If
there is a risk of infestation, opening windows must be fitted with cleansable fly-screens. Where
appropriate, external doors should be screened and doors should be self-closing.
The storage and disposal of waste

Suitable receptacles should be provided, both inside and outside food premises, for the diposal of
waste food and debris. Disposable polythene sacks or plastic bins are usually provided for
internal use and dustbins or skips for external use. Dustbins must have tight-fitting lids.
Compactors which completely enclose the refuse are preferred.

Refuse containers used internally must be emptied as frequently as necessary and always at the
end of the day. After emptying, reusable containers must be thoroughly cleaned before being
brought back into the food room. Waste-disposal unit are commonly used for removing food
debris.

Receptacles used for storage or collection of refuse should not be reused for the storage of food.
Empty food containers which are intended for reuse, for example bottles and trays, must be
protected from contamination, especially by dogs. It is preferable to store such containers in a
suitable room or well clear of the floor under a lean-to.

External refuse area must be kept clean and tidy so as not to attract rodents, birds and insects.
Receptacles must be emptied as frequently as necessary and the yard surface must be hosed
down regularly to avoid creating a nuisance. After emptying, waste receptacles should be rinse
out. Hands must always be washed after emptying refuse containers and handling waste.

Trade waste agreements should be made with the local authority or a reputable company.
Food business cannot be carried on from insanitary premises.

The structure of food rooms must be kept clean and in good condition.

Satisfactory standards of lighting and ventilation must be provided.

Food rooms must not be used as a sleeping place.

An adequate, constant supply of clean and wholesome water must be provided.

A sufficient supply of bandages and dressings, including waterproof dressings, must be provided.

Sanitary conveniences must be kept clean, well-lit and ventilated and a “Now Wash Your Hands”
notice must be displayed. Sanitary conveniences must not be used as food rooms.

Suitable and sufficient clean washing facilities, supplied with hot and cold water, must be provided for
washing food and equipment.

Suitable and sufficient clean wash-hand basins must be provided, together with hot and cold water,
soap, nailbrush and drying facilities. Wash hand basins must only be used for securing personal
cleanliness.

Suitable accommodation for outdoor clothing and footwear must be provided in premises where open
food is handled.

Refuse and waste from food must not accumulate in a food room. Adequate storage space must be
provided for waste and unfit food prior to disposal.
Equipment for food handling

Ref pg 37 text.
All equipment, working surfaces and other utensils which are used in food premises should be
designed and constructed to minimize harbourage of soils, bacteria or pests, and to enable them
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Surfaces in contact with food should be smooth, impervious,
non-toxic, non-flaking, corrosion-resistant, durable and suitable for their intended use.
Resistance to heat and attack by acid foods, such as fruit juices and milk, may need to be
considered. Cracked, chipped, broken and badly-pitted equipment harbours dirt and bacteria,
should not be used.

Food-grade stainless steel is appropriate for most equipment. Wooden surfaces should not be
used, as they are absorbent and incapable of being cleaned and disinfected. Cutting boards and
handles of knives and brushes may be made from polypropylene or other suitable synthetic
material. Tubular stainless steel is preferred to painted or galvanized angle iron.

The use of different colours or shapes as a code to ensure equipment used for raw food is not
used for high-risk food is recommended.

Where practicable, and with due regard to safety, equipment should be mobile to facilitate its
removal for cleaning. This is particularly important if sited close to walls. All guards must be
capable of being thoroughly cleaned.

Equipment and containers must be kept clean, in good condition and made from non-absorbent material. Food
containers must be protected and kept free from contamination.

How can the correct design of food premises prevent cross-contamination?

What facilities are required for personal hygiene and for cleaning food and equipment?

Why must food premises be well-constructed and kept in good repair?

What provision must be made for the safe disposal of waste?

What provision should be made for effective temperature control?

What are the important properties of food equipment?

Pest control
A food pest is an animal which lives in or on man’s food and is destructive, noxious or
troublesome. Food pests, including dogs, cats and other pets, are a source of food poisoning
organisms and must be kept out of food premises. Pests contaminate food with hair, fur,
droppings, eggs and dead bodies. Flies vomit on food during feeding and may have just left a
pile of refuse or animal faeces before visiting your premises. Food rooms must always be kept
clean and proofed against entry of pests.

The common pests found in the food industry include:

1. Rodents: rats and mice

2. Insects: flies, wasps, cockroaches, psocids, silverfish, stored product insects and ants

3. Birds: mainly feral pigeons and sparrows

Surveys:

Regular surveys of food premises must be carried out to ensure that they are pest free. In
particular, food storage rooms and dark, undisturbed areas should be examined. Signs to look for
include:

1. Live or dead bodies, including larvae and pupae

2. Droppings, or webbing from mouths

3. Damage, including gnawing marks in food, wood or plaster, holes in sacks, boxes,
packets or in the structure, chewed pieces of cardboard or paper

4. Spillages adjacent to sacks of food

5. Unusual smells – associated with mice and cockroaches in particular

6. Footprints and tails marks in dust or food powders such as flour

7. Rodents smears (black greasy marks) around pipes and holes and on walls adjacent to
runaways

8. The loss of small amounts of food

Reasons for control:

1. To prevent the spread of disease

2. To prevent the wastage of food

3. To prevent damage (fires and flooding cause by gnawing electric cables or pipes)

4. To prevent loss of custom (caused by selling contaminated food or because of the

discomfort or fear of the public using public areas of a food premises which are infested
with mice, cockroaches or wasps)

5. To avoid losing staff who will not wish to work in infested premises

6. To comply with the law

Food must not be exposed to risk of contamination and food rooms must be keep in good repair and
condition to prevent the entry of birds or risk of infestation of pests. It is an offence to sell unfit or
contaminated food and food premises which are a health risk, for example where there is an
infestation of rats or mice, can be closed. Infestations of rats or insect must be reported to the
appropriate authority.

General pest control:

Pests require food, shelter and security. Denial of these environmental factors will prevent their
survival and is the first line of defence against possible infestations. Environmental control may
be considered as denial of:

1. Access – by care in design, maintenance and proofing of buildings. Doors and windows
should be kept closed or if left open should be screened with a fine, cleansable mesh.
Doorways can be protected with hanging plastic strips or air curtains and the bottom of
wooden doors should be protected with metal plates. Access holes and other openings
should be sealed with mortar, metals sheets or mesh

2. Food and harbourage – by good housekeeping

Good housekeeping:

To reduce the risk of infestation it is important to prevent breeding and deny the lone invader the
conditions it likes and in particular to ensure that:

1. Premises and refuse areas are kept in a clean and tidy condition. Lids are always kept on
waste bins which should be washed after emptying, together with the surrounding area.
Waste must not be allowed to accumulate.

2. Food on display or awaiting preparation is always kept covered.

3. Spillages are cleared away promptly.

4. Food is stored off the floor and clear of walls to facilitate regular inspection. Stock should
be checked regularly and damaged stock removed.

5. Food is stored in rodent-proof containers and lids are always replaced.

6. All deliveries of raw materials, packaging and laundry are checked to ensure their
freedom from infestation.

7. Drains are kept clean and in good condition, a water trap is always maintained and gullies
have tight-fitting metal grilles.

8. Vegetation and other cover in the immediate vicinity of the food premises are removed.

9. Sightings of pests or pest damage are reported to management immediately.

Physical and chemical control:

Although very important, environmental control may not be entirely successful and eradication
must be achieved by using physical or chemical control methods.

Physical control methods are usually preferred as the past is caught, either dead or alive, and
consequently is not able to die in food, equipment or in some inaccessible place. Examples of
physical control include ultra-violet, electric fly-killers, rodent traps and mist nets for birds.
Sticky fly papers are unsightly but are useful in storage areas to alert you to flying insect
problems.

Unfortunately physical methods are not always successful and poisons have to be used.
Rodenticides are used to kill rats and mice, and insecticides to kill insects. Care must always be
exercised when using poisons to ensure there is no risk of contaminating food. Food and small
utensils must always be removed when using insecticide, especially sprays, and the premises and
fixed equipment must be thoroughly cleaned after use. Infestations of food premises should be
dealt with immediately and food handlers should seek assistance from the local authority or
specialist contractor. The control of cockroaches or stored product insects is particularly difficult
and requires an expert pest control operator.

What is a food pest?

Why must pests be kept out of food premises?

What are the signs of an infestation of food pests?

How can pests be controlled in food premises?

How can pests be kept out of food premises?

Cleaning and disinfection

Ref. pg 44 text.
Soiling of surfaces and equipment is unavoidable in all food business. It is essential that such
residues are not allowed to accumulate to levels which expose food to risk of contamination.
Removal of food residues, dirt and grease is the process of cleaning.

The reasons for cleaning

1. To remove matter on which bacteria would grow, thus reducing the risk of food
poisoning and spoilage.

2. To allow disinfection* of specific equipment and surfaces.

3. To remove materials which would encourage pest infestations.

4. To reduce the risk of foreign matter contamination.

5. To ensure a pleasant and safe working environment.

6. To comply with the law.

Energy in cleaning

Cleaning is the application of energy to a surface, with the intention of removing dirt and grease.

Energy is applied as:

Physical, for example scrubbing.

Heat, for example hot water.

Chemical, for example detergent.**

Improving chemical energy and increasing heat will reduce the amount of physical energy
required.

After cleaning, disinfectants*** are used to destroy bacteria that remain. Hot water, around
82°C, steam and bleach are the commonest disinfectants. Chemical disinfectants need time to
work and an appropriate contact time is essential.

*disinfection – the reduction of microorganisms to a level that is safe and which will not cause premature food
spoilage.
*detergent - a chemical used to remove grease, dirt and food particles.

*disinfectant – a chemical used for disinfection.

Effective cleaning

To be effective, cleaning must be planned. A schedule which stipulates the frequency, method of
cleaning, the amount and type of chemical to use and the person responsible, must be drawn up
and implemented.

Staff must be trained to “clean as they go” and they must always have regard to the provision of
health and safety. Suitable protective clothing must be worn and the chemical manufacturer’s
instructions must always be followed. Some chemicals can be very dangerous if mixed. Open
food must not be exposed to risk of contamination during cleaning.

Chemicals must always be stored separate from food and should never be emptied into unmarked
or food containers, especially bottles.

After use the cleaning equipment itself must be cleaned and dried. Brushes and mops should be
hung off the floor in non-food rooms or cupboards. Cleaning equipment used in toilets must not
be used in food rooms.

Where to disinfect

Although food rooms and equipment need to be regularly and thoroughly cleaned, not everything
requires disinfecting. Food contact surfaces and equipment, cutting boards, slicing machines,
utensils, handles on drawers and refrigerators will need cleaning and disinfecting, often several
times throughout the day and always following the use of raw food before high-risk food is
prepared.

Walls, floors, drains and equipment legs require through cleaning and degreasing but are
unlikely to require disinfection, unless there is a risk of food contamination. Ovens and similar
devices which use high temperatures to destroy bacteria do not require disinfection.

The cleaning procedure

Cleaning and disinfection normally consists of six basic stages:

1. Pre-clean: removing excess soil by sweeping, wiping or pre-rinsing.

2. Main clean: loosening of the surface grease and dirt using a detergent.

3. Rinse: removal of loose dirt and detergent.

4. Disinfection: destroying micro-organisms using, for example bleach.

5. Final rinse: removal of disinfectant.

 6. Drying: preferably natural by evaporating dry.

In light-soil conditions the pre-clean may be combined with the main clean. Soiled water must be
changed as frequently as necessary. If air drying is not possible, single-use paper towels or a
clean, dry cloth should be used.

Double-sink washing

Although the use of mechanical dishwashers and glasswashers is becoming more common,
double-sink washing is recommended when suitable dishwashing machines are not available.
The following procedure should be followed:

1. Remove any heavy or loose soil by scraping and rinsing in cold water.

2. Place articles in the first sink in detergent solution at 50°C to 60°C, scrub with a nylon
brush and/or wipe with a clean cloth to loosen dirt residues. Rubber gloves will be
required. Cool or dirty water should be replaced.

3. Re-immerse in the first sink to wash off loosened dirt.

4. Place articles in the second sink to rinse off chemical residues.

5. Leave for 30 seconds at 82°C to achieve disinfection.

6. Remove the articles, allow to drain and air dry on a clean, disinfected surface. After
drying, store in a clean place free from contamination.

Why is it important to clean food premises and equipment regularly?

What is the difference between cleaning and disinfection?

What are the six basic stages in cleaning and disinfection?

The law relating to food and food hygiene
The law is a complex subject and most acts and regulations affecting the food industry are
difficult to comprehend. However, ignorance of the law is no defence in the event of a
prosecution, and all food handlers should make special efforts to understand the legislation that
affects their business and themselves. This book contains only very brief details of some this
legislation and more information may be obtained from the local environmental health officer.

Acts and regulations applicable to the food industry are concerned with:

1. The production or sale of injuries, unsafe, unfit or substandard food.

2. The contamination of food.

3. The hygiene of food premises, equipment and personnel.

4. Hygiene practices, including temperature control and treatment.

5. The control of food poisoning and food-borne diseases.

6. The composition and labeling of food.

Food Safety Act, 1990

This is the most important Act relating to the sale of food for human consumption. It contains
comprehensive provisions for securing food safety and empowers Ministers to make extensive hygiene
regulations. The provisions of the Act are applicable to all food businesses in England, Scotland and
Wales.

In Northern Ireland, the Food Safety (Northern Ireland) Order, 1991 applies.

It is an offence to render food injurious to health or to sell food which fails to comply with the
food safety requirements by reason of it being injurious to health, unfit or so contaminated that it
would be unreasonable to use it for human consumption.

An offence is also committed if food is sold which is not of the nature, substance or quality
demanded by the purchaser. Legal action can be taken if food is falsely described or labelled.

Food which fails to comply with the food safety requirements or which is likely to cause food
poisoning may be seized or detained by an authorised officer of a food authority. Expenses
incurred in the destruction of food must be paid by the owner, although wrongful seizure can
result in compensation.

A person found guilty of the above offences may be liable to a fine of up to £20,000 and/or
imprisonment for up to six months, although in serious cases unlimited fines and up to two years
imprisonment may be incurred.

Failure to comply with food hygiene regulations may result in the service of an improvement
notice specifying the contraventions, the measures necessary to secure compliance and the time
allowed for compliance. Failure to comply with the improvement notice is an offence.

When an authorised officer is satisfied that there is an imminent risk of injury to health he may
issue an emergency prohibition notice which requires the closure of all or part of food premises
or the immediate prohibition of a process or use of equipment. An application must be made to
the court for an emergency prohibition order within three days of serving the notice.

The court may also impose a prohibition on the proprietor or manager participating in the
management of any food business.

It is a defence for a person to prove that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due
diligence to avoid the commission of an offence by himself or by a person under his control.

Insanitary premises can be closed

Due diligence

Due diligence is the principle defence under the Food Safety Act, 1990 and enables a defendant
to be acquitted of an offence if they prove that they “took all reasonable precautions and
exercised all due diligence to avoid committing the offence”. Taking reasonable precautions
involves setting up system of procedures and controls, having regard to the likely risks, and due
diligence requires the system to be operated properly. Written records will be essential and
should include reference to specifications, training, testing, cleaning schedules and codes of
practice.

Quality assurance and accreditation under British Standard 5750 will be beneficial but will not
guarantee the success of a due diligence defence. A written warranty from a supplier will be
useful but is no longer an absolute defence.

It may be acceptable for food operator to prove that someone else, not under their control, was
responsible, that they were relying on information provided, that reasonable checks were made,
there was no reason to suspect they were committing an offence and they could not reasonably
know that an offence was being committed.
The Food Hygiene (General) Regulations, 1970

These Regulations are used to control the standards of hygiene within food premises other than
those which are covered by specific regulations such as dairies and slaughterhouses.

The Regulations contribute to the prevention of food poisoning by reference to the prevention of
contamination, personal hygiene, cleanliness and the provision of facilities. They may be divided
into the following sections:

1. Premises must be kept in good repair, clean and proofed against the entry of pests. Food
rooms must have satisfactory standards of lighting and ventilation, and refuse and filth
must not be allowed to accumulate in these rooms.

2. Equipment must be made of non-absorbent material, maintained in good condition and

kept clean. This also applies to food containers.

3. Food handlers must keep clean, cover cuts with waterproof dressings, wear suitable,
clean protective overclothing, must not smoke or spit and must report to the person
carrying on the food business if they are suffering from food poisoning or food-borne
disease. (The employer must inform the local authority).

4. Washing facilities –wash-hand basins for securing personal cleanliness, and sinks for
washing food or equipment must be provided and kept in a clean condition. Soap,
nailbrush and drying facilities must be provided at the wash-hand basin. Hot and cold
water or hot water at a suitably controlled temperature must be supplied to both types of
unit.

5. Services – a satisfactory supply of water, first-aid materials and accommodation for

outdoor clothing must be provided. Sanitary conveniences must be well-lighted and
ventilated and kept clean.

6. Practices include restrictions on exposing food to risk of contamination. In addition,

high-risk foods must be kept out of the danger zone of temperature. Open food exposed
for sale must be covered.

7. Penalties – offences are punishable, on conviction, by a fine of up to £5,000 for each

offence. In serious cases a sentence of up to two years imprisonment and unlimited fines
may be imposed.
Food Hygiene (Amendment) Regulations, 1990/1991

These Regulation require all “relevant foods” (including soft cheeses, cooked meat, fish, eggs,
cheese, cereals, pulses, vegetables, milk desserts with a pH value of 4.5 or more, prepared
vegetable salads, sandwiches containing relevant foods, cream and artificial cream cakes and
meat, fish, cheese or vegetable pies) to be kept at or below 8°C or at or above 63°C. From 1 st
April 1993, 5°C will be substituted for 8°C for the storage of the highest risk relevant foods.

Certain foods may be stored above 8°C provided they are sold on the day of production or the
following day. Some exemptions are also allowed for foods intended to be sold within four hours
of preparation and a 2°C allowance for up to two hours is available to facilitate certain operations
such as a process of preparation, defrosting of equipment or a temporary breakdown of
equipment.

The Food Premises (Registration) Regulations, 1991

These Regulations require food premises to register with their local authority. Small bed and
breakfast establishments, slaughterhouses and certain premises controlled by charitable
organisations are included in the exemptions. A fine of up to £1,000 for failure to register or
£5000 for providing false information is the penalties for non-compliance.
The law relating to health and safety
The Health and Safety at Work etc.Act, 1974

This is the principle Act concerned with protecting the health and safety of employees and
members of the public.

Every employer has a legal obligation to ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, the health,
safety and welfare of employees. Safe systems of work must be devised and supervision and
training given to all staff, for example before staff are allowed to operate or clean dangerous
machines, such as gravity feed slicers.

Employees must ensure that their acts or omissions do not adversely affect other persons.

The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations, 1988

These Regulations provide a legal framework for the control of substances hazardous to health.
They apply to all types of business including food businesses. The essential measures that
employers (and sometimes employees) have to take to ensure people are protected from the
hazardous substances they may encounter are stipulated. Hazardous substances include those that
are toxic, harmful, irritant or corrosive, for example cleaning chemicals and pesticides.

Environmental health officers

Environmental health officers are empowered to enter, inspect and close insanitary food
premises. They will identify unsafe practices, investigate food complaints and incidents of food-
borne disease. Improvement and prohibition notices may be issued, food seized or detained
and legal proceedings instituted for contraventions of legislation.

However, they are employed to protect the public and usually prefer to give advice and offer
guidance, especially at the planning stage. Don’t hesitate to contact them if you need assistance.

What are the important pieces of legislation relating to food safety and hygiene?

What action can be taken by a local authority to control the sale of unsafe, unfit, contaminated or
substandard food?

What action can be taken if food premises are unhygienic or substandard?

What are the requirements of current legislation regarding, premises, equipment, food handlers, washing
facilities, services, practices and storage temperatures?
When can insanitary food premises be closed?

APPENDIX I

Ref. pg 52 text.

General rules for food handlers

1. Food handlers with skin, nose, throat or bowel trouble must inform their supervisor and
must not handle food until medical clearance has been obtained.

2. Cuts, burns and sores must be covered with waterproof dressings. Persons with boils or
septic cuts must not handle food. Fingernails must be kept clean and short, and nail
varnish should not be used.

3. Suitable protective clothing and head covering must be worn by all food handlers.
Outdoor clothing must not be brought into food rooms. Jewellery, hair grips and watches
should be removed.

4. Food handlers must not smoke in food rooms or whilst handling open food.

5. On entering a food room all food handlers should wash their hands. Hands must also be
thoroughly washed after visiting the w.c., handling raw food, blowing the nose, handling
refuse or swill, eating, smoking, cleaning and at frequent intervals during the work
period.

6. The mouth, nose or hair must not be touched during food preparation. Sneezing or
coughing over food must be avoided.

7. All equipment, fixtures and fittings must be clean before preparation begins.

8. Raw must always be kept separate from high-risk food at all stages of storage and
preparation. Separate equipment, working surfaces and food handlers should be used to
avoid cross-contamination from raw to high-risk food.

9. Frozen meat must be completely thawed before cooking. Thawing must be carried out
separately from other processes. The liquid from defrosting poultry, etc. must not come
into contact with other food, directly or indirectly, for example by use of a wiping cloth.

10. All meat must be cooked thoroughly. Rewarming cooked meats is potentially hazardous.
All reheated foods including meat, soup and gravy must be thoroughly reheated and
consumed immediately.
 11. If hot meat is not to be eaten immediately, it must be cooled quickly and placed in a
refrigerator within 1 ½ hours. Cooked food must be protected from contamination at all
times and kept out of the danger zone of temperature, i.e. 5°C to 63°C.

12. Food must not be removed from the refrigerator until required for serving or preparation.

13. Display trolleys and buffets should be refrigerated and covered to prevent contamination.

14. Stored food must be rotated to prevent spoilage, avoid waste and prevent infestations.
Out-of-date food and damaged canned or packaged food must not be sold.

15. Dirty pans, cutlery, crockery and other equipment should be cleaned and disinfected
without undue delay.

16. If the use of drying cloths is unavoidable, they must be kept clean.

17. Dirty wiping cloths must not be used. Disposable cloths are preferred.

18. Spillages should be cleaned up promptly and food debris should not be allowed to
accumulate.

19. Polythene sacks or suitable impervious containers, fitted with lids, should be used for the
disposal of waste in food rooms.

20. Animals must not be allowed in food rooms. Infestations of insects or rodents must be
reported immediately.

Remember, your carelessness might be the cause of an outbreak of food poisoning.

APPENDIX II

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP)

HACCP involves the examination of ingredients, methods of preparation/processing and storage
to prevent:

1. Contamination of food with toxins or pathogenic micro-organisms, chemicals or foreign

bodies.

2. Growth of pathogens.

3. Survival of pathogens.

Areas to consider will include:

Type of ingredient (will it support the growth of pathogens?); delivery temperature; packaging;
storage (time/temperature); environment (contamination); preparation/handling
(contamination/personal hygiene); processing/cooking (time/temperature); cooling; and storage
(time/temperature).

To contribute to customer safety and compliance with food safety legislation it is recommended
that food businesses adopt a HACCP approach to identify all potential hazards and control them
before they result in problems. HACCP is particularly efficient and cost-effective in that it
concentrates the control effort at the critical steps in the operation and allows control to be
exercised quickly on the spot by the appropriate food handler without waiting for laboratory
results or customer complaints.

The implementations of a HACCP system will involve the following stages:

1. Assemble a HACCP team – composed of persons who fully understand the food
products, their uses and the dangers involved in their handling/processing.
2. Construct a flow chart – which defines all stages in preparation from raw materials
through to point of consumption. It will be necessary to describe fully each product and
include details of composition, its intended use and potential abuse.

3. Identify all potential hazards (physical, chemical or microbiological) and preventative

measures for each potential hazard.

4. Identify the critical control points, consider all preventative measures and determine
which are essential to eliminate or reduce potential hazards to acceptable levels.

5. Determine target levels and tolerances for each control point, for example time,
temperature, acidity etc.

6. Establish monitoring systems for critical control points – for example determine who
should act, when and where and what action should be taken if the control point levels
are exceeded.

7. Establish a recording and documentation system.

8. Review the HACCP system at least annually and whenever changes to the process or
recipe are made.
APPENDIX III

Safety in the kitchen

It essential that all persons engaged in the preparation, cooking and service of food are aware at
all times of the need for certain elementary precautions of safety, in order to automatically
minimize the risk of accident.

1. Do not leave metal spoons in boiling liquids.

2. Do not leave handles of cooking pans over the gas flame.

3. Always carry a knife with its point towards the floor.

4. Never attempt to catch a falling knife.

5. Always cut or chop on a board. Never in the hand.

6. When using a hand model can-opener, protect the other hand with a cloth or kitchen
towel.

7. Always clean up any spilled water, grease or fat from the floor immediately.

8. Never use a damp cloth for lifting or carrying hot utensils.

9. Never wear sandals or open shoes in the kitchen.

10. Pans containing hot fat which catch fire should be extinguished by smothering with a fire
blanket or a thick damp sack. Never pour water on a fat or oil fire.

11. Long hair styles should be ‘put up’ and covered with a clean head cap or similar means of
protection.

12. For economy, as well as safety, all gas and electrical appliances must be turned off when
not in use.

13. Make sure that the first aid box is readily accessible and that it contains sufficient
waterproof dressings and burn dressings.

14. Never attempt to carry large, heavy containers of hot food single-handed. Get assistance.
15. Do not reach over naked burning appliances.

16. Always ensure that gravity meat slicers are adequately guarded.

17. Ensure that all drainage channel covers are properly fitted.

18. Never put cleaning fluids into bottles originally used for food or drink, e.g. lemonade or
milk bottles.

19. Do not obstruct fire exits, stairways or corridors.

20. Ensure stacked goods and boxes are safe.

21. Keep chemicals in a locked cupboard away from food.

22. Keep drawers shut and ensure knife blades are always face down.

23. Report dangerous equipment, especially faulty electrical plugs/wiring and trailing leads.

24. Follow the advice on safety signs.

NB.Health and Safety training of staff is essential and in most circumstances a legal
requirement.
Glossary
Additive A chemical added to food, for example, a preservative, a colouring or flavouring agent.

Aerobic Using oxygen.

Anaerobic Using little or no oxygen.

Antibiotic A drug used to destroy pathogenic bacteria within human or animal bodies.

Antiseptic A substance that prevents the growth of bacteria and moulds, specifically on or in the human
body.

Bacteria Microscopic, one-celled, living micro-organisms which multiply by splitting into two.

Bactericide A substance which destroys bacteria.

Binary fission A type of reproduction where the organism divides into two.

Carrier A person who harbours, and may transmit, pathogenic organisms without showing signs of
illness.

Cleaning The removal of soil, food residues, dirt, grease and other objectionable matter.

Coliforms Bacteria whose presence can indicate poor hygiene.

Contamination The occurrence of any objectionable matter in food.

Cook-chill A type of food production system where food is prepared, cooked, rapidly cooled and kept,
for a limited time period, under chilled storage prior to reheating.

Danger zone of The temperature range within which multiplication of pathogenic bacteria is possible (from
bacterial growth 5°C to 63°C).

Dehydrate To remove water.

Detergent A chemical used to remove grease, dirt and food particles.

Disinfectant A chemical used to reduce the number of micro-organisms to a level that is safe and which
will not cause premature food spoilage.

E.C. Directive Legislation from the European Community that has to be included into member country laws.

Enzyme A type of protein that speeds up a biological process and is unchanged by it.

First-aid materials Suitable and sufficient bandages and dressings, including waterproof dressings. All dressings
to be individually wrapped.
Food business Any business in the course of which commercial operations with respect to food or food
sources are carried out (whether carried on for profit or not).

Food-borne illness An illness resulting from the consumption of food contaminated by pathogenic micro-
organisms (and/or toxins) which do not usually multiply within the food.

Food handling Any operation in the production, preparation, processing, packaging, storage, transport,
distribution and sale of food.

Food poisoning A notifiable illness, usually with symptoms of acute diarrhoea and/or vomiting caused by the
consumption of contaminated or poisonous food. (A multiplication of bacteria usually occurs
within the food.)

Fungus A parasitic or saprophytic plant lacking chlorophyll which feeds by absorbing digested food
through hyphae.

Gastroenteritis An inflammation of the stomach and intestinal tract that normally results in diarrhoea.

Germicide An agent used for killing micro-organisms.

Incubation (onset) The period between infection and the first signs of illness.
period

Hygiene The science concerned with the maintenance of health.

Immunity The ability to resist an invading organism so that the body does not develop the disease.

Irradiation (of food) The process of subjecting food to doses of ionising radiation such as gamma rays, x-rays or
electrons, to destroy parasites, insects and most micro-organisms to extend the life of food
and reduce the risk of food-borne illness.

Mildew A type of fungus similar to mould.

Moulds Microscopic plants (fungi) that may appear as woolly patches on food.

Optimum Best.

Pasteurization A heat process used to reduce the number of micro-organisms to a safe level. Pasteurized
food must be stored under refrigeration.

Pathogen Disease-producing organism.

Pesticide A chemical used to kill pests.

pH An index used as a measure of acidity/alkalinity.

Residual insecticide A long-lasting insecticide applied in such a way that it remains active for a considerable
period of time.

Sanitizer A chemical agent used for cleansing and disinfecting surfaces and equipment.

Sous vide An interrupted catering system in which raw food is sealed in a vacuumized plastic pouch,
cooked, rapidly chilled and reheated for service after a period of chilled storage.

Spores A resistant resting-phase of bacteria protecting them against adverse conditions, such as high
 temperatures.

Sterilizer A chemical used to destroy all living organisms.

Sterile Free from all living organisms.

Sterilization A process that destroys all living organisms.

Stock rotation A control system which ensures that older stock is used first.

Toxins Poisons produced by pathogens.

Viruses Microscopic pathogens that multiply in living cells of their host.

Water activity (aw) A measure of the available water in food.

Wholesome food Sound food, fit for human consumption.

Zoonoses Disease which can pass from animal to man and vice versa.

End.

Ref. food hygine Richard A. sprencer 1994.