Classification of Physical Quantities Scalars and Vectors

Part - 01

Physical quantities
Those physical quantities which are used to define law of physics is known as physical quantities.
On the basis of directions, there are mainly two types of physical quantities.
(1) Scalar (2) Vector

Scalar Quantities
A physical quantity which can be described completely by its magnitude only and does not require a direction
is known as a scalar quantity.
It obeys the ordinary rules of algebra.
Ex : Distance, mass, time, speed, density, volume, temperature, electric current etc.

Vector Quantities
A physical quantity which requires magnitude and a particular direction, when it is expressed.
(a) has a specified direction.
(b) obeys parallelogram law of vector addition, then only it is said to be a vector.
If any of the above conditions is not satisfied the physical quantity cannot be a vector.
If a physical quantity is a vector it has a direction, but the converse may or may not be true, i.e. if a physical
quantity has a direction, it may or may not a be vector. e.g. time, pressure, Electric Current etc. have directions
but are not vectors because they do not obey parallelogram law of vector addition.
Example of vector quantity : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.

Illustration.
Which of the following is a vector quantity?
(1) Velocity (2) Force (3) Acceleration (4) All of the above
Solution.
(4)
All of the above are vector quantities

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 Representation of Vectors-Symbolic and Geometrical

Part - 02

Representation of vector
Geometrically, the vector is represented by a line with an arrow indicating the direction of vector as

Mathematically, vector is represented by A

Important points
If a vector is displaced parallel to itself it does not change (see Figure)

If a vector is rotated through an angle other than multiple of 2 (or 360°) it changes (see Figure)

Illustration.
Which of the following expression correctly represent a vector?
(1) 𝑉
(2) 𝑉
⃗
(3) 2|𝑉| − 𝐴𝐵
(4) |V|
Solution.
(2) Vector is represented by arrow on letters

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 Angle between two Vectors
Part - 03

Angle between the vectors

Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors when they are placed tail to
tail by displacing either of the vectors parallel to itself (i.e. 0    ).

(II)

Angle between vectors is  Angle between vectors is 180-

Illustration 1.
Find angle between the vector.

Solution.
(a)  = 43º
Head to head are matching
(b)  = 30º
tail to tail are matching
(c)  = 135º

(d)  = 60º

(e)  = 30º
tail to tail are matching

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Vector Part-03

Illustration 2.
Check angle between vectors

Solution.

Illustration 3.
Find angle between all the vectors :

Solution.
(a) angle between P and Q = 150º

(b) angle between Q and R = 60º

(c) angle between P and R = 90º

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 Types of Vectors
Part - 04

Types of vector
Parallel vectors :

Those vectors which have same direction are called parallel vectors.
Angle between two parallel vectors is always 0°
Equal Vectors

Vectors which have equal magnitude and same direction are called equal vectors.
A=B
Anti–parallel Vectors :

Those vectors which have opposite direction are called anti–parallel vector.
Angle between two anti–parallel vectors is always 180°
Negative (or Opposite) Vectors

Vectors which have equal magnitude but opposite direction are called negative vectors of each other.
AB and BA are negative vectors
AB = −BA
Co-initial vector

Co-initial vectors are those vectors which have the same initial point.
In figure a, b and c are co-initial vectors.

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Vector Part-04

Collinear Vectors :
The vectors lying in the same line are known as collinear vectors.

Angle between collinear vectors is either 0° or 180°

Example.

(i)   ( = 0º)
(ii) → → ( = 0º)

(ii)  → ( = 180º)
(iv) →  ( = 180º)
Coplanar Vectors

Vectors located in the same plane are called coplanar vectors.

Note :
Two vectors are always coplanar.
Concurrent vectors

Those vectors which pass through a common point are called concurrent vectors

In figure a, b and c are concurrent vectors

Null or Zero Vector

A vector having zero magnitude is called null vector.

Note :
Sum of two vectors is always a vector so, (A) + (−A) = 0

0 is a zero vector or null vector.

Unit Vector
A vector having unit magnitude is called unit vector. It is used to specify direction. A unit vector is represented
by  (Read as A cap or A hat or A caret).
A  Vector 
Unit vector in the direction of A is  =  unit vector = 
|A|  Magnitude of the vector 
ˆ =| A | A
A = AA ˆ
A unit vector is used to specify the direction of a vector.

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Vector Part-04

Base vectors

In an XYZ co-ordinate frame there are three unit vectors ˆi, ˆj and kˆ , these are used to indicate X, Y and Z

direction respectively.
These three unit vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other.

Axial Vector
These vectors are used in rotational motion to define rotational effects.

Direction of these vectors is always along the axis of rotation in accordance with right hand screw rule or right

hand thumb rule.

Ex. : Infinitesimal angular displacement (d) , Angular velocity, () , Angular momentum (J) , Angular

acceleration ( ) and Torque ( )

Illustration 1.

(1) A & C are parallel (2) A & C and B & C are antiparallel

(3) C & D are coinitial vectors (4) A,B,C,D are coplanar

Solution.
All are correct

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Vector Part-04

Illustration 2.

Which one is true or false :

(a) | F2 |=| F1 |

(b) F1 = F2

(c) F1 ⊥ F2
(d) ˆi = ˆj

(e) | ˆi |=| ˆj|

(f) F1 = F2
(g) | F1 |=| F2 |
Solution.
Here F1 = 10jˆ N
F2 = 10iˆ N
F1 = F2 = 10 N
ˆi = ˆj = 1

(a) True
(b) False
(c) True
(d) False
(e) True
(f) False
(g) True

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 Addition of Vectors-Graphical Method
Part - 05

Addition of two vectors

Vector addition can be performed by using following methods
(i) Graphical methods (ii) Analytical methods
Addition of two vectors is quite different from simple algebraic sum of two numbers.

Triangle law of addition of two vectors

If two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle in same order then their sum or 'resultant vector' is
given by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order of the first two vectors.

Shift one vector B , without changing its direction, such that its tail coincide with head of the other vector A .
Now complete the triangle by drawing third side, directed from tail of A to head of B (it is in opposite order
of A and B vectors).
Sum of two vectors is also called resultant vector of these two vectors. Resultant R = A + B

Parallelogram Law
If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram which are directed away from

their common point then their sum (i.e. resultant vector) is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram

passing away through that common point.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AD = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC ⇒ ⃗A + ⃗B = ⃗R

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Vector Part-05

Illustration 1.
Add vectors by triangle law :

(i) (ii)

Solution.

(i) By using Triangle law

(ii) By using Triangle law

Illustration 2.
Which of the following options is correct

(1) P + Q = R (2) Q + R = P (3) P + R = Q (4) None of these

Solution.
Using Triangle's law
P+R =Q

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 Addition of Vectors-Analytical Method
Part - 06

Analytical method :

In ∆PQR
PQ
sin θ = ⟹ PQ = B sinθ
PR
PQ
cos θ = ⟹ RQ = B cosθ
PR

In ∆OPQ
OP 2 = OQ2 + PQ2
R2 = (A + Bcosθ)2 + (Bsinθ)2
R2 = A2 + B 2 cos 2 θ + 2ABcosθ + B 2 sin2 θ
R2 = A2 + 2ABcosθ + B 2 (cos 2 θ + sin2 θ)
⃗ | = √A2 + B 2 + 2ABcosθ
|R

⃗ +𝐁
|𝐀 ⃗ | = √𝐀𝟐 + 𝐁 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐀𝐁𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉

In ΔOPQ
QP Bsinθ
tanα = =
OQ A+Bcosθ

Similarly
Asinθ
tanβ =
B+Acosθ

Illustration 1.
If magnitude of resultant of 2N and 3N is 4N find angle between 2N and 3N:
Solution.
4 = 22 + 32 + 2(2)(3)cos 
16 = 4 + 9 + 12cos
3 = 12cos
1
 = cos −1  
4

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Vector Part-06

Illustration 2.
Two vectors of magnitude 4N and 6N are acting at an angle 60º then find :
(i) Magnitude of their resultant vectors
(ii) Angle between resultant vector and 4N
(iii) Angle between resultant vector and 6N
Solution.
(i) | R |= 42 + 62 + 2(4)(6)cos60º

1
| R |= 16 + 36 + 48  
2
| R |= 76
2 19N
6sin(60º )
(ii) tan  =
4 + 6cos(60º )
 3
6 
 2 
=
1
4 + 6 
2
3 3
 = tan −1  
 7 
3 3
 = tan −1
7
4sin 60º
(iii) tan  =
6 + 4cos 60º
 3
4 
 2 
=
1
6 + 4 
2
3
 = tan −1
4
Special cases

𝛉 = 𝟎° 𝛉 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

⃗⃗ | = √𝐀𝟐 + 𝐁 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐀𝐁𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
|𝐑 𝐑 = √𝐀𝟐 + 𝐁 𝟐 + 𝐀𝐁𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟏𝟖𝟎°

⃗⃗ |𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐀 + 𝐁
|𝐑 ⃗⃗ |𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐀 − 𝐁
|𝐑

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Vector Part-06

Note :
⃗ +𝐁
𝐀 − 𝐁 ≤ |𝐀 ⃗ |≤𝐀+𝐁

𝛉 = 𝟗𝟎°
⃗⃗ | = √𝐀𝟐 + 𝐁 𝟐
|𝐑

Illustration 3.
What can be resultant of two vectors 𝐀
⃗ &𝐁
⃗ of magnitude 3 N and 5 N
1) 𝟏𝟎 𝐍

2) 𝟏𝐍

3) 𝟏𝟐 𝐍

4) 𝟐 𝐍

5) 𝟔 𝐍

6) 𝟓 𝐍

7) 𝟎 𝐍

Solution.
|𝐀 − 𝐁| ≤ 𝐑 ≤ |𝐀 + 𝐁|

|A – B| = |3 – 5| = 2N
|A + B| = |5 + 3| = 8N
So, 2R8
Hence, option (4) 2N
(5) 6N
(6) 5N are correct options

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 Properties of vector addition and Polygon Law
Part - 07

Properties of vector addition

Vector addition is commutative A + B = B + A

Vector addition is associative A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

Resultant of two vectors A and B situated in common plane.

A, B and R are co-planar

Resultant of two vector of equal magnitude will be at their bisector.

If | A |=| B |

But if | A || B | then angle  > 

If two vectors have equal magnitude i.e. | A |=| B | = a and angle between them is  then resultant will be along


the bisector of A and B and its magnitude is equal to 2a cos
2

| R |=| A + B |= 2a cos
2

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Vector Part-07

120º
Special Case : If =  = 120º then R = 2a cos =a
2
i.e. If  = 120º then | R |=| A + B |=| A |=| B |= a
If resultant of two unit vectors is another unit vector then the angle between them () = 120º.
OR
If the angle between two unit vectors () = 120º, then their resultant is another unit vector.
Addition of more than two vectors (law of polygon)
If some vectors are represented by sides of a polygon in same order, then their resultant vector is represented
by the closing side of polygon in the opposite order. R = A + B + C + D

In a polygon if all the vectors taken in same order are such that the head of the last vector coincides with the
tail of the first vector then their resultant is a null vector.
A+ B+C+ D+ E = 0

360°
2. If n coplanar vectors of equal magnitude are at equal angular separation ( ), then their resultant is
𝑛
always ZERO
If n=3 & |𝑎⃗| = |𝑏⃗⃗| = |𝑐⃗| = 𝑎

If n=4 & |𝑎⃗| = |𝑏⃗⃗| = |𝑐⃗| = |𝑑⃗| = 𝑎

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Vector Part-07

Illustration 1.
If 100 coplanar vectors each having magnitude 10 units are equally inclined with each other then find the
magnitude of their resultant?
(1) 0 (2) 10 (3) 100 (4) 1000

Solution.
Because all the coplanar vectors of equal magnitude are at equal angular separation then their resultant is
always ZERO

Note :
The resultant of 3 vectors can be zero if they satisfy following conditions :
|A – B|  C  | A + B|

Illustration 2.
Which of the following groups can give zero resultant(Equilibrium)
Vectors ⃗⃗
𝐏 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐐 ⃗𝐑
⃗⃗
(1) 2N 4N 8N
(2) 12N 10N 23N
(3) 1N 2N 3N
(4) 8N 1N 2N
Solution.
|P − Q| ≤ R ≤ |P + Q|

(1) 2 ≤ R ≤ 6 (Not Possible)

(2) 2 ≤ R ≤ 22 (Not Possible)

(3) 1 ≤ R ≤ 3 (Possible)

(4) 7 ≤ R ≤ 9 (Not Possible)

Illustration 3.

It is regular hexagon and O is centre then find OA + OB + OC + OD + OE + OF = ?

Solution.
| OA |=| OB|=| OC |=| OD |=| OE |=| OF|
All the vectors are at equal angle so their resultant will be
OA + OB + OC + OD + OE + OF = 0

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 Vector Subtraction, Miscellaneous problems on Vector
addition and Subtraction
Part - 08

Subtraction of two vectors

Let A and B are two vectors. Their difference i.e. A − B can be treated as sum of the vector A and vector

( − B) .

A − B = A + (−B)

To subtract B from A , reverse the direction of B and add to vector A according to law of triangle.

Bsin 
| A − B |= A2 + B2 + 2ABcos( − ) = A2 + B2 − 2ABcos  & tan  =
A − Bcos 

Where  is the angle between A and B .

Properties of vector subtraction :

Vector subtraction dos not follow commutative law i.e. A − B  B − A

Vector subtraction does not follow associative law i.e. (A − B) − C  A − (B − C)

If two vectors have equal magnitude i.e. | A |=| B |= a and  is the angle between them, then


| A − B |= a 2 + a 2 − 2a 2 cos  = 2a sin
2

Special case : If  = 60º then 2a sin =a i.e. | A − B |=| A |=| B |= a at  = 60º
2
If difference of two unit vectors is another unit vector then the angle between them is 60º or If two unit
vectors are at angle of 60º, then their difference is also a unit vector.

In physics whenever we want to calculate change in a vector quantity, we have to use vector subtraction. For

example, change in velocity,  v = v 2 − v1

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Vector Part-08

Note: In parallelogram one diagonal represent vector addition other diagonal represent vector subtraction.

Use of vector subtraction

Vector subtraction is used to find change in vector quantities.
Change in velocity  V = Vf − Vi
Change in momentum  P = P f − Pi
Change in position vector r = r f − r i
In  is angle then the major diagonal will represent the vector sum and minor diagonal represent vector
subtraction.

Illustration 1.
Angle between 2 vectors 𝐀
⃗ and 𝐁
⃗ having magnitude 5N and 10N is 37o, then find out |𝐀
⃗ −𝐁
⃗|
(1) 3√3 (2) 3√7 (3) 5 (4) 3√5
Solution.
⃗ − ⃗B| = √A2 + B 2 − 2ABcosθ
|A
= √(5)2 + (10)2 − (2)(5)(10)cos37°
4
= √25 + 100 − 100 ×
5

= √25 + 20
= √45
= 3√5

Illustration 2.
Ball is moving towards wall with velocity 20 m/s. It gets deflected back along the initial direction, then
find magnitude of change in velocity
(1) 40 (2) 20 (3) 0 (4) 10
Solution.

⃗ = ⃗Vf − ⃗Vi
ΔV
= −20î − 20î
= −40î
|ΔV⃗ | = 40

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Vector Part-08

Illustration 3.
Find magnitude of change in velocity ?
Solution.

90
V1 = VF − Vi = 2 × 5 sin
2
= 10 sin 45°
10
= =5 2m/s
2

Illustration 4.
Find angle between 𝐀
⃗ and 𝐁
⃗ if |𝐀
⃗ −𝐁
⃗ | = |𝐀
⃗ +𝐁
⃗|
π π
(1) π (2) (3) (4) 0
4 2

Solution.
⃗ −B
|A ⃗ +B
⃗ | = |A ⃗|

= √a2 + b 2 − 2abcosθ = √a2 + b 2 + 2abcosθ

On squaring both sides
a2 + b2 − 2abcosθ = a2 + b2 + 2abcosθ
4abcosθ = 0
π
∴ θ=
2

Illustration 5.
If |𝐀
⃗ | = |𝐁
⃗ | = |𝐀 ⃗ | = 𝐚, then find |𝐀
⃗ +𝐁 ⃗ −𝐁
⃗|

(1) a (2) √2a (3) √2a (4) √3a

Solution.
⃗|=a
|a⃗| = |b
⃗ + ⃗B| = √a2 + b 2 + 2abcosθ = a
|A Now |A
⃗ − ⃗B| = √A2 + B 2 − 2ABcosθ

1
= 2a2 + 2a2 cosθ = a2 = √a2 + a2 − 2a2 × −
2
−1
cosθ = = √a2 + a2 + a2 = √3a
2

θ = 120°

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Vector Part-08

Illustration 6.
If |𝐀 ̂ | = √𝟑, then find |𝐀
̂+𝐁 ̂ − 𝟒𝐁
̂|

(1) √13 (2) √3 (3) 3 (4) √21

Solution.
̂ | = 1, |B
|A ̂| = 1

√A2 + B 2 + 2ABcosθ = √3

√1 + 1 + 2cosθ = √3

√2 + 2cosθ = √3

2cosθ = 1

̂ − 4B
|A ̂ )2 + (4B
̂ | = √(A ̂ )2 − 2(A
̂ )(4B
̂ )cos60° = √1 + 16 − 4

̂ − 4B
|A ̂ | = √13

Illustration 7.

If |𝐀
̂−𝐁
̂ | = 𝟏 = |𝐀 ˆ +B
̂ | , then A
̂ | = |𝐁 ˆ =?

Solution.

Aˆ − Bˆ = 1

A2 + B2 − 2ABcos  = 1

1 + 1 − 2(1)(1)cos  = 1

1
cos  =
2

 = 60

Now, Aˆ + Bˆ = A2 + B2 + AB cos 

1
= 1 + 1 + 2   = 60
2

= 3

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Vector Part-08

Illustration 8.
If a particle moves with constant speed v on circumference, find magnitude of change in velocity from
A to B.

(1) 3V (2) V (3) 0 (4) 2V

Solution.
⃗ A − ⃗VB | = 2Vsin θ
|V
2

60°
2 × V × sin ( )
2

=V

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 Resolution of Vectors in 2D-in plane
Part - 09

Resolution of Vector 2D
To break or split a vector in components is called resolution of vector
Any vector can be split in two or more than two components.

Note :
Maximum number of components of a vector can be infinite.

Vector Resolution in A Plane (2D)

If the angle between components is 90°, then they are known as perpendicular/orthogonal/rectangular
components.
Ax : Component of A
⃗ along x axis

Ay : Component of A
⃗ along y axis

In 𝚫𝐎𝐐𝐏,
OQ OQ
cos θ = =
OP A

⇒ OQ = Ax = A cos θ
PQ PQ
sin θ = =
OP A

⇒ PQ = Ay = A sin θ
(According to law of vector addition,
⃗A = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OQ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OR
⃗ = Ax î + Ay ĵ
A
⃗ = Acosθ î + Asinθĵ
A

⃗ | = √A2x + A2y
|A
𝐀𝐲 𝐀𝐱
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛟 =
𝐀𝐱 𝐀𝐲

Here θ is angle between A

⃗ and its x component Here ϕ is angle between A
⃗ and its y component

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Vector Part-09

Note :
• If A
⃗ vector makes an angle θ from a given direction, then

• its component along that direction will be Acosθ and

• the remaining perpendicular component is Asinθ

• The component of a vector along its perpendicular direction is always ZERO

Illustration 1.

A = 3i + 4jˆ
Find (i) Ax

(ii) Ay

(iii) | A |

(iv) Angle of A from x-axis

(v) Angle of A from y-axis

(vi) Unit vector along A

Solution.
(i) Ax = 3
(ii) Ay = 4

(iii) | A |= 5

(iv) Angle of A from x-axis

Ay 4
tan = =  = 53°
Ax 3

(v) Angle of A from y-axis

Ax 3
tan = =  = 37°
Ay 4

(vi) Unit vector along A

A 3iˆ + 4ˆj
 = =
|A| 5

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Vector Part-09

Illustration 2.
A = 12iˆ + 5jˆ
Find (i) Ax
(ii) Ay
(iii) | A |

(iv) Angle of A from x-axis

(v) Angle of A from y-axis
(vi) Unit vector along A
Solution.
(i) Ax = 12
(ii) Ay = 5
Ay
(iii) A = 52 + 122 = 13

Ay 5
(iv) tan = =
Ax 12
5
 = tan–1
12

A x 12
(v) tan = =
Ay 5
12
 = tan–1
5
A 12iˆ + 5jˆ
(vi) Â = =
|A| 13

Illustration 3.
If 𝐀
⃗ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝐢̂ + 𝐛𝐣̂ is a unit vector, find value of b.

(1) 0.8 (2) 0.7 (3) 0.6 (4) 0.3

Solution.
| A |= 1
 (0.6)2 + b2 = 1
b2 = 1 – .36
b2 = 0.64
b = 0.8

Illustration 4.
If Force F=10N is acting along positive x-axis. Find its y-component.
Solution.
The component of a vector along its perpendicular direction is always ZERO

 Digital Pvt. Ltd. [3]

Vector Part-09

Illustration 5.
Resolve the vector in component form

Solution.

(i)

A = 8iˆ + 6jˆ

(ii)

F = −10 3iˆ + 10jˆ

Illustration 6.
Find resultant of given vectors

Solution.

| R |= 12 + 4 2 = 17

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Vector Part-09

Illustration 7.

Solution.

| R |= 5N

Illustration 8.
A vector makes an angle of 𝟑𝟎° with the horizontal. If the horizontal component of the vector is 250 N,
find the magnitude of vector and its vertical component.
Solution.

Acos30º = 250
500
A=
3
Ay = Asin30º
250
=
3

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 Resolution of Vectors in 3D-in space
Part - 10

Resolution of vectors in 3-D

If ⃗A makes
angle α with x axis
angle β with y axis
angle γ with z axis
and
Component of 𝐀
⃗ along 𝐱 axis is 𝐀 𝐱

Component of 𝐀
⃗ along 𝐲 axis is 𝐀 𝐲

Component of 𝐀
⃗ along 𝐳 axis is 𝐀𝐳

the
𝐀𝐱
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛂 = ⟹ 𝐀 𝐱 = 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛂
𝐀
𝐀𝐲
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛃 = ⟹ 𝐀 𝐲 = 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛃
𝐀
𝐀𝐳
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛄 = ⟹ 𝐀𝐳 = 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛄
𝐀

Here, cos α, cos β and cos γ are known as direction cosines of ⃗A

As, Ax , Ay and Az are components of A
⃗

so, A
⃗ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂

A = √A2x + A2y + A2z

Putting values of Ax , Ay and Az

A = √A2 cos 2 α + A2 cos 2 β + A2 cos 2 γ

⇒ A = A√cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ
⇒ cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1
⇒ (1 − sin2 α) + (1 − sin2 β) + (1 − sin2 γ) = 1
⇒ sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = 2

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Vector Part-10

Note :
With help of angles made by a vector with x, y and z axes, we can write unit vector along the given vector.
As, Ax , Ay and Az are components of ⃗A
so, A
⃗ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
⃗⃗
A Ax Ay Az
⇒ = î + ĵ + k̂
A A A A
⇒ Â = cos α î + cos β ĵ + cos γ k̂
(Unit vector in the direction of ⃗A)
Points to remember
 A vector can be resolved into infinite number of components.
ˆi ˆi ˆi
For example 10iˆ = ˆi + ˆi + ˆi ………….. 10 times ; = + + ……….. 20 times and so an.
2 2 2
 Maximum number of rectangular components of a vector in a plane is two. But maximum number of
rectangular components in space (3-dimensions) is three which are along X, Y and Z axes.
 A vector is independent of the orientation of axes but the components of that vector depend upon the
orientation of axes.
 The component of a vector along its perpendicular direction is always zero.

Illustration 1.
A = 2iˆ + 3jˆ + 6kˆ
(i) Ax
(ii) Ay
(iii) Az
(iv) | A |

(v) Direction cosines of A

(vi) Angle of A from x, y and z axis
(vii) Unit vector along A
Solution.
(i) Ax = 2
(ii) Ay = 3
(iii) Az = 6

(iv) | A | = (Ax )2 + (A y )2 + (Az )2 = 22 + 32 + 62 = 49 = 7

2
(v) cos =
7
3
cos =
7
6
cos =
7
2 3 6
(vi)  = cos–1   ,  = cos–1   ,  = cos–1  
 
7 7 7
A 2iˆ + 3jˆ + 6kˆ
(vii) Â = =
|A| 7

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Vector Part-10

Illustration 2.
If ⃗A = î + ĵ + √2k̂, then find:
(1) 𝐀 𝐱 , 𝐀 𝐲 , 𝐀𝐳
(2) |𝐀
⃗|
(3) Direction cosines of 𝐀
⃗
(4) Angle of vector with 𝐱, 𝐲 and 𝐳 axis
Solution.
(1) A x = 1, A y = 1, A z = 2

(2) | A |= A 2x + A 2y + A z2 = (1) 2 + (12 ) + ( 2) 2 = 2

1 1 2 1
(3) cos = , cos = , cos = =
2 2 2 2
1 1  1 
(4) A = cos–1   = 60º,  = cos–1 = 60º,  = cos–1   = 45º
2 2  2

Illustration 3.
A = ˆi + 2jˆ + 2k;
ˆ B = 3iˆ + ˆj + 10kˆ then find :

(i) R
(ii) | R |
(iii) Unit vector parallel to resultant vector :
(iv) Direction cosine of R
Solution.
(i) R = A + B = 4iˆ + 3jˆ + 12kˆ

(ii) | R |= 16 + 9 + 144 = 169 = 13

4iˆ + 3jˆ + 12kˆ

(iii) R̂ =
13
4 3 12
(iv) cos  = ;cos  = ;cos  =
13 13 13

Illustration 4.
A = ˆi − ˆj + 2k;B
ˆ = −2jˆ − kˆ then find unit vector parallel to R of A and B .
Solution.
R =A+B
 R = ˆi − 3jˆ + kˆ

| R |= 1 + 9 + 1 = 11
R
R̂ =
|R|
ˆi − 3jˆ + kˆ
R̂ =
11

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Vector Part-10

Illustration 5.
A = ˆi − 3j;
ˆ B = 2jˆ − 3kˆ then find | A − 2B |
Solution.
2B = (4jˆ − 6k)
ˆ

| A − 2B|= ˆi − 3jˆ − 4jˆ + 6kˆ

= ˆi − 7jˆ + 6kˆ = 1 + 49 + 36 = 86

Illustration 6.
Determine the vector which when added to the resultant of P and Q , gives ZERO resultant (equilibrium).
̂ ,𝐐
⃗ = 𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤
𝐏 ̂
⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝐢̂ − 𝐣̂ + 𝟐𝐤
Solution.
Let's new vector = x
x + (P + Q) = 0
x + (3iˆ + ˆj + 3k)
ˆ =0

x = −3iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ

Illustration 7.
Determine the vector which when added to the resultant of ⃗P and Q
⃗ , gives unit vector along x-axis where 𝐏
⃗ =
̂ ,𝐐
𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤 ̂.
⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝐢̂ − 𝐣̂ + 𝟐𝐤
(1) −2î + ĵ − 3k̂ (2) 2î + ĵ + 3k̂ (3) 2î − ĵ + 3k̂ (4) −2î − ĵ − 3k̂

Solution.
Let's new vector = A
A + (P + Q) = ˆi
A + (iˆ + 2jˆ + kˆ + 2iˆ − ˆj + 2k)
ˆ = ˆi

A = ˆi − 3iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ = −2iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ

Ans. (4)

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 Multiplication of Vectors by Scalar and Dot product
Part - 11

Multiplication of a Vector by Scalar

To multiply a vector by a scalar, simply multiply the similar components, that is the vectors magnitude by the

scalars magnitude. This will result in a new vector with the same direction but the product of two magnitudes.

Illustration 1.

If 𝐕
⃗ = 𝟐𝐦/𝐬 then 𝟑𝐕
⃗ will be ?

Solution.

Note :
Whenever a vector is multiplied by a positive number then the new vector has same direction but its

magnitude changes depending on number.

Illustration 2.

If 𝐕
⃗ = 𝟐𝐦/𝐬 then −𝟑𝐕
⃗ will be ?

Solution.

Note :
whenever a vector is multiplied by a negative number then the new vector has opposite direction but its

magnitude changes depending on number.

How to check parallel vectors ?

if ⃗A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ & ⃗B = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
Ax Ay Az
= = = Positive constant
Bx By Bz

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Vector Part-11

Scalar Product
The scalar product of two vectors A and B equals to the product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the
angle  between them.
⃗A ⋅ ⃗B = |A
⃗ ||B
⃗ |cosθ

Example : W = F  S Where F = force and S = displacement, Power (P) = F  V Where F = Force and V =

velocity

Angle dependence

θ < 90°(Acute) θ > 90°(Obtuse)

cos θ → Positive cos θ → Negative

⃗ ∙B
A ⃗ ||B
⃗ = |A ⃗ | cos θ

⃗A ∙ ⃗B = positive ⃗A ∙ ⃗B = negative

Range of dot product

Key notes
When two vectors are perpendicular
Here, 𝐀
⃗ ⊥𝐁
⃗

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Vector Part-11

➢ Dot product of two perpendicular vectors is always zero

➢ If the dot product of two non-zero vectors is zero, then θ = 90°

Self dot product

➢ ⃗A ∙ ⃗A = A2
A
➢ ̂∙A
A ̂=1
A
➢ î ∙ î = ĵ ∙ ĵ = k̂ ∙ k̂ = 1
Dot product is commutative ⃗ ∙B
A ⃗ =B ⃗
⃗ ∙ A

Dot product is distributive ⃗ ∙(A

C ⃗ +B ⃗ ∙A
⃗ )=C ⃗ +C
⃗ ∙B
⃗

Illustration 3.
Find 𝐀 ⃗ & 𝐀
⃗ ∙𝐁 ̂ ∙𝐁
̂

Solution.

A  B = |A| |B| cos

= 4 × 6 × cos37º

4
=4×6×
5
96
= N
5
ˆ B
A ˆ || B
ˆ = |A ˆ | cos

= 1 × 1 × cos37º

4
= N
5

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Vector Part-11

Illustration 4.
Find angle between 𝐀
⃗ &𝐁
⃗ , if 𝐀
⃗ (6N) and 𝐁
⃗ (4N) and 𝐀
⃗ ∙𝐁
⃗ = 𝟏𝟐
(1) 30° (2) 45° (3) 60° (4) 75°
Solution.
A  B = A B sin 
|A| = 6N, |B| = 4N, A  B = 12
12 = (6) (4) (sin)
12
= sin
24
1
sin =
2
1
 = sin–1  
2
 = 30º
Illustration 5.
√3
Find angle between ⃗A and ⃗B if ⃗A ∙ ⃗B = AB
2
(1) 30° (2) 45° (3) 60° (4) 75°
Solution.
A  B = A B sin  …(1)

3
AB = AB …(2)
2
By equation (1) & (2)
3
AB sin = AB
2
3
sin =
2
 3
 = sin–1  = 60º Ans. (3)
 2 
 

Dot product of vectors in component form

If two vectors are given as
⃗A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
⃗B = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
Then,
⃗A ∙ ⃗B = Ax Bx + Ay By + A z Bz

Illustration 6.
Find 𝐀 ⃗ if 𝐀
⃗ ∙𝐁 ⃗ = 𝟑𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ & 𝐁
⃗ = 𝟒𝐢̂ + 𝐣̂.
(1) 10 (2) 14 (3) 12 (4) 8
Solution.
A  B = (3iˆ + 2j)
ˆ  (4iˆ + ˆj)
= 12 + 2 = 14

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Vector Part-11

Illustration 7.
Find Work done if Force 𝐅 = 𝟑𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤
̂ & Displacement 𝐬 = 𝟐𝐢̂ − 𝟓𝐣̂ + 𝟑𝐤
̂.

(1) 1 J (2) –1 J (3) 2 J (4) –2 J

Solution.

W = FS
= (3iˆ + 2jˆ + k)
ˆ  (2iˆ − 5jˆ + 3k)
ˆ

= 6 – 10 + 3 = –1J Ans. (2)

Illustration 8.
Find Power if Force 𝐅 = 𝟐𝐢̂ − 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤
̂ & velocity 𝐯⃗ = 𝟑𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ − 𝐤
̂.

(1) 5W (2) 2W (3) 1W (4) 0W

Solution.

P = F V
= (2iˆ − 2jˆ + k)
ˆ  (3iˆ + 2jˆ − k)
ˆ = 6 – 4 – 1 = 1W

Illustration 9.
If angle between 𝐚
⃗ and 𝐛 is 𝟔𝟎°, then find value of (𝐚̂ − 𝟐𝐛
̂ ) ∙ (𝟐𝐚̂ + 𝟒𝐛
̂ ).

(1) –6 (2) 6 (3) 0 (4) 12

Solution.

(aˆ  2aˆ + aˆ  4bˆ − 2bˆ  2aˆ − 8bˆ  b)

ˆ

ˆ − 4(bˆ  a)
= (2 + 4(aˆ  b) ˆ − 8) 
 
= [–6 + 0] = –6

Illustration 10.
If |𝐚̂ + 𝐛
̂ | = √𝟑, then find value of (𝐚̂ + 𝟐𝐛
̂ ) ∙ (𝟐𝐚̂ + 𝐛
̂ ).

(1) 6 (2) 13 (3) 6.5 (4) 7.5

Solution.

| aˆ + bˆ |= | aˆ |2 + | b |2 +2 | aˆ || bˆ | cos  = 3

1
1 + 1 + 2 cos = 3, cos = ,  = 60º
2
ˆ  (2aˆ + b)
(aˆ + 2b) ˆ

= 2  aˆ  aˆ + aˆ  bˆ + 4bˆ  aˆ + 2bˆ  bˆ

= 2 × 1 + 5 × â  bˆ + 2 × 1
1
=2+5×1×1× +2
2
5 13
=4+ =
2 2

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Vector Part-11

Illustration 11.
If 𝐀
⃗ +𝐁 ⃗ and |𝐀
⃗ +𝐂=𝟎 ⃗ | = |𝐂| = 𝟏, find 𝐀
⃗ | = |𝐁 ⃗ ∙𝐁
⃗ +𝐁
⃗ ∙𝐂+𝐂∙𝐀
⃗
3 3
(1) − (2) (3) 2 (4) 1
2 2
Solution.
A+ B+C = 0
A + B = −C
A + B = −C

A2 + B2 + 2A  B =| −C |
A2 + B2 + 2A  B =| −C |2
(|A| = |B| = |C| = 1)
1 −1 −1 1
AB = =−
2 2
By same logic
−1
BC =
2
−1
CA =
2
So, A  B + B  C + C  A
 −1   −1   −1  −3
 + + =
 2   2   2  2

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 Application of Dot Product
Part - 12

Application of DOT product

 AB
1. According to definition A  B = ABcos  the angle between the vectors  = cos–1 
 AB 
 

Illustration 1.
Find angle between A = 3iˆ + 4jˆ and B = 12iˆ - 5jˆ ?
Solution.
A  B (3iˆ + 4j)
ˆ  (12iˆ − 5j)
ˆ
We have cos  = =
AB 32 + 42 122 + 52
36 − 20 16
cos  = =
5  13 65
16
 = cos −1
65

2. To Check Orthogonal Vectors

for  = 90º
⃗A ∙ ⃗B = ABcosθ = 0

Note:
If scalar product of two nonzero vectors is zero, then vectors are orthogonal or perpendicular

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Vector Part-12

Illustration 2.

If the Vectors P = aiˆ + ajˆ + 3kˆ and Q = aiˆ - 2jˆ - kˆ are perpendicular to each other. Find the value of a?

Solution.

If vectors P and Q are perpendicular

 P.Q=0  ( aiˆ + ajˆ + 3kˆ )  (aiˆ − 2jˆ − kˆ ) = 0

 a2 – 2a – 3 = 0  a2 – 3a + a – 3 = 0

 a(a – 3) + 1(a – 3) = 0  a = –1, 3

Illustration 3.
If (𝐚̂ + 𝐛
̂ ) and (𝟐𝐚̂ − 𝟑𝐛
̂ ) are perpendicular, then find angle between 𝐚̂ and 𝐛
̂.

Solution.
ˆ  (2aˆ − 3b)
(aˆ + b) ˆ = 0 , 2aˆ  aˆ − 3aˆ  bˆ + 2bˆ  aˆ − 3bˆ  bˆ = 0

aˆ  aˆ =| aˆ |2 = 1 ( | aˆ |= 1)

bˆ  bˆ =| bˆ |2 = 1 ( | bˆ |= 1)

(aˆ  bˆ = bˆ  a)
ˆ

2(1) – 3aˆ  bˆ + 2aˆ  bˆ − 3(1) = 0

â  bˆ = −1
cos × a × b = –1
cos = –1

 = 180º

3. Projection of A on B

 AB AB
(i) In scalar form : Projection of A on B = A cos  = A  = ˆ
= AB
 AB  B
 

 AB
ˆ =
(ii) In vector form : Projection of A on B = (Acos) B ˆ = (A  B)B
ˆ ˆ
 B 
B
 

 Digital Pvt. Ltd. [2]

Vector Part-12

Illustration 4.
Find the component of 𝐀
⃗ = 𝟑𝐢̂ + 𝟒𝐣̂ along 𝐁
⃗ = 𝐢̂ + 𝐣̂ ?

1. Projection of 𝐀
⃗ along 𝐁
⃗ in scalar form

2. Projection of 𝐀
⃗ along 𝐁
⃗ in vector form

3. Projection of (𝐀 ⃗ ) along 𝐀
⃗ +𝐁 ⃗ in scalar form

Solution.

A .B
1. Component of A along B is given by hence required component
B

=
( 3iˆ + 4jˆ ) .( ˆi + ˆj)
=
7
2 2

AB AB B
2. B̂ =
B B (B)

7 (iˆ + ˆj)
=
2 ( 2)

7 ˆ ˆ
= (i + j)
2

3. Let A + B = R

= 3iˆ + 4jˆ + ˆi + ˆj = 4iˆ + 5jˆ

R  A 12 + 20 32
So = =
A 5 5

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 Vector Product
Part - 13

Vector product
The vector product or cross product of any two vectors A and B , denoted as A  B (read A cross B ) is

defined as :

A  B = ABsin nˆ

Here  is the angle between the vectors and the direction of n̂ is given by the right-hand-thumb rule.

Right-Hand-Thumb Rule

To find the direction of n̂ , draw the two vectors A and B with both the tails coinciding. Now place your

stretched right palm perpendicular to the plane of A and B in such a way that the fingers are along the

vector A and when the fingers are closed they go towards B . The direction of the thumb gives the direction

of n̂ .

Examples of vector product

(i) Torque :  = r  F

(ii) Angular momentum : J = r  p

(iii) Velocity : v =  r

(iv) Acceleration : a =   r

Here r is position vector and F, p, and  are force, linear momentum, angular velocity and angular

acceleration respectively.

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Vector Part-13

Properties :
• Vector product of two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors, i.e.
orthogonal (perpendicular) to both the vectors A and B

• Vector product of two vectors is not commutative i.e.

A  B  B A But | A  B |=| B  A |= ABsin 

Note
A  B = −B  A
i.e., in case of vectors A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal but directions are opposite [See the figure]
• The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
A  (B + C) = A  B + A  C
|AB|
• According to definition of vector product of two vectors A  B = AB sin n̂   = sin–1
AB
• The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin = max. = 1, i.e.,  = 90º
| A  B |max = ABsin 90º = AB
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular)
• The vector product of two non-zero vectors will zero when |sin| = 0,
i.e. when  = 0º or 180º, | A  A | = 0 or | A  (−A) |= 0
Therefore if the vector product of two non-zero vectors is zero, then the vectors are collinear.
• The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself is a zero vector or a null vector.
i.e. A  A = (AAsin 0º )nˆ = 0

• In case of unit vector nˆ : aˆ  aˆ = 1 × 1 × sin0º n̂ = 0 so that ˆi  ˆi = 0 , ˆj  ˆj = 0 , kˆ  kˆ = 0

• In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi, ˆj and k̂ ; according to right hand thumb rule
ˆi  ˆj = kˆ , ˆj  kˆ = ˆi , kˆ  ˆi = ˆj and ˆj  ˆi = −kˆ , kˆ  ˆj = −ˆi , ˆi  kˆ = −ˆj

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Vector Part-13

ˆi ˆj kˆ
• In terms of components, A  B = A x Ay A z = ˆi(A y Bz − A z By ) − ˆj(A x Bz − A z Bx ) + k(A
ˆ
x By − A yBx ) ,

Bx By Bz
where A = A x ˆi + A y ˆj + Az kˆ and B = Bx ˆi + By ˆj + Bz kˆ

• If A, B and C are coplanar, then A  (B  C) = 0 . [ (B  C) is perpendicular to A ]

• Angle between (A + B) and (A  B) is 90º as A  B is perpendicular to plane containing A & B .
• A scalar or a vector, cannot be divided by a vector.
• Vectors of different types can be multiplied to generate new physical quantities which may be a scalar or a
vector. If, in multiplication of two vectors, the generated physical quantity is a scalar, then their product is
called scalar or dot product and if it is a vector, then their product is called vector or cross product.

Illustration 1.
A is East wards and B downwards. Find the direction of A  B ?
Solution.
Applying right hand thumb rule we find that A  B is along North.

Illustration 2.
If A  B =| A  B | , find angle between A and B
Solution.
AB cos = AB sin
tan  = 1
  = 45º

Illustration 3.
Find A  B if A = ˆi − 2jˆ + 4k
ˆ and B = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ .
Solution.
ˆi ˆj kˆ
A  B = 1 −2 4 = i(−4 − (−4)) − ˆj(2 − 12) + k(
ˆ −1 − (−6)) = 10jˆ + 5kˆ
3 −1 2

Illustration 4.
If | A |= 2;| B |= 4 and | A  B |= 4 . Then find A  B
Solution.
⃗ × ⃗B| = ABsinθ
|A
4 1
sinθ = =
8 2
θ = 30°
√3
⃗A ⋅ ⃗B = ABcos30° = 2 × 4 × = 4√3
2

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 Applications of Cross product
Part - 14

Application of Cross Product

1. To Find Area of Geometrical Shape
2. To Find Unit vector perpendicular to given plane
3. To Check Coplanarity
1. To Find Area of Geometrical Shape
Area of Triangle

𝟏
Area of Triangle = |𝐀
⃗ ×𝐁
⃗|
𝟐

Illustration 1.
Find area of a triangle made by two vectors 𝐀 ̂ and 𝐁
⃗ = 𝟐𝐢̂ − 𝐣̂ + 𝟐𝐤 ̂ as adjacent sides.
⃗ = 𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤
Solution.
î ĵ k̂
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ = |2 −1 2|
1 2 1
= î(−1 − 4) − ĵ(2 − 2) + k̂(4 − (−1))
= −5î + 5k̂
⃗ ×B
|A ⃗ | = √(5)2 + (5)2 = √25 + 25 = √50 ⟹ 5√2
1
⃗ × ⃗B| = 1 × 5√2 = 5√2
Area of triangle = |A
2 2 2

Area of Parallelogram
CASE 1
If ⃗A and ⃗B are sides of parallelogram

Area of parallelogram = |𝐀
⃗ ×𝐁
⃗|

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Vector Part-14

CASE 2

If A
⃗ and B
⃗ are diagonals of parallelogram

1
Area of parallelogram = |A
⃗ ×B
⃗|
2

Illustration 2.
Find area of a parallelogram made by two vectors 𝐀 ̂ and 𝐁
⃗ = 𝐢̂ + 𝐣̂ + 𝟐𝐤 ̂ as adjacent sides.
⃗ = 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤
Solution.
î ĵ k̂
⃗A × ⃗B = |1 1 2|
0 2 1
= î(1 − 4) − ĵ(1 − 0) + k̂(2 − 0)
= −3î − ĵ + 2k̂
⃗ × ⃗B| = √9 + 1 + 4 = √14 units
Area of paralleleogram = |A

Illustration 3.
Find area of a parallelogram made by two vectors 𝐀 ̂ and 𝐁
⃗ = 𝐢̂ + 𝐣̂ + 𝐤 ̂ as diagonals.
⃗ = 𝟑𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤
î ĵ k̂
Solution. A⃗ ×B⃗ = | 1 1 1|
3 2 1
= î(1 − 2) − ĵ(1 − 3) + k̂(2 − 3)
= −î + 2ĵ − k̂
1
⃗ × ⃗B| = 1 √1 + 4 + 1 = √3 units
Area of paralleleogram = |A
2 2 2

2. To Find Unit vector perpendicular to both given vectors

A unit vector which is perpendicular to both given vectors 𝐀
⃗ and 𝐁
⃗ is given by
⃗ × ⃗𝐁
𝐀 ̂×𝐁
𝐀 ̂
̂=±
𝐧 =±
⃗ ×𝐁
|𝐀 ⃗| 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
Illustration 4.
Find out a unit vector which is perpendicular to both of the following 𝐀 ̂
⃗ = 𝐢̂ + 𝟒𝐣̂ − 𝐤
and 𝐁 ̂.
⃗ = −𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤
Solution.
î ĵ k̂
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ = | 1 4 −1|
−1 2 1
= î 4 − (−2) − ĵ (1 − 1) + k̂(2 − (−4))
(
= î(6) + k̂(6)
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ 6î + 6k̂ 6î + 6k̂
n̂ = ± = =±
⃗ ×B
|A ⃗ | √36 + 36 √72
6î + 6k̂ î + k̂
n̂ = ± =±
6√2 √2

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Vector Part-14

3. Condition of Coplanarity
If 𝐀
⃗ ,𝐁
⃗ & 𝐂 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐚𝐫 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧

⃗ ×𝐁
(𝐀 ⃗ ) ∙ 𝐂 = 𝟎 ⟹ [𝐀
⃗,𝐁
⃗ , 𝐂] = 𝟎

Illustration 5.
If 𝐀
⃗ = 𝟐𝐢̂ + 𝐣̂, 𝐁 ̂ and 𝐂 = 𝟑𝐢̂ − 𝐣̂ + 𝐱𝐤
⃗ = 𝐢̂ + 𝟐𝐣̂ + 𝐤 ̂ are coplanar vectors then find value of 𝐱.

Solution.
Condition of coplanarity : (A
⃗ × ⃗B) ∙ ⃗C = 0

î ĵ k̂
⃗ ×B
|A ⃗ | = |2 1 0|
1 2 1
= î(1 − 0) − ĵ(2 − 0) + k̂(4 − 1)
= î − 2ĵ + 3k̂
Using the condition of coplanarity : (A
⃗ ×B ⃗ =0
⃗ )∙C

= (î − 2ĵ + 3k̂) ∙ (3i − j + xk) = 0

5
= 3 + 2 + 3x = 0 ⟹ −5 = 3x ⟹ x = −
3

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