POWER TRAIN: An automotive power train, consists of a power plant(engine or electric motor),

a clutch in manual transmission or a torque converter in automatic transmission, a gearbox

(transmission), final drive,differential, drive shaft, and driven wheels. The torque and rotating
speed of The power plant output shaft are transmitted to the drive wheels through the Clutch or
torque converter, gearbox, final drive, differential, and drive shaft.The clutch is used in manual
transmission to couple the gearbox to or decouple it from the power plant. The torque converter
in automatic transmission Is a hydrodynamic device, functioning as the clutch in manual
transmission With a continuously variable gear ratio The Gearbox supplies a few gear ratios
from its input shaft to its output shaft for The power plant torque–speed profile to match the
requirements of the load.The final drive is usually a pair of gears that supply a further speed
reduction and distribute the torque to each wheel through the differential.The torque on the
driven wheels, transmitted from the power plant, is Expressed as (Tw=ig i0ηtTp).Where ig is the
gear ratio of the transmission defined as ig=Nin / Nout (Nin —Input rotating speed, Nout —
output rotating speed), i0 is the gear ratio of the Final drive, ηt is the efficiency of the driveline
from the power plant to the Driven wheels, and Tp is the torque output from the power plant.The
tractive effort on the driven wheels, Expressed as (Ft=Tw/rd) , (Ft=Tp ig i0 ηt/rd).The friction in
the gear teeth and the friction in the bearings create losses in Mechanical gear transmission.
The following are representative values of the Mechanical efficiency of various
components:Clutch: 99% Each pair of gears: 95–97% Bearing and joint: 98–99%The total
mechanical efficiency of the transmission between the engine out-Put shaft and drive wheels or
sprocket is the product of the efficiencies of all The components in the driveline. As a first
approximation, the following Average values of the overall mechanical efficiency of a manual
gear-shift Transmission may be used:Direct gear: 90% Other gear: 85% Transmission with a
very high reduction ratio: 75–80% The rotating speed (rpm) of the driven wheel can be
expressed as (Nw=Np/ig i0) where Np is the output rotating speed (rpm). The translational
speed of the Wheel center (vehicle speed) can be expressed as (V= πNw rd/30)meter per
second, (V= πNp rd/30ig i0) metre per second.
PERFORMANCE OF VEHICLE: Maximum Speed of a Vehicle: The maximum speed of a
vehicle is defined as the constant cruising speed That the vehicle can develop with full power
plant load (full throttle of the Engine or full power of the motor) on a flat road. The maximum
speed of a Vehicle is determined by the equilibrium between the tractive effort of the Vehicle
and the resistance or the maximum speed of the power plant and Gear ratios of the
transmission. The tractive effort and resistance equilibrium Can be expressed as ( Tp ig i0 nt/rd
= Mv gfr cosα+½ ρa Cd Af V²) This equation indicates that the vehicle reaches its maximum
speed when The tractive effort, represented by the left-hand-side term, equals the Resistance,
represented by the right-hand-side terms. The intersection of the Tractive effort curve and the
resistance curve represents the maximum speed Of the vehicle, It should be noted that for
some vehicles, no intersection exists between The effort curve and the resistance curve,
because of a large power plant or Large gear ratio. In this case, the maximum speed of the
vehicle can be written as (Vmax= πnp max rd / 30i0 ig min) meter per second.Gradeability: is
usually defined as the grade (or grade angle) that the vehicle Can overcome at a certain
constant speed, for instance, the grade at a speed Of 100 km/h (60 mph). For heavy
commercial vehicles or off-road vehicles,The gradeability is usually defined as the maximum
grade or grade angle in The whole speed range.When the vehicle drives on a road with relative
small grade and constant Speed, the tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can be written as
(sinα = d-fr √1-d²+f²r/1+f²r).acceleration performance: of a vehicle is usually described by its
acceleration time and the distance covered from zero speed to a certain high speed(zero to 96
km/h or 60 mph, for example) on level ground.
MANUAL GEAR TRANSMISSION: Manual gear transmission consists of a clutch,
gearbox, final drive, and drive Shaft The final drive has a constant gear reduction Ratio
or a differential gear ratio. The common practice of requiring direct Drive (nonreducing)
in the gearbox to be in the highest gear determines this Ratio. The gearbox provides a
number of gear reduction ratios ranging from Three to five for passenger cars and more
for heavy commercial vehicles that Are powered with gasoline or diesel engines.The
maximum speed requirement of the vehicle determines the gear ratio Of the highest gear
(i.e., the smallest ratio). On the other hand, the gear ratio Of the lowest gear (i.e., the
maximum ratio) is determined by the requirement of the maximum tractive effort or the
gradeability. Ratios between Them should be spaced in such a way that they will provide
the tractiveeffortspeed characteristics as close to the ideal as possible,In the first
iteration, gear ratios between the highest and the lowest gear may be selected in such a
way that the engine can operate in the Same speed range for all the gears. This approach
would benefit the fuel Economy and performance of the vehicle. For instance, in normal
driving,The proper gear can be selected according to vehicle speed to operate the
Engine in its optimum speed range for fuel-saving purposes. In fast acceleration, the
engine can be operated in its speed range with high power output.(ig1/ig2= ig2/ig3=
ig3/ig4 =Kg),( Kg=3√ig1/igg4) where ig1, ig2, ig3, and ig4 are the gear ratios for the first,
second, third, and Fourth gear, respectively. In a more general case, if the ratio of the
highest.gear, ign (smaller gear ratio), and the ratio of the lowest gear, ig1 (largest
gearRatio), have been determined and the number of the gear ng is known, the Factor Kg
can be determined as kg=(ig1/ign)(ng-1). And eatch gear ratio can be obtained by (ign-
1=Kg ign) (ign-2=K²g ign) (ig2=Kng-1 g ign) For passenger cars, to suit changing traffic
conditions, the step between the ratios of the upper two gears is often a little closer than
that based on previous That is, (ig1/ig2 > ig2/ig3 > ig3/ig4).This, in turn, affects the
selection of the ratios of the lower gears. For comercial vehicles, however, the gear
ratios in the gearbox are often arranged Based on previous equation.Gear transmission
and that of an electric vehicle with single-gear transmission.It is clear that electric
machines with favorable torquespeed characteristics Can satisfy tractive effort with
simple single-gear transmission.
BREAKING:The braking performance of a vehicle is undoubtedly one of the most important
characteristics that affect vehicle safety. In urban driving, a significant Amount of energy is
consumed in braking. In recent years, more and more Electric drives have been involved in
vehicle traction, such as electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell-powered
vehicles. The electrification of the vehicle drive train makes it feasible to recover some of the
energy Lost in braking. This technology is usually referred to as regenerative braking. A well-
designed regenerative braking system not only improves vehicle Efficiency but also potentially
improves braking performance. In this section,A method of approach to the analysis of braking
performance will be preSented, which aims to help the designing of regenerative braking
systems. Break distribution: Rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag are ignored in this
figure,Because they are quite small compared to the braking forces. J is the deceleration of the
vehicle during braking, which can be easily expressed as (j=Fbf + Fbr/Mv) where Fbf and Fbr
are the braking forces acting on front and rear wheels,Respectively.The maximum braking force
is limited by the tire–ground adhesion and is Proportional to the normal load acting on the tire.
Thus, the actual braking Force developed by the brake torque should also be proportional to the
normal load so that both the front and the rear wheels obtain their maximum Braking force at the
same time. During braking, there is load transfer from The rear axle to the front axle. By
considering the equilibrium of moments the ideal braking forces on the front and rear Axle can
be obtained where j represents the maximum acceleration that a vehicle can obtain on the road
with an adhesive Coefficient µ. The ideal braking force distribution curve (simply, I curve) is a
Nonlinear hyperbolic curve. If it is desired for the front and rear wheels to Lock up at the same
time on any road, the braking force on the front and rear Axle must closely follow this curve.In
vehicle design, the actual braking forces on the front and rear axle are Usually designed to have
a fixed linear proportion. This proportion is represented by the ratio of the front axle braking
force to the total braking force of The vehicle, that is (Beta=Fbf/Fb). (Beta=µ0 hg+Lb/L) During
braking on roads with an adhesive coefficient that is less than µ0 (the Region in which the β
curve is below the I curve), the front wheels lock up First, whereas when the road adhesive
coefficient is larger than µ0 (the region In which the β curve is above the I curve), the rear
wheels lock up first.When the rear wheels lock up first, the vehicle will lose directional
stability,Vehicle acted upon by the braking force and the inertia force. When the rear Wheels
lock, the capability of the rear tires to resist lateral forces is reduced To zero. If some slight
lateral movement of the rear Wheels is initiated by side wind, road camber, or centrifugal force,
a yawing Moment due to the inertia force about the yaw center of the front axle will Develop. As
the yaw motion progresses, the moment arm of the inertia force Increases, resulting in an
increase in yaw acceleration. As the rear end of the Vehicle swings around 90°, the moment
arm gradually decreases and eventually the vehicle rotates 180° with the rear end leading the
front end.The lockup of front wheels will cause a loss of directional control, and the Driver will no
longer be able to exercise effective steering. It should be Pointed out, however, that front wheel
lockup does not cause directional Instability. This is because whenever the lateral movement of
the front Wheels occurs, a self-correcting moment due to the inertial force of the vehicle about
the yaw center of the rear axle develops. Consequently, it tends to Bring the vehicle back to a
straight-line path. the measured angular deviation of a vehicle when the front and rear wheels
do not Lock at the same instant.Loss of steering control may be detected more readily by the
driver and Control may be regained by the release or partial release of the brakes.Contrary to
the case of front wheel lockup, when rear wheels lock and the angular deviation of the vehicle
exceeds a certain level, control cannot be Regained even by complete release of the brakes
and by the most skilful driving. This suggests that rear wheel lockup is a more critical situation,
particularly on a road with a low adhesive coefficient.
EV Configurations An electric vehicle, unlike its ICE counterparts, is quite flexible [4].
This is because of the absence of intricate mechanical arrangements that are required to
run a conventional vehicle. In an EV, there is only one moving part, the motor. It can be
controlled by different control arrangements and techniques. The motor needs a power
supply to run which can be from an array of sources. These two components can be
placed at different locations on the vehicle and as long as they are connected through
electrical wires, the vehicle will work. Then again, an EV can run solely on electricity, but
an ICE and electric motor can also work in conjunction to turn the wheels. Because of
such flexibility, different configurations emerged which are adopted according to the
type of vehicle. An EV can be considered as a system incorporating three different
subsystems [4]: energy source, propulsion and auxiliary. The energy source subsystem
includes the source, its refueling system and energy management system.Series Hybrid
This configuration is the simplest one to make an HEV. Only the motor is connected to
the Wheels here, the engine is used to run a generator which provides the electrical
power. It can be put As an EV that is assisted by an ICE generator [4]. Series hybrid drive
train is shown in Figure 18. Table 2 shows the merits and demerits of this configuration.
This configuration connects both the ICE and the motor in parallel to the wheels. Either
one of Them or both take part in delivering the power. It can be considered as an IC
engine vehicle with Electric assistance [4]. The energy storages in such a vehicle can be
charged by the electric motor by Means of regenerative braking or by the ICE when it
produces more than the power required to drive The wheels. Parallel hybrid drive train is
shown in Figure 19. Table 3 shows the merits and demerits Of this configuration, while
Table 4 compares the series and the parallel systems. Series-Parallel Hybrid In an effort
to combine the series and the parallel configuration, this system acquires an Additional
mechanical link compared to the series type, or an extra generator when compared to the
Parallel type. It provides the advantages of both the systems but is more costly and
complicated Nonetheless. Complications in drive train are caused to some extent by the
presence of a planetary Gear unit [30]. Figure 20 shows a planetary gear arrangement:
the sun gear is connected to the Generator, the output shaft of the motor is connected to
the ring gear, the ICE is coupled to the Planetary carrier, and the pinion gears keep the
whole system connected. A less complex alternative To this system is to use a
transmotor, which is a floating-stator electric machine. In this system the Engine is
attached to the stator, and the rotor stays connected to the drive train wheel through the
Gears. The motor speed is the relative speed between the rotor and the stator and
controlling it adjusts the engine speed.Complex Hybrid This system has one major
difference with the series-parallel system, that is, it allows Bidirectional flow of power
whereas the series-parallel can provide only unidirectional power flow. However, using
current market terminologies, this configuration is denoted as series-parallel system
Too. High complexity and cost are drawbacks of this system, but it is adopted by some
vehicles to use Dual-axle propulsion [4]Constantly variable transmission (CVT) can be
used for power splitting in A complex hybrid system or choosing between the power
sources to drive the wheels. Electric Arrangements can be used for such processes and
this is dubbed as e-CVT, which has been developed And introduced by Toyota Motor Co.
(Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture 471-8571, Japan). CVTs can be Implemented hydraulically,
mechanically, hydro-mechanically or electromechanically [32]. Two Methods of power
splitting—input splitting and complex splitting are shown in [32]. Input splitting Got the
name as it has a power split device placed at the transmission input.
Fuel cells generate electricity by electrochemical reaction. An FC has an anode (A), a cathode
(C) And an electrolyte between them. Fuel is introduced to the anode, gets oxidized there, the
ions Created travel through the electrolyte to the cathode and combine with the other reactant
introduced There. The electrons produced by oxidation at the anode produce the electricity.
Hydrogen is used in FCEVs because of its high energy content, and the facts it is non-polluting
(producing only water as Exhaust) and abundant in Nature in the form of different compounds
such as hydrocarbons. Hydrogen can be stored in different methods for use in EVs 2H2 + O2 =
2H2O.hydrogen also have lower energy density compared to petroleum derived fuel, therefore
larger fuel tanks are required for FCEVs, these tanks also have to capable enough to contain
the hydrogen properly and to minimize risk of any explosion in case of an accident. FC’s
efficiency depends on the power it is supplying; efficiency generally decreases if more power is
drawn. Voltage drop in internal resistances cause most of the losses. Response time of FCs is
comparatively higher to UCs or batteries [35]. Because of these reasons, storage like batteries
or UCs is used alongside FCs. The Toyota Mirai uses batteries to power its motor and the FC is
used to charge the batteries. The batteries receive the power reproduced by regenerative
braking as well. This combination provides more flexibility as the batteries do not need to be
charged, only the fuel for the FC has to be replenished and it takes far less time than recharging
the batteries. Flywheels are used as energy storage by using the energy to spin the flywheel
which keeps on spinning because of inertia. The flywheel acts as a motor during the storage
stage. When the energy is needed to be recovered, the flywheel’s kinetic energy can be used to
rotate a generator to produce power. Advanced flywheels can have their rotors made out of
sophisticated materials like carbon composites and are placed in a vacuum chamber suspended
by magnetic bearings. Flywheels offer a lot of advantages over other storage forms for EV use
as they are lighter, faster and more efficient at absorbing power from regenerative braking,
faster at supplying a huge amount of power in a short time when rapid acceleration is needed
and can go through a lot of charge-discharge cycles over their lifetime. They are especially
favored for hybrid racecars which go through a lot of abrupt braking and acceleration, which are
also at much higher g-force than normal commuter cars. Storage systems like batteries or UCs
cannot capture the energy generated by regenerative braking in situations like this properly.
Flywheels, on the other hand, because of their fast response, have a better efficiency in similar
scenarios, by making use of regenerative braking more effectively; it reduces pressure on the
brake pads as well. Flywheels can be made with different materials, each with their own merits
and demerits.
Batteries have been the major energy source for EVs for a long time; though of course, was
time Has gone by, different battery technologies have been invented and adopted and this
process is still Going on to attain the desired performance goals. Table 5 shows the desired
performance for EV Batteries set by the U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC). Some of
the prominent battery types are: lead-acid, Ni-Cd, Ni-Zn, Zn/air, Ni-MH, Na/S, Lipolymer and Li-
ion batteries.The battery packs used in EVs are made of numerous battery cells.The Tesla
ModelS, for example, has 7104 Li-Ion cells in the 85 kWh pack. All these cells are desired to
have the same SOC at all times to have the same degradation rate and same capacity over the
lifetime, preventing Premature end of life (EOL) [46]. A power electronic control device, called a
cell voltage equalizer, Can achieve this feat by taking active measures to equalize the SOC and
voltage of each cell. The Equalizers can be of different types according to their construction and
working principle. Resistive Equalizers keep all the cells at the same voltage level by burning up
the extra power at cells with Higher voltages. Capacitive equalizers, on the other hand, transfers
energy from the higher energy Cells to the lower energy ones by switching capacitors. Inductive
capacitors can be of different Configurations: basic, Cuk, and single of multiple transformer
based; but all of them transfer energy From higher energy cells to the ones with lower energy by
using inductors. Ultracapacitors UCs have two electrodes separated by an ion-enriched liquid
dielectric. When a potential is applied, the positive electrode attracts the negative ions and the
negative electrode gathers the positive ones. The charges get stored physically stored on
electrodes this way and provide a considerably high power density. As no chemical reactions
take place on the electrodes, ultracapacitors tend to have a long cycle life; but the absence of
any chemical reaction also makes them low in energy density [35]. The internal resistance is low
too, making it highly efficient, but it also causes high output current if charged at a state of
extremely low SOC [56,57]. A UC’s terminal voltage is directly proportional to its SOC; so it can
also operate all through its voltage range [35]. Basic construction of an UC cell is shown in
Figure 29. EVs go through start/stop conditions quite a lot, especially in urban driving situations.
This makes the battery discharge rate highly changeable. The average power required from
batteries is low, but during acceleration or conditions like hill-climb a high power is required in a
short duration of time . The peak power required in a highperformance electric vehicle can be up
to sixteen times the average power. UCs fit in perfectly in such a scenario as it can provide high
power for short durations. It is also fast in capturing the energy generated by regenerative
braking. A combined battery-UC system negates each other’s shortcomings and provides an
efficient and reliable energy system. The low cost, load leveling capability, temperature
adaptability and long service life of UCs make them a likable option as well.
Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) SRMs, also known as doubly salient motor (because of
having salient poles both in the stator and the rotor) are synchronous motors driven by unipolar
inverter-generated current. They demonstrate simple and robust mechanical construction, low
cost, high-speed, less chance of hazards, inherent long constant power range and high power
density useful for EV applications. PM is not required for such motors and that facilitates
enhanced reliability along with fault tolerance. Synchronous Reluctance Motor runs at a
synchronous speed while combining the advantages Of both PM and induction motors. They
are robust and fault tolerant like an IM, efficient and small Like a PM motor, and do not have the
drawbacks of PM systems. They have a control strategy similar To that of PM motors. The
problems with SynRM can be pointed as the ones associated with Controllability, manufacturing
and low power factor which hinder its use in EVs. However, Researches have been going on
and some progress is made as well, the main area of concern being The rotor design. One way
to improve this motor is by increasing the saliency which provides a higher Power factor. PM
Assisted Synchronous Reluctance Motor Greater power factors can be achieved from SynRMs
by integrating some PMs in the rotor, Creating a PM assisted Synchronous Reluctance Motor.
Though it is similar to an IPM, the PMs used Are fewer in amount and the flux linkages from
them are less too. PMs added in the right amount to The core of the rotor increase the efficiency
with negligible back EMF and little change to the stator. This concept is free from the problems
associated with demagnetization resulting from overloading And high temperature observed in
IPMs. Axial Flux Ironless Permanent Magnet Motor According to [70], this motor is the most
advanced one to be used in EVs. It has an outer rotor With no slot; use of iron is avoided here
as well. The stator core is absent too, reducing the weight of The machine. The air gap here is
radial field type, providing better power density. This motor is a Variable speed one too. One
noteworthy advantage of this machine is that the rotors can be fitted on Lateral sides of wheels,
placing the stator windings on the axle centrally. The slot-less design also Improves the
efficiency by minimizing copper loss as there is more space available.
Converters for Wired Charging DC-DC boost converter is used to drive DC motors by increasing
the battery voltage up to the Operating level. DC-DC converters are useful to combine a power
source with a complementing Energy source .a universal DC-DC converter used for DC-DC
conversion. It can Be used as a boost converter for battery to DC link power flow and as a buck
converter when the flowIs reversed. The operating conditions and associated switching
configuration is presented ,DC-DC boost converters can also use a digital signal processor
According to , dual inverter is the most updated technology to drive AC motors like Permanent
magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs),. For dual voltage source Applications. These inverters
operate on space vector PWM. For Use on both PMSMs and induction motors (IMs), a
bidirectional stacked matrix inverter can be used Some notable conventional DC-DC converters
are: phase-shift full-bridge (PSFB), inductorinductor-capacitor (LLC), and series resonant
converter (SRC). A comparison of components used in These three converters , The DC-DC
Converters used are required to have low cost, weight and size for being used in automobiles .
Interleaved converters are a preferable option regarding these considerations, it offers some
other Advantages as well , though using it may increase the weight and volume of the inductors
Compared to the customary single-phase boost converters. To solve this problem, Close-
Coupled Inductor (CCI) and Loosely-Coupled Inductor (LCI) integrated interleaved converters
have been Proposed in. In converters for AC level-1 and level-2 chargers are shown by
Williamson et Al., who stated that Power Factor Correction (PFC) is a must to acquire high
power density and Efficiency. Two types of PFC technique are shown here: single-stage
approach and two-stage Approach. The first one suits for low-power use and charge only lead-
acid batteries because of high Low frequency ripple. To avoid these problems, the second
technique is used.The Interleaved Boost PFC Converter has a couple of boost converters
connected in parallel and working in 180° out Of phase . The ripple currents of the inductors
cancel each other. This configuration also Provides twice the effective switching frequency and
provides a lower ripple in input current, Resulting in a relatively small EMI filter. In
Bridgeless/Dual Boost PFC Converter the gating signals are made identical here by tying the
power-train switches. The MOSFET gates Are not made decoupled. Rectifier input bridge is not
needed here. The Bridgeless Interleaved Boost PFC Converter is proposed to operate above
the 3.5 kW level. It has two MOSFETS and Uses two fast diodes; the gating signals have a
phase difference of 180°. The Interleaved ZVS FB Converter with Voltage Doubler.further
reduces the voltage stress and ripple current on the capacitive Output filter, it reduces the cost
too. Interleaving allows equal power and thermal loss distribution in Each cell. The number of
secondary diodes is reduced significantly by the voltage doubler rectifier at The output. Among
its operating modes, DCM (discontinuous conduction mode) and BCM (boundary conduction
mode) are preferable. The Full Bridge LLC Resonant Converter is Widely used in telecom
industry for the benefits like high efficiency at resonant frequency. But unlike The telecom
sector, EV applications require a wide operating range. Reference [41] shows a design
Procedure for such configurations for these applications. Bidirectional converters allow
transmission of power from the motors to the energy sources and also from vehicle to grid.
Novel topologies for bidirectional AC/DC-DC/DC converters to be used in PHEVs are being
researched showed different DC-DC converter arrangements for EVs using multiple energy
sources in. The first system has both battery and ultracapacitor added in cascade, while the
second one has them connected in parallel. The third one shows a system employing fuel cells,
and battery for backup.Koushki et al., classified bidirectional AC-DC converters into two main
groups: Low frequency AC-High frequency AC-DC, and Low frequency AC-DC- High frequency
AC-DC (Figure 58). The first kind can also be called single-stage Converters where the latter
may be described as two-stage, which can be justified from their Topologies.
TYPES OF MOTORS: Brushed DC MOTORS USED:Motor These motors have permanent
magnets (PM) to make the stator; rotors have brushes to provide Supply to the stator.
Advantages of these motors can be the ability to provide maximum torque in Low speed. The
disadvantages, on the other hand, are its bulky structure, low efficiency, heat Generated
because of the brushes and associated drop in efficiency. The heat is also difficult to remove As
it is generated in the center of the rotor. Because of these reasons, brushed DC motors are not
used In EVs any more.Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor (BLDC) The rotor of this motor
is made of PM (most commonly NdFeB [4]), the stator is provided an Alternating current (AC)
supply from a DC source through an inverter. As there are no windings in The rotor, there is no
rotor copper loss, which makes it more efficient than induction motors. This Motor is also lighter,
smaller, better at dissipating heat (as it is generated in the stator), more reliable, Has more
torque density and specific power [4]. But because of its restrained field-weakening ability, The
constant power range is quite short. The torque also decreases with increased speed because
of Back EMF generated in the stator windings. The use of PM increases the cost as well.
However, Enhancement of speed range and better overall efficiency is possible with additional
field windings . Such arrangements are often dubbed PM hybrid motors because of the
presence of both PM And field windings. But such arrangements too are restrained by
complexity of structure; the speed Ratio is not enough to meet the needs of EV use, specifically
in off-roaders [30]. PM hybrid motors Can also be constructed using a combination of reluctance
motor and PM motor. Controlling the Conduction angle of the power converter can improve the
efficiency of PM BLDCs as well as speed Range, reaching as high as four times the base
speed, though the efficiency may decrease at very high Speed resulting from demagnetization
of PM [4]. Other than the PM hybrid configurations, PM BLDCs can be buried magnet mounted
—which can provide more air gap flux density, or surface Magnet mounted—which require less
amount of magnet. BLDCs are useful for use in small cars Requiring a maximum 60 kW of
power. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) These machines are one of the most
advanced ones, capable of being operated at a range of speeds without the need of any gear
system. This feature makes these motors more efficient and compact. This configuration is also
very suitable for in-wheel applications, as it is capable of providing high torque, even at very low
speeds. PMSMs with an outer rotor are also possible to construct without the need of bearings
for the rotor. But these machines’ only notable disadvantage also comes in during in-wheel
operations where a huge iron loss is faced at high speeds, making the system unstable [73].
NdFeB PMs are used for PMSMs for high energy density. The flux linkages in the air-gap are
sinusoidal in nature; therefore, these motors are controllable by sinusoidal voltage supplies and
vector control [70]. PMSM is the most used motor in the BEVs available currently; at least 26
vehicle models use this motor technology [5]. Induction Motor (IM) Induction motors are used in
early EVs like the GM EV1 [23] as well as current models like the Teslas [54,74]. Among the
different commutatorless motor drive systems, this is the most mature one [2]. Vector control is
useful to make IM drives capable of meeting the needs of EV systems. Such a system with the
ability to minimize loss at any load condition is demonstrated in [75]. Field orientation control
can make an IM act like a separately excited DC motor by decoupling its field control and torque
control. Flux weakening can extend the speed range over the base speed while keeping the
power constant [30], field orientation control can achieve a range three to five times the base
speed with an IM that is properly designed [76]. Three phase, four pole AC motors with copper
rotors are seen to be employed in current EVs.

Energy Savings Potential of Hybrid Drivetrains In terms of overall energy efficiency, the
conceptual advantages of a hybrid over a conventional Vehicle are: Regenerative
braking. A hybrid can capture some of the energy Normally lostas heat to the mechanical
brakes by using its electric driveMotor(s) in generator mode to brake the vehicle More
efficient operation of the ICE, including reduction of idle. A Hybrid can avoid some of the
energy losses associated with engine Operation at speed and load combinations where
the engine is inefficient By using the energy storage device to either absorb part of the
ICE’s Output or augment it or even substitute for it. This allows the ICE to Operate only at
speeds and loads whereit is most efficient. When an HEV Is stopped, rather than running
the engine atidle, where it is extremely Inefficient, the control system may either shut off
the engine, with the Storage device providing auxiliary power (for heating or cooling the
Vehicle interior, powering headlights, etc.), or run the engine at a higherthan-idle (more
efficient) power setting and use the excess power (overAuxiliary loads) to recharge the
storage device. When the vehicle control System can shut the engine off at idle, the
drivetrain can be designed so That the drive motor also serves as the starter motor,
allowing extremely Rapid restart due to the motor’s high starting torque. Smaller ICE:
Since the storage device can take up a part of the load, the HEV’s ICE can be down sized.
The ICE may be sized for the continuous Load and not for the very high short term
acceleration load. This enables The ICE to operate at a higher fraction of its rated power,
generally at Higher fuel efficiency, during most of the driving.There are counterbalancing
factors reducing hybrids’ energy advantage, including: Potential for higher weight.
Although the fuel-driven energy source on A hybrid generally will be of lower power and
weight than the engine in A conventional vehicle of similar performance, total hybrid
weight is likely to behigher than the conventional vehicle it replaces because of The
added weight of the storage device, electric motor(s), and other Components. This
depends, of course, on the storage mechanism chosen,The vehicle performance
requirements, and so forth. Electrical losses. Although individual electric drivetrain
components Tend to be quite efficient for one-way energy flows, in many hybrid
Configurations, electricity flows back and forth through components in A way that leads
to cascading losses. Further, some of the components May be forced to operate under
conditions where they have reduced Efficiency. For example, like ICEs, most electric
motors have lowerEfficiency at the low-speed, low-load conditions often encountered in
City driving. Without careful component selection and a control strategy That minimizes
electric losses, much of the theoretical efficiency Advantage often associated with an
electric drivetrain can be lost.
Mode of operation Series Hybrid System:In case of series hybrid system the mechanical output
is first converted into Electricity using a generator. The converted electricity either charges the
battery or can bypass The battery to propel the wheels via the motor and mechanical
transmission. Conceptually, itIs an ICE assisted Electric Vehicle (EV). The advantages of series
hybrid drivetrains are: mechanical decoupling between the ICE and driven wheels allows the
IC engine operating at its very narrow optimal region as shown in  nearly ideal torque-speed
characteristics of electric motor make Multigeartransmission unnecessary.However, a series
hybrid drivetrain has the following disadvantages: the energy is converted twice (mechanical
to electrical and then to Mechanical) and this reduces the overall efficiency. Two electric
machines are needed and a big traction motor is required Becauseit is the only torque source of
the driven wheels.The series hybrid drivetrain is used in heavy commercial vehicles, military
vehicles and buses.The reason is that large vehicles have enough space for the bulky
engine/generator system.In the series hybrid system there are four operating modes based on
the power flow: Mode 1: During startup (Figure 6a), normal driving or acceleration of The
series HEV, both the ICE and battery deliver electric energy to the Power converter which then
drives the electric motor and hence the Wheels viatransmission. Mode 2: At light load (Figure
6b), the ICE output is greater than that Required to drive the wheels. Hence, a fraction of the
generated electrical Energy is used to charge the battery. The charging of the batter takes Place
till the battery capacity reaches a proper level. Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure
6c), the electric motor Actsas a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the wheels into
Electricityand this, is used to charge the battery. Mode 4: The battery can also be charged by
the ICE via the generator Even when the vehicle comes to a complete stop.
Parallel Hybrid System:The parallel HEV (Figure 4b) allows both ICE and electric motor (EM) to
deliver power to drive The wheels. Since both the ICE and EM are coupled to the drive shaftof
the wheels via two Clutches, the propulsion power may be supplied by ICE alone, by EM only or
by both ICE and EM. The EM can be used as a generator to charge thebattery by regenerative
braking or Absorbing power from the ICE when its output is greater than that required to drive
the wheels. The advantages of the parallel hybrid drivetrain are: both engine and electric
motor directly supply torques to the driven Wheelsand no energy form conversion occurs, hence
energy loss is less  compactness due to no need of the generator and smaller traction
Motor.The drawbacks of parallel hybrid drivetrains are:  mechanical coupling between the
engines and the driven wheels, thus The engine operating points cannot be fixed in a narrow
speed region. The mechanical configuration and the control strategy are complex compared to
series hybrid drivetrain.Due to its compact characteristics, small vehicles use parallel
configuration. Most passenger cars employ this configurationThe parallel hybrid system has four
modes of operation. These four modes of operation are  Mode 1: During start up or full throttle
acceleration (Figure 7); both the ICE and the EM share the required power to propel the vehicle.
Typically, the relative distribution between the ICE and electric motor is 80-20%. Mode 2:
During normal driving (Figure 7), the required traction power is supplied by the ICE only and the
EM remains in off mode. Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 7), the EM acts as a
generator to charge the battery via the power converter. Mode 4: Under light load condition
(Figure 7), the traction power is delivered by the ICE and the ICE also charges the battery via
the EM.

CONTROL STRATEGY Is a control rule that is preset in the vehicle controller and
Commands the operating of each component. The vehicle controller receives the
operation commands from the driver and the feedback from the drive Train and all the
components, and then makes the decisions to use proper Operation modes. Obviously,
the performance of the drive train relies Mainly on the control quality, in which the
control strategy plays a crucial Role.In practice, there are a number of control strategies
that can be used in a Drive train for vehicles with different mission requirements. In this
chapter,Two typical control strategies are introduced: (1) maximum state-of-charge of
Peaking power source (Max. SOC-of-PPS) and (2) engine turn-on and turnoff (engine-on–
off) control strategies. Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategies The target of this control
strategy is to meet the power demand commanded by the driver and, at the same time,
maintain the SOC of the PPS at its high level. This control strategy is considered to be
the proper design for vehicles for which the performance relies heavily on the peak
power source. This includes vehicles with frequent stop–go driving patterns, and military
vehicles for which carrying out their mission is the most important.A high SOC level will
guarantee the high performance of the vehicles at any time.The Max. SOC-of-PPS control
strategy is depicted in Figure 7.3, in which points A, B, C, and D represent the power
demands that the driver commands in either traction mode or braking mode. Point A
represents the commanded traction power that is greater than the power that the
engine/generator can produce. In this case, the PPS must produce its power to make up
the power shortage of the engine/generator. Point B represents the commanded power
that is less than the power that the engine/generator produces when operating in its
optimal operation region (refer to Figure 7.2).In this case, two operating modes may be
used, depending on the SOC level of PPS. If the SOC of the PPS is below its top line, the
PPS charging mode is applied — that is, the engine/generator is operated within its
optimal operating region and part of its power goes to the traction motor to propel the
vehicle and the other part goes to the PPS. On the other hand, if the SOC of the PPS has
already reached its top line, the engine/generator traction mode alone is supplied, that is,
the engine/generator is controlled to produce power equal to the demanded power, and
the PPS is set at idle. Point C represents the commanded braking power that is greater
than the braking power that the motor can produce (maximum regenerative braking
power).In this case, the hybrid braking mode is used, in which the electric motor
produces its maximum braking power and the mechanical braking system produces the
remaining braking power. Point D represents the commanded braking power that is less
than the maximum braking power that the motor can produce. In this case, only
regenerative braking is used. The control flowchart of Max.

MULTIQUADRANT CONTROL OF CHOPPER-FED DC MOTOR DRIVES The application of

DC motors on EVs and HEVs requires the motors to Operate in multiquadrants, including
forward motoring, forward braking, Backward motoring, and backward braking, as shown
in Figure 6.10. For Vehicles with reverse mechanical gears, two-quadrant operation
(forward Motoring and forward braking, or quadrant I and quadrant IV) is
required.However, for vehicles without reverse mechanical gears, four-quadrant
Operation is needed. Multiquadrant operation of a separately excited DC Motor is
implemented by controlling the voltage poles and magnitude Through power electronics-
based choppers. Two-Quadrant Control of Forward Motoring and Regenerative Braking A
two-quadrant operation consisting of forward motoring and forward Regenerative
braking requires a chopper capable of giving a positive voltage And current in either
direction. This two-quadrant operation can be realized In the following two schemes.2
6.1.4.1.1 Single Chopper with a Reverse Switch The chopper circuit used for forward
motoring and forward regenerative Braking is shown in Figure 6.11, where S is a self-
commutated semiconductor switch, operated periodically such that it remains closed for
a Duration of δT and remains open for a duration of (1 δ )T. C is the manual Switch. When
C is closed and S is in operation, permitting the forward motoring operation. Under these
conditions, terminal a is positive and terminal b is negative.Regenerative braking in the
forward direction is obtained when C is opened and the armature connection is reversed
with the help of the reversing switch RS, making terminal b positive and terminal a
negative. During the on-period of the switch S, the motor current flows through a path
consisting of the motor armature, switch S, and diode D1, and increases the energy
stored in the armature circuit inductance. When S is opened, the current flows through
the armature diode D2, source V, diode D1 and back to the armature, thus feeding energy
into the source.During motoring, the changeover to regeneration is done in the following
steps. Switch S is deactivated and switch C is opened. This forces the armature current
to flow through diode D2, source V, and diode D1. The energy stored in the armature
circuit is fed back to the source and the armature current falls to zero. After an adequate
delay to ensure that the current has indeed become zero, the armature connection is
reversed and switch S is reactivated with a suitable value of d to start regeneration.
STATIONARY WPT Electric vehicles simply park over an induction pad and charging
commences automatically. WPT Requires no charging poles or associated cabling. It can
accommodate differing rates of charge from A single on-board unit and the rateof charge
or required tariff can be set from within the vehicle. It Has no visible wires or connections
and only requires a charging pad buried in the pavement and a Pad integrated on to the
vehicle.The system works in a range of adverse environments including extremes of
temperature, while Submerged in water or covered in ice and snow. It will operate
underasphalt or embedded in Concrete and is also unaffected by dust or harsh
chemicals. WPT systems can be configured to Power all road- based vehicles from small
city cars to heavy goods vehicles and buses.A company called haloIPT (inductive
powertransfer) developed a technique where power at A frequency, usually in the range
20–100 kHz, can be magnetically coupled across IPT pads, Which are galvanically
isolated from the original source of power. A conceptual system is Shown below. This
comprises two separate elements. A primary- side power supply, with Track and a
secondary-side pick-up pad, with controller. The power supply takes electrical power
fromthe mains supply and energizes a lumped coil,with a current typically in the range 5–
125 A. Since the coil is inductive, compensation using series or parallel capacitors may
be required to reduce the working voltages and currents in the supply circuitry. These
capacitors also ensure an appropriate powerfactor.Pick-up coils are magnetically
coupledto the primary coil. Power transfer is achieved by Tuning the pick-up coil to the
operating frequency of the primary coil with a series or parallel Capacitor. The power
transfer is controllable with a switch-mode controller.followed by a small DC capacitor.
Keeping this capacitor small helps the overall power factor and Allows the system to
have a fast start-up with a minimal current surge. The inverter consists of an H-bridge to
energize the tuned primary pad with current at 20 kHz.The 20 kHz current also has a 100
Hz/120 Hzenvelope as a result of the small DC bus capacitor. Power is coupled to the
Secondary tuned pad. This is then rectified and controlledto a DC output voltage
appropriate to theVehicle and its batteries. The conversion from AC to DC and back to
AC, in the power supplyside, Is necessary so the frequency can be changed The system
includes three distinct hardwarecomponents:1 High-frequency generator or power
supply.2 Magnetic coupling system or transmitter/receiver pads.3 Pick-up
controller/compensation.The high-frequency generator takes a mains voltage input (240
V AC at 50/60 Hz) and produces High-frequency current (>20 kHz). The output current is
controlled and the generator may be Operated without a load. The efficiency of the
generator is high at over94% at 2 kW. The generator Comprises the following: mains
filter (to reduce EMI) rectifier bridge (MOSFETs) converting DC tohigh-frequency
combined isolating transformer/AC inductor tuning capacitors (specified for
frequencyand output current) control electronics (microcontroller, digital logic,
feedback and protectioncircuits).The design and construction of the transmitter and
receiver pads gives importantimprovements Over older pad topologies. Thisresults in
better coupling, lower weight and a smaller footprint, For a given power transfer and
separation. The pads can couple power over gaps of up to 400 mm. The coupling circuits
are tuned through the addition of compensation capacitors.A pick-up controller takes
power from the receiver pad and provides a controlled outputto the Batteries, typically
ranging from 250 Vto 400 V DC. The controller is required to provide an Output that
remains independent of the load and the separation between pads. Without a Controller,
the voltage would rise as the gap decreased and fall as the load current increased.
Charging modes Four different charging modes have been defined for safe charging of electric
vehicles in line with demand. These charging modes differ relative to the power sourceused
(protective contact, CEE,AC or DC charging socket), and they differ relative to the maximum
charging power and the communication possibilities.Mode 1: Charging from a socket to max 16
A three-phase without communication with the vehicle. The charging device is integrated in the
vehicle. Connection to the energy networkoccurs via an off-the-shelf, standardized plug and
socket that must be fused via a residual current protective device. This method is not
recommended because mode 2 offers greater safety thanks to communication with the
vehicle.Mode 2: Mode for charging from a socketto max. 32 A, three-phase with a control
function and protective function integrated in the cable or the wall-side plug. The charging
device is installed in the vehicle. Connection to the energy network occurs via an off-the-shelf,
standardized plug and socket. For mode 2 the standard prescribesa mobile device to increase
the level of protection.Moreover, for the power settingand to satisfy the safety requirements, a
communication device is required withthe vehicle. These two components are combined in the
In-Cable Control Box(ICCB).Mode 3: Mode for charging at AC charging stations. The charging
device is a fixed component Of the charging station and includes protection. In the charging
station PWM communication,Residual current device(RCD), overcurrent protection, shutdown,
as well as a specific charging Socket are prescribed. In mode 3 the vehicle can be charged
three-phase with up to 63 A so a Charging power of up to 43.5 kW is possible. Depending on
rechargeable battery capacity and Charge status, charges in less than 1 hourare possible.Mode
4: Mode for charging at DC charging stations. The charging device is a component of the
Charging station and includes protection.In mode 4 the vehicle can be charged with two
plugand-socket systems, both of which are based on the Type 2 plug geometry.The ‘Combined
Charging System’ has twoadditional DC contacts to 200 A and up to 170 kW Charging power.
The other option is a plug and socket with lower capacity for a charge to 80 A and Up to 38 kW
in Type 2design. Standards continue to be reviewed and changed to improve safety And ease
of use aswell as compatibility.
Fuel cells The energy of oxidation of conventional fuels,which is usually manifested as heat, can
be converted directly into electricity in a fuel cell.All oxidations involve a transfer of electrons
between the fuel and oxidant, and this is employed in a fuel cell to convert the energy directly
into electricity. All battery cells involvean oxide reduction at the positive pole and an oxidation at
the negative during some partof their chemical process. To achieve the separation of these
reactions in a fuel cell, ananode, a cathode and electrolyte are required.The electrolyte is fed
directly with the fuel.It has been found that a fuel of hydrogen whencombined with oxygen
proves to be a most efficient design. Fuel cells are very reliable andsilent in operation, but are
quite expensive to construct. Operation of a fuel cell is such that as hydrogenis passed over an
electrode (the anode), whichis coated with a catalyst, the hydrogen diffusesinto the electrolyte.
This causes electrons to be stripped off the hydrogen atoms. These electrons then pass through
the external circuit. Negatively charged hydrogen anions (OH) are formed at the electrode over
whichoxygen is passed such that it also diffuses into the solution. These anions move
throughthe electrolyte to the anode. Water is formedas the by-product of a reaction involving the
hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen atoms.If the heat generated by the fuel cell is used, an
efficiency of over 80% is possible, togetherwith a very good energy density figure. A
unitconsisting of many individual fuel cells is often referred to as a stack. The working
temperature of these cells variesbut about 200°C is typical. High pressure is also used and this
can be of the order of30 bar. It is the pressures and storage of hydrogen that are the main
problems to be overcome before the fuel cell will be a realistic alternative to other forms of
storage for themass market.Many combinations of fuel and oxidant are possible for fuel cells.
Though hydrogen–Oxygen is conceptually simple, hydrogen hassome practical
difficulties, including that it Isa gas at standard temperature and pressureand that there
does not currently exist an Infrastructure for distributing hydrogen to domestic users.
More readily usable, at least In the short term, would be a fuel cell poweredby a more
easily handled fuel. To this end,Fuel cells have been developed that run on methanol.
There are two types of fuel cell that Use methanol: reformed methanol fuel cell
(RMFC) direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC).In the RMFC, a reaction is used to release
hydrogen from the methanol, and then the Fuelcell runs on hydrogen. The methanol is
used as a carrier for hydrogen. The DMFC Uses methanol directly.RMFCs can be made
more efficient in the use of fuel than DMFCs, but aremore
Lithium-ion technology is becoming the batterytechnology of choice, but it still has
Plenty of potential to offer. Today’s batteries have an energy density of up to 140 Wh/kg
or more in some cases, but have the potential to go as high as 280 Wh/kg. Much research
in cell optimization is taking place to create a batterywith a higher Energy density and
increased range. Lithium-ion technology is currently considered the Safest. One issue
with this type of battery is that in cold conditions the lithium-ions’ movement is slower
during the charging process. This tends to make them reach the electrons on the surface
of the anode rather than inside it. Also,using a charging current that is too high creates
elemental lithium. This can be deposited on top of the anode covering the surface, which
can seal the passage. This is known as lithium plating. Research is ongoing and one
possible solution could be to warm up the battery before charging The Li-ion battery
works as follows. A negative pole (anode) and a positive pole(cathode) are part of the
individual cells of a lithium-ion battery together with the electrolyte and a separator. The
anode is a graphite structure and the cathode is layered metal oxide. Lithium-ions are
deposited between these layers. When the battery is charging, the lithium-ions move
from the anode to the cathode and take on electrons. The number of ions therefore
determines the energy density. When the battery is discharging,the lithium-ions release
the electrons to the anode, and move back to the cathode. Useful work is performed
when electrons flow through a closed external circuit. The following equations show one
example of the chemistry, in units of moles, making it possible to use coefficient X.
Bosch is working on post-lithium-ion batteries, such as those made using lithium–
sulphur technology, which promises greater energy density and capacity. The company
estimates that the earliest the lithium–sulphur battery willbe ready for series production
is the middle of the 2020s. There are several ways to improve battery performance. For
example, the material used for the anode and cathodeplays a major role in the cell
chemistry. Most of today’s cathodes consist of nickel–cobalt–manganese (NCM) and
nickel carboxyanhydrides (NCA), whereas anodes are made of graphite, soft or hard
carbon, or silicon carbon. High-voltage electrolytes can further boost battery
performance, raising the voltage withinthe cell from 4.5 to 5 volts. The technical
challenge lies in guaranteeing safety and longevity while improving performance.
Sophisticated battery management can further increase the range of a car by up to10%,
without altering the cell chemistry.

Vehicle-to-grid technology Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) is a system that uses bidirectional

power from the car to the grid as well as The normal charging routine of gridto car. If this
system is employed the car battery can be used As a power back-up for the home or
business. If the car is primarily charged from renewable Sources such as PV panels or
wind generation then returning thisto the grid is not only ecologically Beneficial, it is also
an ideal way of stabilizing fluctuations of demand in the grid. The potentialProblem is
managing inrush currents if lots of vehicles fast charge at the same time. This notion Is a
little way into the future at the time of writing (2015), but the concept of the ‘smart grid’
using Techniques such asthisisnot far off.Tesla Powerwall While not an EV technology,
the Tesla Powerwall is a spin-off and if combined with home solar Charging it could have
a significant impact on EV use. Powerwall is a home battery that charges Using
electricity generatedfrom solar panels, or when utility rates are low, and powers your
home In the evening.It also safeguards against power outages by providing a back-up
electricity supply.Automated, compact and simple to install, Powerwall offers
independence from the utility grid and The security of an emergencyback-up. The
average home uses more electricity in the morning and Evening than during the day
when solar energy is plentiful. Without a home battery, excess solar Energy is oftensold
to the power company and purchased back in the evening. This mismatch adds Demand
on power plants and increases carbon emissions. Powerwall bridges this gap between
Renewable energy supply and demand by making your home’s solar energy available to
you when You need it. Home solar installations consist of a solar panel, an electrical
inverter, and now a home Battery to store surplus solar energy for lateruse.
Solar charging case study In January 2015 I started running an experiment using
domestic solar panels, energy saving and monitoring systems, and a plug-in hybrid car.
The key part of the plan wasto see if I could run the car for free – or at leastat very low
cost. The 4-kW array of panels wasfitted and commissioned on16 January 2015.The
following charts will show how much electricity (in kilowatt hours; kWh) my panels
generated each week compared with my electricity use from the grid, and in due course,
the amount used to charge the car. At the end of week 1, they generated 22 kWh;
considering the snow and the time of year,I was reasonably impressed! On 31 January I
generated over 1 kW, even with snow, and was generating about 25 kWha week. The
solar plot on Figure 7.27 is effectively ameasure of the amount of weekly sunshine. The
other interesting issue is a matter of timing, because if you use electricity during
thenight it will come from the grid regardless of how much was generated by the panels
duringthe day. This was something to consider when the car arrived.My PV array has
saved me buying a lot of electricity and has further resulted in an income. Over a period
of six months I have received about £400 by selling the excess energy back to the grid
(using what is known as a feed-in tariff). In addition, my electricity billhas reduced
considerably.As you would expect, we pay much more for the electricity we use than the
price we get when selling it (something like 14p per unit when buying and 3p per unit – a
kWh –when selling). The way thefeed-in tariff worksisthatthe electricity generation
company pays us for 50% of the amount generated by the PV panels. So the more we
generate the more we get, but of course the other advantage isgained because the more
of the PV energy we use,the less electricity we purchase.