Evolution of Paste Fill Technology
Evolution of Paste Fill Technology
Evolution of Paste Fill Technology
Submitted By;
VAIBHAV PAREEK
PARTH NAGAR
NARESH SAINI
LOKESH KHATRI
YASH MEHTA
APPROVED BY
Submitted By
VAIBHAV PAREEK
PARTH NAGAR
NARESH SAINI
LOKESH KHATRI
YASH MEHTA
APPROVED BY
DECLARATION BY STUDENT
The project work carried out in this report titled “EVALUTION OF PASTE FILLING IN
MINES”, submitted for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mining
Engineering from Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur
(Raj.), is carried out by us under the supervision of HOD and Professor Dr. Anupam
Bhatnagar, Department of Mining Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering,
Udaipur. The contents of the project report are prepared by me and either partially or fully,
have not been submitted or will not be submitted, as it is to any other Institute or University
for the award of any degree or diploma.
I, declare that I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources
used in this project report. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic
honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any
idea/data/fact/ source in my submission.
CERTIFICATE
Date: 26-05-2023
I am highly thankful to respected Dr. Anupam Bhatnagar HOD and Professor, for their
invaluable suggestions and constructive criticism to point out certain features of
misconception and improve the report at a very early stage of its formation.
I am also thankful to respected Dr. S.C. Jain, Professor, Department of Mining
Engineering for permitting us to work on this topic.
I also acknowledge all the persons, who have directly or indirectly helped me and
the CTAE, Udaipur as an institution for providing me for learning and preparing this
seminar to enhance the report with latest development in this field.
I express my sincere gratitude to for their constructive criticisms, guidance and advices.
ABSTRACT
The application of paste filling in underground mines has gained significant attention in
recent years as a sustainable and efficient technique for managing mine tailings and
improving overall mine stability. This study focuses on the evaluation of paste filling in
mines, aiming to assess its effectiveness, economic viability, and environmental impact.
The evaluation process involves several key aspects. Firstly, the rheological properties of the
paste material are characterized to determine its flow behavior and stability. The paste's
strength and compressibility are assessed through laboratory testing to ensure its suitability
for underground applications. Moreover, the interaction between the paste and surrounding
rock mass is investigated to evaluate the stability and potential for consolidation.
To assess the effectiveness of paste filling, field trials are conducted in selected underground
mine stopes. The filling process parameters, such as density, water content, and binder
dosage, are optimized to achieve the desired strength and flow characteristics. Monitoring
techniques, including strain gauges and displacement sensors, are employed to assess the
behavior of the paste fill in real-time, providing insights into its performance under varying
mining conditions.
Economic viability is a critical factor in evaluating paste filling systems. Cost analyses are
performed, considering the expenses associated with paste preparation, transportation, and
placement. The potential benefits, such as improved ore recovery, reduced ground support
requirements, and enhanced mine safety, are also quantified to determine the economic
feasibility of implementing paste filling techniques.
Environmental considerations play a crucial role in evaluating paste filling systems. The
impacts on water resources, tailings management, and greenhouse gas emissions are assessed.
Additionally, the potential for mine site rehabilitation and reclamation is examined to
determine the long-term sustainability of paste filling practices.
The evaluation of paste filling in mines provides valuable insights into its technical
feasibility, economic viability, and environmental performance. The results of this study
contribute to the broader understanding of paste filling as a mine backfilling technique and
support informed decision-making regarding its implementation in underground mining
operations.
Introduction
The backfill method is used in the world practice of underground mining. This method
involves filling underground voids created by mining work with natural materials, such as:
mine tailings, flotation tailings or other materials (sand, gravel, aggregates, etc.)
Beside tailings, the practice of preparing materials for backfill involves the use of binders,
water and additives in an appropriate ratio. Cement is most commonly used as a binder.
Practical experience shows that the price of cement is most important factor in the total costs
of these methods. Costs are variable and depend from the country, the price of cement,
market conditions and the cost of exploitation and the applied methods. According to Yilmaz
and Yumlu (2017), depending on the recipe cement costs can constitute up to 55-65% of total
backfill costs.
From these reasons, it is gravitated toward some other materials, originated from mining and
other industries, which are waste and, from this aspect, can be considered as secondary raw
materials. These materials include: fly ash from thermal power plants, metallurgical slag,
gypsum from the desulphurization process, waste construction material, ash from other
combustion processes, dust from various industrial processes, etc.
One of the reasons for applying the backfill method is better utilization of the ore deposit
(vaporization of unexploited ore in the pillars), reducing the consequences of mining
operations due to subsidence, reducing the amount of tailings, and thus reducing the need for
larger tailings, which is favourable from the environmental.
Technology is constantly being improved from the aspects of the application of appropriate
equipment, i.e. of applied processes, as well as from the appropriate materials used for
backfill method.
It is very important that the used material has the appropriate characteristics from the aspect
of geomechanics, i.e. the better parameters of the strength, the minimum amount of the binder
and that there is no bleed water. This water releases binder and reduces its effect, which lead
to the pollution of the environment. This problem requires special treatment, and therefore
demands higher costs. On the other side, the applied method and technique should be
economically rational, and from this reason, the advantage has the available materials, like
materials from the mining exploitation (solid tailings and flotation tailings). The application
of a flotation tailings, which itself contains a high amount of water, usually requires
preliminary preparation, mostly thickening and filtration. The number of added materials or
binders should be as low as possible and the materials must be cheaper. The advantage of
using some materials (such as slag and fly ash) is proven because of pozzolanic and hydraulic
properties, as well as the reduction of costs.
PASTE
A Paste is tailing slurry that is sufficiently dewatered or dry granular material which is mixed
with sufficient water to fill the interstices between the particles so that the material behaves as
a fluid The material retains the water between the particles because of colloidal electric
particle charge of fines which bonds the particles to water molecules. In this state the paste
can be transported through a pipeline but has no critical flow velocity, i.e., the velocity at
which the solid and liquid components separated into two distinct phases .If more water than
can be held between particles is added to the paste, it becomes slurry and the material does
have a critical flow velocity in this state, the material will flow through the pipeline but will
separate out into two distinct phases if velocity in the pipeline drops below the critical value.
"Paste" is a densified uniform material of such mineralogical makeup and particle size
distribution, that it will bleed only minor quantities of water when at rest, experience
minimum segregation and can be moved in a pipe line at velocities well below that critical
velocities for similar sized materials and lower pulp or solids densities Pastes can remain
sitting in a pipeline for extended periods of time when cementitious material is present
PASTE FILL
Paste fill is dense non draining slurry made from single or combination of several suitable
solid materials produced to tooth paste consistency. For surface disposal no cement required.
For underground backfill cement always required.
Terminology :
– Paste (P)
– Paste fill (PF)
– Paste backfill (PB)
– Cemented paste backfill (CPB)
– Composite fill (CF)
– Paste aggregate fill (rocky paste fill)
PRINCIPAL CONCEPT
It requires a force to make it move the force used is gravity (stopes close to the surface may
require positive displacement pump in the system). Gravity starts the paste moving however
its a weight of the paste above it that keeps the paste moving in the pipeline. The general rule
of thumb for paste fill is that for every meter rise in vertical line you will have 1.5 meters
flow in the horizontal line. L.e. 300 m vertical -450 m horizontal.
Paste fill is a non-Newtonian Bingham plastic.
In simple terms this means that it does not follow Newton's laws concerning fluids. The
simplest way of explaining this is using of toothpaste. You can hold a paste tube upside down
with the lid off for as long as you like and nothing will come out.
Paste backfill is a high density backfill. In order to pump material at this density, a
component of fines is required.
Paste backfill is pumped by piston type pumps of the same type used to pump concrete.
Whole mill tailings can often be used to make paste backfill.
The final product has a lower void ratio so the backfill is denser.
Many mines are moving towards paste backfill because its lower cement content is required
to gain equivalent strengths when compared to hydraulic fill
Ground Support and Stability: Paste filling plays a crucial role in providing
ground support and enhancing the stability of underground mining
operations. By filling mined-out areas with paste, it helps prevent ground
subsidence, surface collapse, and rockfalls. This improves the safety
conditions for miners and maintains the integrity of underground
structures.
Cost Reduction and Operational Efficiency: Paste filling can lead to cost
savings and improved operational efficiency. By utilizing tailings and other
materials readily available on- site, it reduces the need for additional
materials and transportation costs. Additionally, the consolidation of waste
materials underground can improve the overall efficiency of mining
operations.
the required fill strength from reviews of various current design methods. The paper will
discuss the optimization of CPB-mix designs (as a means to reduce costs and improve fill
strength) followed by a discussion on the rheological properties of CPB. Finally, the paper
will discuss CPB delivery systems and underground placement of CPB
where γ = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3 ); B = width of stope (m); H = total height of filled
stope (m); φ'f = fill effective angle of internal friction (degree); σvH = vertical pressure at the
floor of the stope (kPa); K = coefficient of fill pressure. K will correspond to three different
states (Ka, K0, Kp) given by the following relationships:
where K0 = coefficient of fill pressure at rest or in place (0.4 to 0.6); Ka = coefficient of active
fill pressure (0.17 to 1); Kp = coefficient of passive fill pressure (1 to 10).
However, in a filled stope the active fill pressure condition (Ka) seems improbable. In
Equation 6, the coefficient of fill at rest pressure can alternatively be evaluated using this well
known relationship as follows:
where ν = Poisson's ratio of the fill (0.3 ≤ ν ≤ 0.4).
where γ = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3 ); c = cohesive strength of fill (kPa); B = width of
stope (m); H = depth below fill toe (m); tan φ = coefficient of internal friction of fill; φ =
angle of internal friction of fill (degree); K = coefficient of fill pressure (see Eq. 10).
where γ = bulk unit weight of the fill (kN/m3 ); Hm = total height of filled stope (m); z =
elevation point of measurement (m): z = 0 at the floor of the stope, z = Hm at the fill toe (z ≤ h
≤ Hm); B = width of stope; L = strike length of stope (m).
where Ep = rock mass or pillar elastic modulus (kPa); ∆Hp = strata length variation (m); FS =
factor of safety.
where k = scaling constant which must vary from 0.25 to 0.5; γp = strata unit weight
(kN/m3 ); Hp = strata height below surface (meter); FS = factor of safety.
Numeric modelling can also be used to determine the required stiffness or strength of a CPB
to prevent subsidence due to the roof deformation. The results can be very useful in
indicating the amount of the paste backfill desired. Modelling can be done with either of the
FLAC (2D and 3D) codes. Physical modelling, such as with a centrifuge, also can offer an
alternative to numeric modelling, but its application is usually limited to simple gravitational
models without high tectonic or in situ horizontal stresses (Stone 1993).
where γf = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3 ); Hf = total fill height (m); FS = factor of safety.
where B = width of stope; K = coefficient of fill pressure (see Eq. 10); c = cohesive strength
of fill (kPa); φ = angle of internal friction of fill (degree); γ = bulk unit weight of the fill
(kN/m3 ); H = total height of filled stope (m); FS = factor of safety. The fill cohesion (c) and
its angle of internal friction (φ) can be obtained from triaxial tests performed on laboratory or
in situ backfill samples.
Stability analysis of a narrowly exposed fill face.
where γ = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3 ); c = cohesive strength of fill (kPa); L = strike length
of stope (m); B = width of stope (m); H = total height of fill (m); φ = angle of internal friction
of fill (degree); FS = factor of safety.
Again, the fill cohesion (c) and its angle of internal friction (φ) can be obtained from triaxial
tests performed on laboratory or in situ backfill samples.
Confined block with shear resistance mechanism (after Mitchell et al. 1982)
where γ = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3 ); c = cohesive strength of fill (kPa); B = width of
stope (m); L = strike length of stope (m); H = total height of fill (m); FS = factor of safety (ca.
1.5).
In Equation 19, the fill cohesion (c) can be obtained from laboratory confined compression
tests on backfill samples.
The stability of a free standing backfill (Fig. 7) can also be determined from physical model
tests. Based on centrifugal modeling tests, Mitchell (1983) proposed a formula for evaluating
the design UCS which is given by:
where γ = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3 ); L = strike length of stope (m); H = total height of
fill (m); FS = factor of safety.
Confined block without shear resistance mechanism of frictionless fill (adapted from Mitchell
et al. 1982).
Ground support
After passive resistance has been mobilized by the fill, the strength increase in the
surrounding pillars will be equal to the magnitude of the passive fill pressure. So, the main
stabilizing effect of the fill is to give increased lateral confinement pressure to the pillars (Fig.
8). The compressive strength of the pillar increases according to the following formula
(Guang-Xu & Mao-Yuan, 1983):
where UCS'p = pillar compressive strength with fill (kPa); UCSp = pillar strength before the
stope filling (kPa); γ = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3 ); q = surcharge loading (kPa); H = total
height of fill (m); φf = angle of internal friction of fill (degree); φp = angle of internal friction
of pillar (degree); Kp-f = coefficient of passive pressure of the fill; Kp-p = coefficient of passive
pressure of the pillar.
Schematic of pillar confinement by the fill block
Working platform
For cyclic backfilling operations, as in cut-and-fill stoping, the fill in each operation must
serve as a platform for both mining equipment and personnel and typically requires high
strength development for the short term. A standard bearing capacity relationship that has
been developed from civil engineering techniques for design of shallow foundations has been
found to be applicable to paste backfill. The fill top surface bearing capacity, Qf (kPa), can be
determined using Terzaghi's expression (Craig 1995):
where γ = bulk unit weight of the fill (kN/m3 ); c = cohesive strength of fill (kPa); B = width
of square footing at surface contact position (m); Nγ = unit weight bearing capacity factor; Nc
= cohesion bearing capacity factor; Nq = surcharge bearing capacity factor; φ = angle of
internal friction of fill (degree). Equation 24 assumes that backfill bearing is by a square
footing, which is a reasonable representation of the footprint of a mine vehicle tire (Hassani
& Archibald 1998). Equation 25 was developed by Hansen (1968). For the mine vehicles
(Fig. 9), the contact width, B, corresponds to the tire contact width and can be determined by
the following relationship (Hassani & Bois 1992):
where Ft = tire loading force (kN); p = tire air pressure (kN/m2 ).
BACKFILL MATERIALS
The main components of cemented paste backfill are: binder, tailings and mixing water. The
main characteristics of each component that can affect the quality of the paste backfill are: the
chemical composition, grain size distribution, density and content of solids of the tailings
and, finally, the chemistry of mixing water. Each component plays an important role during
the backfill transportation, its delivery and its strength acquisition at curing time (Belem and
Benzaazoua, 2004; Benzaazoua et al.,2002).
Example of variation of UCS as a function of binder content at different curing times of 14,
28, 56, 91 and 118 days (after Benzaazoua et al. 2003).
Water is necessary to ensure that proper hydration of the cement occurs. If proper hydration
of the cement does not occur, the fill will not meet its required strength and stiffness. Since
tailings backfill is fairly saturated to begin with and additional water is usually required to
pump it underground, the water content of tailings backfill is always in far excess of what is
required for hydration of the Portland cement. The main concern then is the pH of the water
and the amount of sulfate salts present in the water. Acidic water and sulfate salts can attack
the cement bonds within the fill, leading to a loss of strength, durability, and stability
(Benzaazoua et al. 2002, 2004).
This figure shows that when using cement-slag binder with the same tailings sample mixed
with three different waters, the strength development is slow for all three waters for a curing
time of 14 days (Benzaazoua et al. 2002). Beyond this curing date and at a curing time of 28
days UCS reached a value of about 1600 kPa with the sulphate-free waters (municipal and
lake waters) and only 1000 kPa with the sulphate-rich water (mine A process water)
Toothpaste is an example of a non-Newtonian fluid that is commonly used and the yield
stress (applied force) explains why you have to squeeze the toothpaste out of the tube. The
paste has a higher viscosity and exhibits plug flow when transported in a pipe. The outer
portions of the slurry shear against the sidewall of the pipe and the central core travels as a
plug (Grice 1998). The flow of paste backfill in pipeline is entirely governed by their
rheological properties. Rheology is the science about flow and deformation of matter.
Rheology of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids:
Rheological models of CPB
The main mode for paste backfill flow in pipelines is the full-fall. Full-pipe flow refers to the
situation where the flowing paste forms a continuum and there is no air-filled gap or
discontinuities (vacuum “holes”) anywhere in the pipeline segment under consideration (Li et
Moerman. 2002). The most fundamental relationship in the rheology of a non-Newtonian
fluid is that between the shear rate, γ& (s-1) and pipe wall shear stress, τw(Pa). Once this
relationship is known, the behaviour of the fluid in all flow situations can be deduced. All
Non-Newtonian fluid rheology can be derived from the most general Herschel-Bulkley model
given by:
where τ0 = yield stress (Pa), k = consistency parameter or viscosity (Pa.s), (dV/dr) = paste
angular velocity or shear rate (s-1); r = point of velocity profile (m), R = radius of the pipe
(m), V = paste linear velocity (m/s), n = flow parameter.
For the Newtonian fluids, τ0 = n = 0; for the pseudoplastic fluids, τ0 = 0 and n < 0; for
dilatant fluids, τ0 = 0 and n > 0; for Bingham plastic fluids, τ0 > 0, n = 0 and k = η = plastic
viscosity in Pa.s (Fig. 16); for yield pseudoplastic fluids, τ0 > 0 and n > 0 (Fig. 16); for yield
dilatant fluids, τ0 > 0 and n > 0.
Paste backfills are non-Newtonian fluids and their rheology is approximately time-
independent during its transport in pipeline. Most paste backfill show an appreciable yield
stress and are Herschel-Bulkley fluids (Eq. 29). Some paste backfills are Bingham plastic in
limited shear rate ranges. Others are yield pseudoplastic or yield dilatant, with the former
more common than the latter.
The relationship between the pseudo shear rate, 8V/D, and the shear stress at the pipe wall,
τw, is given by:
where τ0 = yield stress (Pa), η = paste plastic viscosity (Pa.s), ∆P = differential pressure in the
pipe (Pa); D = internal pipe diameter (m), L = pipe length (m); V = paste laminar velocity
(m/s). The effective pipes diameter (D) for paste backfill transport is ranged between 10 cm
and 20 cm (4 and 8 in). Paste flow velocity varies from 0.1 m/s to 1 m/s. The practical
pumping distance of paste can reach 1000 m longitudinally (Lh) and unlimited vertically (Lv)
Solids concentration is often used to compare the composition of mixes, particularly in batch.
Although solids percentage does not provide a direct indication of a material's consistency, in
some cases it can be correlated to the slump, which does. In order to achieve the same mix
consistency from batch to batch, consistency can be measured by monitoring the electrical
power used by a motor turning the paddles of a mixer. The mixer is started and water is added
until the power required by the motor corresponds to the target power for the mix consistency
desired (Brackebusch 1994, Landriault & Lid kea 1993). Using this arrangement requires
only that slump be correlated to consistency and consistency be correlated to power. It is also
possible to predict what pressure gradient a mix will produce based on power once a
correlation has been established between slump and pressure loss.
Basic configurations for paste backfill distribution systems (adapted from Thomas et al.
1979).
As discussed by Thomas (1979), the "gravity/pump" system has the advantage of being
totally contained underground, thus causing no disruption to surface activities. Furthermore,
the ratio of the vertical to horizontal distance is usually so favourable that little or no
pumping energy is required.
The "gravity" system (Fig. 19) has the advantage of by converting vertical head to horizontal
pressure progressively which allows shorter and lighter pipes to be used. The pressure at the
take-off points are moderate and line failures, if any, do not disrupt the main shaft or main
level of operation. The circuit can be developed progressively as the mine expands.
The "pump/gravity" system (Fig. 19) has the advantage of easy installation, inspection and
maintenance, with no special underground level requirements and no disruption of the main
shaft. However, such a system makes the filling operation dependent upon a pumping
operation and requires a long borehole to place fill underground which results in a high-
pressure take-off point.
where f = friction head loss (Pa/m); ηB = Bingham plastic viscosity (Pa.s); τ0 = yield stress
(Pa); τw = wall shear stress in Pa (τw ≈ D∆P/4L); D = pipe diameter (m); ∆P = differential
pressure in the pipe (Pa).
Schematic showing the components of a backfilled stope and the stress field distribution.
After the stope is backfilled with CPB its mechanical integrity can be threatened by several
macroscopic factors (in opposition to the hydration process) which are going to influence the
mechanical strength of the CPB and the structural stability of the filled stope. These factors
which result from interactions between CPB and rock walls are, fill settlement and the
drainage of its excess water, fill consolidation, stope volume, stress field distribution within
the backfill mass (pressures at the floor of the stope and on the barricade), wall convergence
against the fill mass, shrinkage and the arching effect.
Drainage and settlement will favour the development of a high mechanical strength of the
CPB (Belem et al. 2001, 2002). On the other hand, the fill mass will be stable due to the
development of arching effects depending upon the stope dimensions.
The pressures at the floor of the stope and on the barricade will have a harmful effect on the
stability of the filled stope when these pressures are too high (see more details in Belem et al.
in the companion paper). Consequently, it is necessary to understand these various factors
which influence stope stability to ensure better ground control. The knowledge of the
magnitude of the pressures on the barricade will allow better planning of the mining
sequences. The knowledge of the stress field within the fill mass will facilitate its stability
analysis when it is considered that one of its faces may be exposed or when one wants to cut
an access gallery to a new orebody through the CPB.
SOP for paste fill reticulation installation. SOP for timber barricade installation SOP
for shotcrete barricade installation.
SOP for underground paste fill sampling, slump testing, UCS test.
cylinder casting, curing the paste samples
mines around the world. The discussion in this seminar demonstrates areas
The technology for producing and transporting paste is now well established
worldwide and is in the process of being introduced in a few Indian mines.
The advantages include direct benefits and indirect benefits to the mining operation.
It is recommended to follow a systematic approach for the application of paste
technology for any Indian mining scenario beginning with material testing and
feasibility studies to investigate the potential benefits paste technology.
REFERENCES
To refer a book-
2. Technologies for solution in tailings disposal - paste backfill and thickened tailings
surface disposal Gautam Chaterjee, Atul Gandhe, Primeau Pierre and Chris Lee.