Basic and Clinical

April 2016. Volume 7. Number 2

Methodological Note: Neurofeedback: A Comprehensive Review

on System Design, Methodology and Clinical Applications

Hengameh Marzbani 1, Hamid Reza Marateb 1, Marjan Mansourian 2*

1. Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.

2. Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.

AB STRACT
Article info:
Received: 04 April 2015
Neurofeedback is a kind of biofeedback, which teaches self-control of brain functions to subjects
by measuring brain waves and providing a feedback signal. Neurofeedback usually provides
First Revision: 06 May 2015
the audio and or video feedback. Positive or negative feedback is produced for desirable or
Accepted: 27 July 2015
undesirable brain activities, respectively. In this review, we provided clinical and technical
information about the following issues: (1) Various neurofeedback treatment protocols i.e. alpha,
beta, alpha/theta, delta, gamma, and theta; (2) Different EEG electrode placements i.e. standard
recording channels in the frontal, temporal, central, and occipital lobes; (3) Electrode montages
(unipolar, bipolar); (4) Types of neurofeedback i.e. frequency, power, slow cortical potential,
functional magnetic resonance imaging, and so on; (5) Clinical applications of neurofeedback
i.e. treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, depression, epilepsy, insomnia,
drug addiction, schizophrenia, learning disabilities, dyslexia and dyscalculia, autistic spectrum
disorders and so on as well as other applications such as pain management, and the improvement
of musical and athletic performance; and (6) Neurofeedback softwares. To date, many studies
have been conducted on the neurofeedback therapy and its effectiveness on the treatment of
Key Words:
many diseases. Neurofeedback, like other treatments, has its own pros and cons. Although it
Brain diseases, Brain is a non-invasive procedure, its validity has been questioned in terms of conclusive scientific
waves, Complementary evidence. For example, it is expensive, time-consuming and its benefits are not long-lasting.
therapies, Also, it might take months to show the desired improvements. Nevertheless, neurofeedback is
Electroencephalography, known as a complementary and alternative treatment of many brain dysfunctions. However,
Neurofeedback current research does not support conclusive results about its efficacy.

1. Introduction are extracted and fed to subjects using online feedback

N
loop in the form of audio, video or their combination.
eurofeedback is not a new concept. It has Accordingly, electrophysiological components are sep-
been the subject of the study of research- arately demonstrated. As an illustration, the power of a
ers for several decades. Neurofeedback is signal in a frequency band can be shown by a varying
a method that assists subjects to control bar graph. During this procedure, the subject becomes
their brain waves consciously. In fact, the aware of the changes occurring during training and will
electroencephalography (EEG) is recorded during the be able to assess his/her progress in order to achieve
neurofeedback treatment. Then, its various components optimum performance. For instance, the subject tries to
* Corresponding Author:
Marjan Mansourian, PhD
Address: Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
Tel:+98 (31) 37923256
E-mail: [email protected]

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 I Marjan Mansourian I Neurofeedback: System Design, Methodology & Clinical Applications

improve the brain patterns based on the changes that oc- a person is asleep, theta waves when a person is sleepy,
cur in the sound or movie. Neurofeedback treatment pro- alpha waves when a person is relaxed and his/her mus-
tocols mainly focus on the alpha, beta, delta, theta, and cles are loose but he/she is awake, beta waves when a
gamma treatment or a combination of them such as alpha/ person is alert and gamma waves are observed when a
theta ratio, beta/theta ratio, etc. (Dempster, 2012; Vernon, person is trying to solve a problem (Table 1). However,
2005). However, the most commonly used protocols are there are differences in defining the exact range of fre-
alpha, beta, theta, and alpha/theta ratio. In this review pa- quency components in different studies.
per, we discussed various technical and clinical details of
different neurofeedback treatment protocols. These frequency components have subsets. For exam-
ple, sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) frequency bands (13-15
2. Various Frequency Components Hz) are related to the sensorimotor rhythm and entitled
as low beta. Some studies claimed that alpha rhythm has
Activities of cerebral neurons have rich information two subsets: lower alpha in the range of 8-10 Hz and up-
about neuronal activities. When neurons are activated, per alpha in the range of 10-12 Hz. Whereas some studies
they produce electrical pulses. By placing electrodes on indicate that the alpha rhythm has 3 subsets. These defi-
the scalp, the electrical activity of the brain, known as nitions indicate that high and low alpha exhibit different
EEG, can be recorded. In turn, EEG is generated by a spe- behaviors and performances. It is believed that lower al-
cific type of synchronous activity of neurons which are pha is related to remembering action in semantic memory
known as pyramidal neurons and the electrical output is which is not the case for high alpha (Dempster, 2012).
thus reflected in the following areas of the skin where the
electrodes are located. Different patterns of electrical ac- 3. EEG Electrode Placement
tivity, known as brain waves, could be recognized by their
amplitudes and frequencies. Frequency indicates how fast Electrodes (placed on the scalp) can record those corti-
the waves oscillate which is measured by the number of cal activities of the brain regions that are close to them.
waves per second (Hz), while amplitude represents the Electrode System 10-20 is a method for standardizing
power of these waves measured by microvolt (µV). areas of the skull and comparing data. The term “10-20”
refers to the placement of electrodes over 10% or 20%
Different frequency components are categorized into of the total distance between specified skull locations.
delta (less than 4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-13 Hz), Studies have shown that these placements correlate
beta (13-30 Hz), and gamma (30-100 Hz) where each with the corresponding cerebral cortical regions. Of 21
represents a particular physiological function. In sum- electrodes, 19 are used for recording cortical areas and
mary, delta waves are observed in the EEG signal when 2 other electrodes as reference electrodes (Figure 1).

Table 1. Specific brainwaves with their characteristics.

Common brainwave frequency Frequency range (Hz) General characteristics

Delta 1-4 Sleep, repair, complex problem solving, unawareness, deep-unconsciousness

Creativity, insight, deep states, unconsciousness, optimal meditative state,

Theta 4-8
depression, anxiety, distractibility

Alpha 8-13 Alertness and peacefulness, readiness, meditation, deeply-relaxed

Lower alpha 8-10 Recalling

Upper alpha 10-13 Optimize cognitive performance

SMR (sensorimotor rhythm) 13-15 Mental alertness, physical relaxation

Beta 15-20 Thinking, focusing, sustained attention, tension, alertness, excitement

High beta 20-32 Intensity, hyperalertness, anxiety

Learning, cognitive processing, problem solving tasks, mental sharpness, brain

Gamma 32-100 or 40
activity, organize the brain

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social skills, emotions, empathy, working memory, ex-

ecutive planning, moral fiber or character. Each region
represents a specific feeling or task; Thus identification
of these areas provides the best and the most accurate
neurofeedback treatment. Parietal lobes, PZ , P3 and P4,
solve problems conceptualized by the frontal lobes.
Complex grammar, naming of the objects, sentence con-
struction, and mathematical processing are identifiable
to the left parietal lobe while map orientation, spatial
Figure 1. The 10-20 electrode placement system and the recognition, and knowing the difference between right
name of the skull regions. and left are entirely functions of the right parietal lobe.
Temporal lobes, T3 , T4 , T5 and T6 have various functions.
The skull regions are named using letters and numbers. Left hemisphere functions are associated with reading
Letters correspond with the brain regions and numbers (word recognition), memory, learning and a positive
to the hemisphere of the brain or the locations of this mood, while right hemisphere functions are related to
hemisphere. The letters F, P, T, O, and C are related to music, anxiety, facial recognition, and sense of direction.
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and central areas,
respectively. Odd/even numbers are associated with the On the other hand, visual memories, accurate reading
left/right side of the brain region. The letter z is used and traumatic memories accompanying visual flash-
as PZ suggests that scalp location falls along the central backs are usually processed in the occipital lobes, O2 ,
line running between the nasion and the inion. FP1 and O1 and . The other functions of this lobe include helping
FP2 are respectively related to the left and right poles of to locate objects in the environment, seeing colors and
the forehead. Also A1 and A2 are the left right regions of recognizing drawings and correctly identifying objects,
vestibular (ear) region that are two common sites for the reading, writing, and spelling. Sensory and motor (sen-
placement of reference and ground electrodes (Figure 1) sorimotor) cortex, CZ , C3 and C4 have functions of con-
(Dempster, 2012; Evans & Abarbanel, 1999). scious control of all skeletal movements such as typing,
playing musical instruments, handwriting, operation of
Traditionally, two types of unipolar and bipolar mon- complex machinery, speaking, and the ability to recog-
tage are used in the neurofeedback treatment. In uni- nize where bodily sensations originate.
polar mode, the active electrode is placed on the skull
and the recorded signal by the active electrode is com- Neurologists have mentioned that the motor cortex
pared to the second electrode entitled as the reference helps the cerebral cortex to encode both physical and
electrode. The activity of the active electrode minus the cognitive tasks. Therefore, subjects who have trouble
activity of the reference electrode represents the brain seeing the logical sequence of cognitive tasks may ben-
activity at the active electrode. efit from neurofeedback training along the left hemi-
sphere sensorimotor cortex (C3). Training along the
On the other hand, in the bipolar mode, two active elec- right hemisphere sensorimotor cortex (C4) may invoke
trodes are used that are separately placed on the skull. The feelings, emotions, or calmness. Training at the median
difference between the recorded signals by these 2 elec- or may facilitate a mixed response. The subjects who
trodes, is the basis of the neurofeedback (Demos, 2005; suffer from epilepsy are usually trained along the sen-
Dempster, 2012). One of the advantages of the bipolar re- sorimotor cortex (C3) to increase SMR. Also, training
cording is the common mode rejection that occurs during along the sensorimotor cortex could be applied for the
the recording procedure. It means that any external artifact treatment of stroke, epilepsy, paralysis, ADHD, and dis-
occurring at both channels and at the same time, its ampli- orders of sensory/motor integration (Table 2) (Demos,
tude and phase are subtracted and the spatial selectivity is 2005).
improved. For example, eye roll and blink artifacts could
be reduced in this way (Evans & Abarbanel, 1999). Generally, electrodes are placed in a way that a particu-
lar EEG channel is located on one brain side (Bauer &
Neurologists have observed that lesions occurring in Pllana, 2014). For instance, low beta and beta are trained
specific regions of the brain produce specific symptoms on the right (C4) and left (C3) brain side, respectively.
mostly related to these regions. For example, frontal If they were switched to the opposite brain side, unde-
lobes, FP1 , FP2 , FPZ , FZ , F3 , F4 , F7 are responsible for sirable results could be obtained. For example, training
immediate and sustained attention, time management, low beta wave on the left side will result in a depletion

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Table 2. Brain lobes with their functions and areas (Demos, 2005).

Sites Functions Considerations

LH: Problem solving, math, complex

grammar, attention,
Dyscalculia sense of direction learning
Parietal lobes Pz , P3 , P4 association
disorders
RH: Spatial awareness,
Geometry

LH: Working memory, concentration,

Executive planning, positive emotions. LH: Depression
Frontal lobes FP1, FP2 , FPZ , FZ , F3 , F4 , F7 , F8 RH: Episodic memory, RH: Anxiety, fear, executive planning, poor
social awareness executive functioning
Frontal poles: attention judgment

LH: Word recognition, reading, language,

memory
Anger, rage, dyslexia, long-term memory,
Temporal lobes T3 , T4 , T5 , T6 RH: Object recognition, music, social
closed head injury
cues
Facial recognition

Visual learning,
Occipital lobes OZ , O1 , O2 reading, parietal- temporal-occipital Learning disorders
functions

LH: Attention, mental processing,

RH: Calmness, emotion,
Empathy
Combined: Fine motor Paralysis (stroke), seizure disorder, poor
Sensorimotor cortex CZ , C3 , C4
skills, manual handwriting, ADHD symptoms
dexterity, sensory
and motor integration
and processing

Mental flexibility, cooperation, Obsessions, compulsions, tics, perfection-

Cingulate
FPZ , FZ , CZ , PZ , OZ attention, motivation, ism, worry, ADHD symptoms, OCD
gyrus
morals & OCD spectrum

Broca’s area F7 , T3 Verbal expression Dyslexia, poor spelling, poor reading

Logical sequencing,
detail oriented, language abilities, word
retrieval,
Depression
Left hemisphere All odd numbered sites fluency, reading,
(underactivation)
math, science,
problem solving,
verbal memory

Episodic memory
encoding, social awareness, eye
contact, music,
humor, empathy, Anxiety
Right hemisphere All even numbered sites
spatial awareness, (overactivation)
art, insight, intuition,
non-verbal memory,
seeing the whole picture

Abbreviations: LH, Left hemisphere, RH: Right hemisphere, AHHD: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, OCD: Obsessive
compulsive disorder.

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of mental energy instead of improvements in concentra- eyes closed (Zandi Mehran, Firoozabadi, & Rostami,
tion. Thus, the location of the EEG electrodes during the 2014). This type of neurofeedback has been used to treat
neurofeedback procedure is important (Evans, 2007). traumatic brain injury, ADHD, insomnia, fibromyalgia,
restless legs syndrome, anxiety, depression, and anger.
4. Types of Neurofeedback
4) Hemoencephalographic (HEG) neurofeedback pro-
There are 7 types of Neurofeedback for the treatment vides feedback on cerebral blood flow to treat migraine
of various disorders: (Dias, Van Deusen, Oda, & Bonfim, 2012).

1) The most frequently used neurofeedback is fre- 5) Live Z-score neurofeedback is used to treat insom-
quency/power neurofeedback. This technique typically nia. It introduces the continuous comparison of vari-
includes the use of 2 to 4 surface electrodes, sometimes ables of brain electrical activity to a systematic database
called “surface neurofeedback”. It is used to change the to provide continuous feedback (Collura, Guan, Tarrant,
amplitude or speed of specific brain waves in particular Bailey, & Starr, 2010).
brain locations to treat ADHD, anxiety, and insomnia.
6) Low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (LORE-
2) Slow cortical potential neurofeedback (SCP-NF) TA) involves the use of 19 electrodes to monitor phase,
improves the direction of slow cortical potentials to power, and coherence (Pascual-Marqui, Michel, & Lehm-
treat ADHD, epilepsy, and migraines (Christiansen, ann, 1994). This neurofeedback technique is used to treat
Reh, Schmidt, & Rief, 2014). addictions, depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

3) Low-energy neurofeedback system (LENS) deliv- 7) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is
ers a weak electromagnetic signal to change the pa- the most recent type of neurofeedback to regulate brain
tient’s brain waves while they are motionless with their activity based on the activity feedback from deep sub-

Table 3. Summary of studies using alpha protocol training.

Site of treatment Enhance/inhibit Number of sessions Outcome

Impact of self-reported emo-

(Allen, Harmon-Jones, &
F3 , F4 Enhance alpha (8-13 Hz) 5 tional responses and facial EMG
Cavender, 2001)

Improve cognitive processing

Enhance peak alpha (8-13
(Angelakis et al., 2007) FO3 31-36 speed and executive function
Hz)

(Hanslmayr, Sauseng,
Improvement in cognitive
Doppelmayr, Schabus, & F3 , F4 , FZ , P3 , P4 , PZ Enhance upper alpha 1
performance
Klimesch, 2005)

(Hardt & Kamiya, 1978) OZ , O1 , C3 Enhance alpha (8-13 Hz) 7 Decrease anxiety
Help maintain performance
(Hord, Tracy, Lubin, & such as counting and auditory
O2 Enhance alpha
Johnson, 1975) discrimination

(Markovska-Simoska et Enhance individual upper Increasing the quality of musical

F3-O1 , F4 -O2 20
al., 2008) alpha performance

(Martindale & Armstrong, Reduction alpha (7-13)

O2, P4 1 High creative
1974)

(Plotkin & Rice, 1981) OZ Enhance alpha 5-7 Decrease anxiety

(Regestein, Buckland, & Enhance alpha (8-13 Hz)

Parietal-occipital 2 Decrease sleep need
Pegram, 1973)

(Schmeidler & Lewis, 1971) Right occipital both 2 Mood changes

(Zoefel, Huster, & Her- Enhance individual upper Enhancement of cognitive

P3 , PZ , P4 , O1 , O2 5
rmann, 2011) alpha performance

Abbreviation: EMG, Electromyogram.

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 I Marjan Mansourian I Neurofeedback: System Design, Methodology & Clinical Applications

cortical areas of the brain (Hurt, Arnold, & Lofthouse, reducing stress and anxiety. Also frequency of 10 Hz
2014; Lévesque, Beauregard, & Mensour, 2006a). causes deep muscle relaxation, pain reduction, regulat-
ing breathing rate, and decreasing heart rate (Demp-
5. Various Treatment Protocols ster, 2012; Vernon, 2005).

5.1. Alpha protocol 5.2 Beta protocol

The alpha wave of the brain is usually associated with Beta activity is a good indicator for mental perfor-
alert relaxation (Evans & Abarbanel, 1999). The alpha mance and inappropriate beta activity represents men-
mood is described as a calm and pleasant situation. tal and physical disorders like depression, ADHD, and
All alpha frequencies describe creative activity of the insomnia (Egner & Gruzelier, 2004). Beta brain waves
brain, so that it is used in the process of relaxation (re- are associated with conscious precision, strong focus,
laxing the muscles), which eventually leads to sleep; and ability to solve problems. Medications that are
Such waves emerge and expand rapidly on the skin. used to stimulate alertness and concentration such as
The evidence shows that alpha waves increases during Ritalin and Adderall also cause the brain to produce
meditation. beta brainwaves.

Alpha training is usually used for the treatment of Beta training is used to improve focus and attention
various diseases such as pain relief (by 9 Hz simula- (simulation of increased beta 12-14 Hz), improve the
tion), reducing stress and anxiety (by 10 and 30 Hz reading ability (simulation of 7-9 Hz), and introduce
simulation), memory improvement, improving mental positive changes in school performance. It also im-
performance, and treatment of brain injuries (by 10.2 proves the computational performance, cognitive pro-
Hz simulation). Various studies have been performed cessing, reduction of worries, over-thinking, obsessive
on the alpha protocol (Table 3). The most common fre- compulsive disorder (OCD), alcoholism, and insomnia
quency bandwidth for the alpha treatment is 7-10 Hz (simulation of 14-22 Hz and 12-15 Hz). Meanwhile,
frequency range, which is used for meditation, sleep, this type of neurofeedback improves sleep cognitive

Table 4. Summary of studies using beta protocol training.

Site of treatment Enhance/inhibit Number of sessions Outcome

(Rasey, Lubar, McIntyre, Central-posterior region Enhance beta (16-22 Hz) and Improvement in attentional
20
Zoffuto, & Abbott, 1995) (CPZ , PCZ ) inhibit high theta and low alpha performance
(12-15 Hz) at right central
Enhance low beta (12-15 and 15-
region (C4) and (15-18 Hz) Successful enhancement of
(Egner & Gruzelier, 2001) 18 Hz), inhibiting theta (4-7 Hz) 10
at the left central region attentional performance
and high beta (22-30 Hz)
(C3)
Enhance low beta (12-15 Hz),
Enhance cognitive perfor-
(Vernon et al., 2003) CZ inhibiting theta (4-8 Hz) and high 15
mance
beta (18-23 Hz)
Enhance SMR (12-15 Hz) and
Improve perceptual
(Egner & Gruzelier, 2004) CZ inhibit theta (4-7 Hz) and high 10
sensitivity
beta (22-30 Hz)
Enhance low beta (15-18 Hz),
(Egner & Gruzelier, 2004) CZ inhibiting theta (4-7 Hz) and high 10 Increase cortical arousal
beta (22-30 Hz )
Enhance SMR (12-15 Hz) and
Increased recall in seman-
(Vernon et al., 2003) CZ inhibit theta (4-7 Hz) and high 8
tic working memory
beta (18-22 Hz)
Reduction of inatten-
(Lubar, Swartwood, Swart- Enhance beta (16-20 Hz) and
FCZ , CPZ 40 tion, hyperactivity and
wood, & O’Donnell, 1995) inhibit theta
impulsivity
(Fuchs, Birbaumer, Lutzen-
Enhance beta (15-18 Hz) and Improvement in attention
berger, Gruzelier, & Kaiser, C3 , C4 36
SMR (12-15), inhibit theta and intelligence
2003)
(Heinrich, Gevensleben, & Treatment epilepsy disor-
C4, CZ Enhance SMR and inhibit theta
Strehl, 2007) der and ADHD
(Heinrich, Gevensleben, & Enhance beta (13-20 Hz) and
CZ , C3 Treatment ADHD
Strehl, 2007) inhibit theta

Abbreviation: SMR, Sensorimotor rhythm.

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performance as well as reducing fatigue and stress (sim- these waves are faster, the speed of recalling memory is
ulation of light and sound of beta) (Table 4). The beta faster. Gamma waves are fast rhythms that are responsible
waves in the range of 12-15 Hz (SMR) reduce anxiety, for the brain’s neural connections and data transfer to the
epilepsy, anger and stress (Egner & Gruzelier, 2004; outside world.
Vernon, 2005).
They are mainly observed in the hippocampus (an area
5.3. Alpha/theta protocol of the brain which is responsible for converting short-term
to long-term memory). Also, these rapid rhythms are ob-
Alpha/theta is an indicator between awareness and served in sudden attacks like seizure and spasm. Hence,
sleep. Alpha/theta training is one of the most popular gamma training is used for promoting cognition, mental
neurofeedback trainings for stress reduction (Gruzelier, sharpness, brain activity, and problem-solving tasks. It
2009; Raymond, Varney, Parkinson, & Gruzelier, 2005). not only improves poor calculation, but also organizes the
Also, this treatment is used for deep levels of depression, brain, improves the speed of information processing, short-
addiction, anxiety while it increases creativity, relaxation, term memory, and reduces the number of migraine attacks
musical performance, and promotes healing from trauma (Hughes, Vernon, 2005).
reactions. The electrodes are usually located on O1 , O2 ,
CZ and PZ . Alpha/theta frequency range is 7-8.5 Hz with 5.6. Theta protocol
the typical value of 7.8 Hz. This treatment is done under
eyes-closed condition that increases the ratio of theta to Theta brain waves are related to a number of brain ac-
alpha waves using auditory feedback (Demos, 2005; Eg- tivities such as memory, emotion, creativity, sleep, med-
ner & Gruzelier, 2003; Thompson & Thompson, 2003). itation, and hypnosis. These waves are also associated
The summary of the studies using alpha/theta protocol with the first phase of sleep when the sleep is light and
training are presented in Table 5. the person easily wakes up. Theta treatment reduces anx-
iety, depression, day dreaming, distractibility, emotional
5.4. Delta protocol disorders, and ADHD (Beatty, Greenberg, Deibler, &
O’Hanlon, 1974; Vernon, 2005).
Delta waves are the slowest brain waves, which are as-
sociated with stages 3 and 4 of the sleep (Sürmeli & Er- 5.7. Low frequency versus high frequency training
tem, 2007). They represent increased comfort, reduced
pain, and sleep. Thus, they are used to alleviate headaches, Basically, there are two classical directions in neurofeed-
traumatic brain injury, learning disorders, and to treatment back training. It is either focusing on low frequencies (al-
hard and sharp contraction of muscles (by simulation of pha or theta) to strengthen relaxation and focus (Gruzelier,
1-3 Hz delta wave). They also reduce concerns and im- 2009) or emphasizing on high frequencies (low beta, beta,
prove sleep (Vernon, 2005). and theta) for reinforcing activation, organizing, and inhib-
iting distractibility (Ros et al., 2009).
5.5. Gamma protocol
A suitable comparison between these two directions
Gamma waves have the highest frequency, and they are could be found at Thomas F. Collura (2000), and Kropotov
associated with cognitive processing and memory (Staufen- (2010) studies. For example, in the former strategy eyes
biel, Brouwer, Keizer, & Van Wouwe, 2014). Thus, when are closed while in the later one, eyes are open. Also, chil-

Table 5. Summary of studies using alpha/theta protocol training.

Site of treatment Enhance/inhibit Number of sessions Outcome

(Raymond, Sajid, Parkin- Enhance theta (4-7 Hz) over Improvement in artistic
P4 10
son, & Gruzelier, 2005) alpha (8-11 Hz) performance

Enhance theta (5-8 Hz) over Improvement of music

(Egner & Gruzelier, 2003) C4 , C3 , PZ 10
alpha (8-11 Hz) performance

Enhance theta (4-7 Hz) over Half-hour sessions, twice a Enhancement of artistic
(Gruzelier, 2009)
alpha ( 8-11 Hz) week performance and mood

Enhance theta (4-7 Hz) over Enhancement of music

(Gruzelier, 2009) 10
alpha ( 8-11 Hz) performance

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 I Marjan Mansourian I Neurofeedback: System Design, Methodology & Clinical Applications

dren are not involved in the first strategy while children somnia, and headache. However, using neurofeedback is
and adult could undergo the second training procedure. associated with their long-term improvement (Yan et al.,
2008). Studies showed that people with ADHD disorder
6. Clinical Applications of Neurofeedback have slower brain wave activity (theta) and less beta ac-
Training in the Treatment of Diseases and tivity compared to normal people.
Disorders
In ADHD, the goal is to decrease the brain activity in
Antisocial behavior of individuals, have an undesirable the theta band and to increase its activity in the beta band
impact on the society. In recent years, with advances in (or to decrease theta/beta ratio) at the vertex (electrode)
brain science, the cause of abnormal brain function and (Heinrich, Gevensleben, & Strehl, 2007). This treat-
mental illness has been attributed to the low activity of the ment is effective in reducing hyperactivity; Increasing fo-
anterior brain lobe that presents itself in different types of cus, grades, and parental consent from children’s behavior;
psychological damages (Gil, 2009). The neurofeedback and improving indicators of sustained attention (Gnecchi,
training has been widely used in the treatment of many dis- Herrera Garcia, & de Dios Ortiz Alvarado, 2007; Karimi,
eases and disorders; some of which are mentioned below. Haghshenas, & Rostami, 2011; Wang & Sourina, 2013).
The studies on the neurofeedback treatment of ADHD
6.1. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children are listed in Table 6. According to this Table,
theta/beta protocol and the area for locating the EEG elec-
Evidence suggests that the malfunction of the right fron- trode are the most commonly used neurofeedback strategy
tal lobe, is the cause of attention deficit/hyperactivity disor- in ADHD treatment.
der (ADHD) (Hynd et al., 1991). The resulting symptoms
are inattention, distractibility, hyperactivity, and extreme 6.1.1. Schizophrenia
dispassionateness. Neurofeedback therapy is a rehabilita-
tion approach for its treatment. Its goal is to normalize the Schizophrenia is known as the most unbearable mental
behavior without dependence on medications or behav- illness (Surmeli, Ertem, Eralp, & Kos, 2012). People with
ioral therapy. For a long time, such drugs as Ritalin, Con- schizophrenia have the illusion of auditory disorders, rest-
certa, and Dexedrine have been used for treating ADHD. lessness, non-flexible muscles, confusion, delirium, and
But, recent research showed that these drugs do not have depression. Based on several papers on the treatment of
any effect on the clinical treatment of ADHD on some of schizophrenia, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inven-
children. Also, these drugs have the side effects such as tory (MMPI) and Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA),
anxiety, irritability, abdominal pain, decreased appetite, in- positive effect of neurofeedback training on the treatment

Table 6. Summary of neurofeedback treatment studies on ADHD.

Site of treat- Neurofeedback Number of The age range

Outcome
ment Protocol sessions (year)
Improvement in mental
(Linden, Habib, & Rado- Enhance beta
CZ 20 5-15 functions
jevic, 1996) Inhibit theta
and accuracy
Improvement in effects
(Palsson et al., 2001.) CZ Theta/beta, SMR 40 9-13
of ADHD
Improvement in atten-
(Orlandi, 2004) CZ Theta/beta, SMR 40 9-11
tion, focus and memory
(Lévesque, Beauregard, Improving performance of
CZ Theta/beta, SMR 40 8-12
& Mensour, 2006b) anterior cingulate cortex
Improvement in atten-
(Leins et al., 2007) CZ Theta/beta 30 8-13 tion, hyperactivity and
distraction
Improvement in com-
(Gevensleben et al.,
CZ Theta/beta 18 9-12 bined treatment of neuro-
2009)
feedback protocols
(Perreau-Linck, Lessard,
Improvement in the ef-
Lévesque, & Beauregard, CZ Theta/SMR 40 8-13
fects of ADHD
2010)

Abbreviations: ADHA: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, SMR: Sensorimotor rhythm.

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of this disease is expressed in such a way that the person neurofeedback on athletes is improving the athlete’s psy-
with schizophernia is able to adjust his/her brain activity chomotor and self-regulation ability, their confidence, and
on specific frequencies (McCarthy-Jones, 2012; Surmeli et subsequent performance in important competitions of the
al., 2012; Wenya et al., 2012; Gil, 2009). year (Edmonds & Tenenbaum, 2011).

6.1.2. Insomnia 6.1.6. Autistic spectrum disorder

Insomnia is known as an epidemic disorder. The first Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmen-
change observed in patients, who are treated with neuro- tal disorder with challenges that maintain in adulthood.
feedback training is the change and improvement in their Children with autism have difficulty in functions such
sleep pattern. Hence, the neurofeedback training is used in as social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communica-
the treatment of sleep disorders (Hammer, Colbert, Brown, tion, behavior and interests. ASD may be associated with
& Ilioi, 2011). For example, the following process is used emotional problems, mental retardation, or seizure disor-
to improve sleep. One electrode is placed on and the treat- ders. These children may also have extreme sensitivity to
ment is done for 30 minutes at a frequency of 15-18 Hz. sounds and smells. Also, children with autism may show
This method makes the waking state, alert and active and idiosyncratic behaviors, obsessive rumination, poor social
assist people in waking up faster. The calmness treatment interrelatedness, and flat affect. Researchers found out that
is done at frequencies of 12-15 Hz and in location. Using individuals with autism differ from normative samples with
neurofeedback helps the people who normally take about regard to impediments in empathy or theory of mind (TOM)
an hour in order to prepare their body and mind for sleep, tasks, weak central coherence, and executive functioning.
go to sleep faster.
One of the primary symptoms of ASD is a qualitative im-
6.1.3. Learning disabilities, dyslexia and dyscalculia pairment in social interactions related to mutual interest,
understanding others’ intentions, empathy, emotional reci-
Neurofeedback has created a big change in the treat- procity, and the underlying concepts of TOM. Empathizing
ment of these disorders. These disorders are more deficits are consistent with problems in reciprocating com-
common at school age and patients with dyslexia have munication, difficulty in predicting thoughts and feelings
trouble in reading and spelling the characters (Breteler, of others, interpreting abstract emotions of others, and an
Arns, Peters, Giepmans, & Verhoeven, 2010). People appearance of social insensitivity. Individuals with autism
having dyscalculia, are unable to understand and solve are also often seen to have interest in system details and
math problems. These disorders are treated with in- pursue careers in engineering, construction, clocks, ma-
creased alpha wave activity using neurofeedback (Wang chines, puzzles, or computers, which are often obsessive
& Sourina, 2013). interests in ASD (Lucido, 2012).

6.1.4. Drug addiction There are several diagnostic tools designed to show ab-
normalities in brain’s function for autism. They are (1)
Studies have shown that neurofeedback training is a good High-beta activity related to anxiety; (2) The high activity
way to quit drug addiction whereas long-term use of the of delta/theta corresponding with the slow cortex, lack of
drug has a profound effect on the individual’s EEG. Temp- attention, impulsivity and hyperactivity; and (3) Abnormal
tation and craving of drugs could be reduced by neurofeed- EEG/seizure activity. High beta type is the most common
back in patients addicted to cocaine (Horrell et al., 2010). one seen among children with ASD (approximately 50-
This treatment can also be used to treat alcoholism and ad- 60% of individuals with ASD) (Coben, Linden, & Myers,
diction to computer games (Moradi et al., 2011). 2010; Kouijzer, van Schie, de Moor, Gerrits, & Buitelaar,
2010). The goal of neurofeedback in children with autism
6.1.5. Enhancing the performance of athletes, artists,
is to inhibit theta-alpha ratio while enhancing beta wave.
and surgeons
Efficacy of neurofeedback in children diagnosed with au-
Studies have shown that professional athletes have dif- tism has been well researched in qualitative case studies
ferent patterns of brain activity compared to those of the summarized in Table 7.
beginners. Recognition of the status of the professional’s
6.1.8. Epilepsy
EEG before and during performance, provides a rationale
for the use of neurofeedback training to create or emulate In about one-third of patients with epilepsy, medical
these patterns and to improve the performance of unprofes- treatment is ineffective. Neurofeedback training was
sional individuals (Vernon, 2005). In fact the purpose of

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Table 7. Summary of neurofeedback treatment studies on autistic spectrum disorder (ASD).

Site of treatment Enhance/inhibit Number of sessions Outcome

Parietal and occipital Enhance (16-20 HZ) Improvement in focus, atten-

(Cowan & Markham, 1994) 21
lobes Inhibit ( 4-10 HZ) tion, and relax

Improvement in neuro-
psychological functioning,
(Thompson & Thompson, Sensorimotor cortex Enhance (13-15 Hz)
40-100 improved educational perfor-
2003) (C2, C4) Inhibit (3-10 Hz)
mance, decrease anxiety and
impulsivity

Improvement in sleep, social

behaviors
(Sichel, Fehmi, & Goldstein, Sensorimotor strip and Enhance SMR (12-15 Hz) Increase in appropriate eye
31
1995) parietal lobe Inhibit theta (4-8 Hz) contact
Reduction in self-simulation

Decreased need for special

(Othmer, 2007) P4 , T4 , T3 , F2 , FP1 Enhance SMR (12-15 Hz) 28-100 education services and
autism symptoms

Enhance SMR (12-15 or

Improvement in intelligence
(Thompson, Thompson, & 13-15 Hz)
Central sites 40-60 testing and psychological
Reid, 2010) Inhibit theta (3-7 Hz) and
assessments
beta (23-35 Hz)

Enhance beta (16-20 Hz) Improvement in autistic

(Cowan & Markham, 1994) Inhibit theta-alpha (4-10 behaviors, social, academic
Hz) functioning and attention

Abbreviation: SMR: Sensorimotor rhythm.

shown to be a good alternative treatment for these pa- Also, observing low-amplitude gamma wave after sur-
tients. Research has been focused on increasing SMR gery is a good sign for the improvement of epilepsy.
(12-15 Hz) and synchronous or asynchronous reduction The results of studies on the treatment of epilepsy by
of slow rhythms (4-7 Hz) for diagnosing this disorder. neurofeedback indicated that continuous SMR treatment

Table 8. Summary of neurofeedback treatment studies on epilepsy that the results was the remission.

Neurofeedback
Measuring results Length of treatment The age range (year)
protocol
(Sterman, Macdonald, & Seizure frequency,
SMR (11-15 Hz) 6-18 months 6-46
Stone, 1974) EEG
The number of seizures
(Kaplan, 1975) SMR 20-25 weeks 20-30
per day
(Lubar & Bahler, 1976) SMR The number of seizures 80-260 days 12-29
The number of seizures,
(Kuhlman & Allison, 1977) SMR (4-9 Hz) 24 sessions 17-42
EEG
The number of seizures
(Sterman & Macdonald,
SMR per month, 12 months 10-40
1978)
EEG
(Cott, Pavloski, & Black, The number of seizures
SMR 210 days 16-31
1979) per month
(Quy, Hutt, & Forrest, The number of seizures
SMR 12 months 23-49
1979) per week, EEG
Seizure frequency,
(Lubar et al., 1981) SMR 10 months 13-52
EEG
(Tozzo, Elfner, & May,
SMR The number of seizures 5 weeks 18-29
1988)

Abbreviation: EEG, Electroencephalogram, SMR, Sensorimotor rhythm.

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April 2016. Volume 7. Number 2

reduces the rate of seizures in severe and uncontrolled drawal (Escolano et al., 2011; Gnecchi et al., 2007), health
epilepsy (Table 8) (Hughes et al., 2009; Walker, 2010). promotion (Escolano, Olivan, Lopez-del-Hoyo, Garcia-
Campayo, & Minguez, 2012), treatment of mental illness
(Heinrich, Gevensleben, & Strehl, 2007), eating disorders
6.1.9. Depression (Bartholdy, Musiat, Campbell, & Schmidt, 2013) Parkin-
son disease (Rossi-Izquierdo et al., 2013), fibromyalgia,
Depression is associated with hypometabolism in the restless legs syndrome (Hurt et al., 2014), obsessive com-
cingulate and occasionally in the frontal cortex, insula, pulsive disorder (Sürmeli & Ertem, 2011), and obsession
anterior temporal cortices, amygdala, basal ganglia, (Markovska-Simoska, Pop-Jordanova, & Georgiev, 2008;
and thalamus. Along with the frontal electrophysiology Surmeli & Ertem, 2011). Meanwhile, artists and surgeons
findings in depression, there seems to be an inverse re- use neurofeedback to improve their music performance
lationship between frontal alpha asymmetry and pari- (Markovska-Simoska et al., 2008) and microsurgical op-
etal asymmetries. More specifically, depressed patients erations (Ros et al., 2009), respectively.
who do not have significant anxiety, appear to have de-
creased right parietal activation (alpha wave at P4). Neu- Alpha-EEG/EMG biofeedback is capable of increas-
rofeedback training is used to increase alpha and theta, ing voluntary self-regulation and the quality of musical
while inhibit faster beta frequencies, produces signifi- performance (Budzynski, 2009b; Markovska-Simoska
cant improvements in depression (Budzynski, 2009a; et al., 2008).
Hurt et al., 2014).
7. Neurofeedback Softwares
6.1.10. Anxiety
Brain-computer interface systems (BCI) are widely
In clinical medicine, anxiety is often defined, at least in
used in clinical and research applications. BCI can pro-
part, as high level of muscle tension. Researchers found
pose a new aim for playing videogames or interacting
out that decreasing frontal electromyogram (EMG) levels
with 3D virtual environments (VE). Interaction with VE
by EMG biofeedback could alleviate both generalized and
includes tasks such as navigating to modify the selec-
specific anxiety patterns. It was believed that anxiety inhib-
tion and manipulation of virtual objects.
its alpha waves, so alpha training would relieve the anxiety
(Budzynski, 2009a; Demos, 2005; Moore, 2000). There are several examples of VE feedback games used
in sports, puzzles, or trainings. Nowadays, many univer-
6.1.11. Pain management
sities and laboratories are trying to provide more interac-
tions with the virtual world through the BCI. Here, we
Pain is considered a symptom associated with physical
describe some of the BCI VE feedback software.
damage, purportedly having an objective element connect-
ed with the sensation. Neurofeedback methodology pro-
Researchers at University College Dublin and Media
poses that by teaching self-regulation, a patient can reduce
Lab Europe manufactured Mind Balance videogame
or even eliminate pain sensations. Studies suggested that
that uses BCI to interact with the virtual world. The
brain changes its functional organization at the level of the
game was designed to move an animated character in
somatosensory cortex in chronic pain patients. Research-
a 3D virtual environment. The purpose is to control the
ers recommend the use of biofeedback/neurofeedback for
balance of an animated character on a thin rope, based
pain management. Biofeedback protocols are designed to
on the EEG signals of a player.
address the peripheral correlation of arousal, such as tem-
perature, heart rate variability, and muscle tension while In the other computer game, designed jointly by the
neurofeedback directly affects the processing of pain per- University College London and Graz University of
ception (Ibric & Dragomirescu, 2009). Technology, a disabled person in a virtual street controls
the movements of the simulated wheelchair (GRAZ-
6.2. Other uses of neurofeedback
BC). These results indicated that a disabled person sit-
Other applications of neurofeedback include the recov- ting in a wheelchair can control his/her movement in
ery from an injury and stroke problems, improvement of the VE using asynchronous BCI based on signal EEG.
memory by increasing alpha activity (Escolano, Aguilar,
University of Tokyo performed several tests using a
& Minguez, 2011; Klimesch, 1999; Vernon, 2005; Wenya
“virtual joystick” to navigate 3-D VE. Researchers pro-
et al., 2012), treatment of headache and migraines (Walk-
vided two virtual buttons on the left and right sides of the
er, 2011), distraction, confusion, attention problems, with-

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 I Marjan Mansourian I Neurofeedback: System Design, Methodology & Clinical Applications

VE. The participants were asked to gaze at either side to BCI is an EEG-based communication device. VE is
move the camera to the other side. The detection enabled a human-computer interface system with which users
the system to identify the button at which the user gazed. can virtually move their viewpoint freely in real time.
The purpose of using VE is to construct a virtual envi-
Researchers at the University of Tokyo also worked ronment with natural interactivity and to create a real
on a system to keep the alertness level of car drivers. sensation from multimodality. Three-dimensional VR is
In this project, the driver’s state of concentration was much more attractive and interesting than most of two-
illustrated when placed in a virtual driving environment. dimensional environments.
Accordingly, the BCI hearing system actively monitors
the state of alertness of drivers and warns them when To date, many studies have been conducted on the
loss of consciousness occurs. neurofeedback therapy and its effectiveness on the treat-
ment of many diseases. However, there are some meth-
In the field of promotion of neurofeedback in VE, IN- odological limitations and clinical ambiguities. For ex-
RIA designed several BCI systems. In one of them, called ample, considering the alpha treatment protocols, there
“use-the-force”, subjects were asked to control the launch are some issues to deal with such as how many sessions
of a virtual spaceship by using real or imagined foot are needed before participants can learn to exert an alert
movements. They studied the response of the subjects in control over their own alpha waves, or how many ses-
challenging situations (Lecuyer et al., 2008). In another sions are needed before such training procedures pro-
system (Gnecchi et al., 2007), neurofeedback was exam- duce the expected effect on the optimal performance,
ined in order to diagnose ADHD and hyperactivity dis- and how long the desired effects last without feedback
order. In this system, there are two graphical interfaces. (long-term effects). Thus, it is necessary to provide stan-
dard protocols to perform neurofeedback.
In the first interface, when the ratio of beta/theta goes
higher than a predetermined threshold, dolphins are Similar to other treatments, neurofeedback has its own
moving to an area where there are fish. Having main- pros and cons. Although it is a safe and non-invasive
tained the focus, dolphin intercepts a fish. When the procedure that showed improvement in the treatment
number of trapped fish increases, it reflects advances in of many problems and disorders such as ADHD, anxi-
process of treatment. In the second graphical interface, ety, depression, epilepsy, ASD, insomnia, drug addic-
the speed of a racing car increases when subject’s atten- tion, schizophrenia, learning disabilities, dyslexia and
tion improved. There are various available neurofeed- dyscalculia, its validity has been questioned in terms
back softwares in the market whose information such of conclusive scientific evidence of its effectiveness.
as operating systems, developers, and supported devices Moreover, it is an expensive procedure which is not
could be assessed via Wikipedia (“Comparison of neu- covered by many insurance companies. It is also time-
rofeedback software”, April 11, 2015). consuming and its benefits are not long-lasting. Finally,
it might take several months to see the desired improve-
8. Conclusion ments (Mauro & Cermak, 2006).

In this paper, we reviewed the clinical applications of Conflicts of Interest:

neurofeedback, various protocols of treatment and some
of the systems designs by BCI and VR technology. None declared.

In neurofeedback, EEG is usually recorded, and vari-

ous brain-activity components are extracted and feed-
backed to subjects. During this procedure, subjects be-
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