See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/334654896

Solid State Physics Laboratory, Defence Development and Research

Organization Summer Internship Project Report On Conventional and CNC
Machines, Welding, Cryogenics and Cryocooler....

Technical Report · July 2018

CITATIONS READS

0 1,745

1 author:

Pushkar Singh Chauhan

Gautam Buddha University
6 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Design and Analysis of Beta Stirling Engine powered by B100 Biodiesel View project

Car Side door mesh generation View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Pushkar Singh Chauhan on 25 July 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Solid State Physics Laboratory,
Defence Development and Research Organization
New Delhi.

Summer Internship Project Report

On

Conventional and CNC Machines, Welding,

Cryogenics and Cryocooler.

Tenure: 6-8 Weeks

Name: Pushkar Singh Chauhan

University: Gautam Buddha University,
Greater Noida.

Roll No:16/IME/034
Mo.No.: 8923971752
Email: [email protected]

1
 Preface
It was a great opportunity for me to pursue my summer
Internship at Solid State Physics Laboratory, Defence
Development and research organization, New Delhi for a
duration of 6-8 weeks.

In the accomplishment of the training I am submitting a project

report on”Conventional and CNC Machines, Welding,
Electrical Switches and Appliances, Cryogenics and
Cryocooler”. Subject to the limitation of time efforts and
resources every possible attempt has been made to study the
problems deeply.

I am thankful to the Scientists and other staff at SSPL, DRDO

who made the things go easy by paying their time and effort in
our success completion of training.

The whole project is divided into different sections based on

different work learned and performed at SSPL, DRDO.

Pushkar Singh Chauhan

ME-GBU, Gt.Noida

2
 Content
S.N Topics Page No.
o.

1 Safety Measures While working in the 4

Workshop

2 Measuring Instruments 5
3 Cutting Tool Materials 6
4 Conventional Machines 8
i. Lathe Machine
ii. Milling Machine
iii. Drilling Machine

5 CNC Machine and its Programming 13

6 Welding and its Types 18
7 Joints 21
8 Electrical Switches 22
9 Transformer and AutoTransformer 23
10 Induction Motor and Starter 24
11 Servo Motor Voltage Stabliser 28
12 The Stirling Cycle 31
13 Liquid Nitrogen Plant and its 33
Specifications

13 Cooled and Uncooled Thermal Imaging 36

Cameras

3
 Safety while working in Workshop
Causes of accidents
i. Ignorance
ii. Curiosity
iii. Over Confidence
iv. Lack of Interest
v. Machine tool and Equipment not in correct condition
vi. Wrong Manarism
vii. Wrong Dresses
viii. Use of wrong tools
ix. Wrong material selection
x. Bad planning
xi. Dangerous Materials
xii. Lack of Discipline
xiii. Machine without cover and open electric wire
xiv. Bad light arrangement.

Types of fire
I. Oil fire
Class B fire,
Extinguish by Foam fire extinguisher.
II. Electric Fire
Class D fire,
Extinguish by CTC (Carbon tetra chloride) fire extinguisher.
III. Wood Fire
Class A fire,
Carbonatious Fire,
Extinguish by Soda acid fire extinguisher.

Fuel Extinguished by
Class A - Paper, Cloth, Wood Water on Base
Class B - Flammable Liquid CO2, Foam
Class C - Glass &Liquid gas Dry Powder extinguisher
Class D - Involving Metal CO2, Dry Powder, CTC Extinguisher, Foam

4
 Measuring Instruments
1. Vernier Calliper
 Scale
(i) Main Scale
(ii )Vernier Scale
1 scale = 49/50 mm
 Least Count = 0.02mm

2. Micrometer (0-25mm, 25-50mm…..)

Least Count = 0.001mm,
Principle: Screw Pitch,
Scale
Main Scale,
Vernier Scale,
Pitch = 0.5mm

3. Pin Micrometer
Used to measure diameter of grooves,
Same as Micrometer.
Least Count = 0.001mm

4. Vernier Depth Gauge

Used to measure the depth of work-piece.
Least Count = 0.02mm

5. Height Gauge
Used to measure the height of work-piece,
Used for marking purposes.

6. Dial Vernier
Least Count=0.01,
Principle: Rack & Pinion Gear,
Disadvantages: Less accurate.

5
7. Sine bar
Measured by Dial indicator,
Height Gauges are non magnetic,
Cleaned by smooth leather,
Used in measuring angle of tapered
surface.

Cutting Tool Materials

Properties of Cutting tool material
i. 30-50% Harder than work-piece
ii. High hot hardness resistance
iii. High toughness
iv. Wear resistance
v. High thermal conductivity
vi. Less coefficient of friction
vii. Cheap & easy to fabricate.

Materials
1. High carbon steel
C=0.8-1.3%,
Si=0.1-0.4%,
Mn=0.1-0.4%,
Used in soft metal cutting,
Loose Hardness above 250°C,
Cutting Speed=5m/s.

2. High speed steel

18:4:1=W:Cr:V,
Used in Making drill bits, cutter etc.,
Suitable up to 600°C.

3. Non-ferrous cast alloys

Co=40-50%,
Cr=27-32%,
W=14-29%,
C=2-4%,
Suitable up to 800°C.

6
4. Cemented carbide
Manufactured by powder metallurgy,
6-8 times harder than HSS,
Suitable up to 1000°C,
High Wear Resistance.

5. Ceremics & sintered oxides

Made of Al2O3,
Manufactured by powder metallurgy,
High speed cutting, 500m/min,
Suitable up to 1200°C,
Very high abrasion resistance.

6. Cermets
Combination of ceremics and metals, 90%
ceremics+10% metals,
Manufactured by powder metallurgy,
Al2O3+W+Mo+Bo+Ti+etc.

7. Diamond
Extra Hardness,
Low thermal expansion,
High thermal conductivity,
Very low coefficient of friction,
Cutting speed=1500-2---m/min,
Suitable up to 1500°C.

8. Cubic Boron Nitride

Trade name as Borozone,
Used to grind HSS,
Excellent surface finish.

9. UCON
Union Carbide in USA,
It contains 30% Ti & 20% W.

10. Sialon (Si-Al-O-N)

Manufactured by powder metallurgy,
Suitable up to 1800°C,
Tough than Ceremics,
Cutting speed is 2-3 times the speed of ceremics,
Used in machining of aerospace alloys, nickle
based gas turbine blades with cutting speed of 3-5m/s.

7
 Conventional Machines
1. Lathe Machine
Types of Lathe

i. Center lathe / engine lathe / bench lathe

ii. Toolroom lathe
iii. Turret lathe and capstan lathe
iv. Gang-tool lathe
v. Multispindle lathe
vi. CNC lathe / CNC turning center
1. CNC Horizontal Milling
2. CNC Vertical Milling

vii. Swiss-style lathe / Swiss turning center

1. Swiss-style Lathes and Live Tooling

viii. Combination lathe / 3-in-1 machine

ix. Mini-lathe and micro-lathe
x. Wheel lathe
xi. Pit Lathe
xii. Brake lathe
xiii. Oil country lathe

Main Parts
i. Headstock
The headstock houses the main spindle, speed change mechanism and change gears.
The headstock is required to be made as robust as possible due to the cutting forces
involved, which can distort a lightly built housing, and induce harmonic vibrations
that will transfer through to the work piece, reducing the quality of the finished work
piece.

The main spindle is generally hollow to allow long bars to extend through to the work
area. This reduces preparation and waste of material. The spindle runs in precision
bearings and is fitted with some means of attaching work holding devices such as
chucks or faceplates. A fully 'geared head' allows the operator to select suitable
speeds entirely through the gearbox.

ii. Beds

The bed is a robust base that connects to the headstock and permits the carriage and
tailstock to be moved parallel with the axis of the spindle. This is facilitated by
hardened and ground bedways which restrain the carriage and tailstock in a set track.
The carriage travels by means of a rack and pinion system. The leadscrew of accurate

8
pitch, drives the carriage holding the cutting tool via a gearbox driven from the
headstock.

Types of beds include inverted "V" beds, flat beds, and combination "V" and flat beds.
"V" and combination beds are used for precision and light duty work, while flat beds
are used for heavy duty work.

iii. Carriage
1. Cross-slide
2. Compound rest
3. Toolpost

iv. Tailstock

The tailstock is a tool and centre mount, opposite the headstock. The spindle does not
rotate but does travel longitudinally under the action of a leadscrew and handwheel.
The spindle includes a taper to hold drill bits, centers and other tooling. The tailstock
can be positioned along the bed and clamped in position as dictated by the work piece.

Principle
The workpiece is having rotatory motion and the tool have cross and longitudinal
motion.

Operations
i. Facing
Facing is used to make a flat surface at the end of the
work piece. The work part should be rotating and the
implied feed should be radial.

Feed : Cross Feed

ii. Plane Turning

Making the surface of workpiece plane.
Feed : Longitudinal Feed

iii. Taper turning

Like contour turning the tool is not fed parallel to the
axis of rotation of the work part. The tool is fed at an
angle. This turning operation gives a conical and taper
cylindrical shape.

Feed : Longitudinal Feed

9
iv. Chamfering
Only the cutting edge is used at the corner of cylindrical
shapes which is used for
stress relieving of the workpiece.

v. Cutoff or Parting
In parting operation the tool is fed radially and the end part
of the workpiece is cut
off.

Feed : Cross Feed

vi. Drilling
Drilling and reaming is done by feeding the lathe tool along
the axis of the rotating job part.
Feed : Longitudinal Feed

vii. Boring
A single point tool head is fed linearly to the end of the
workpiece (on the inside diameter) .

Feed : Longitudinal Feed

viii. Knurling
It is a metal forming method which creates a regular
cross hatched pattern. It is not a machining process. It
does not involve any cutting of the metal.

10
ix. Thread Cutting
It is a process of cutting continuous circular groves.

Terminology of Threads
i. Axis of thread
ii. Crest
iii. Root
iv. Flank
v. Pitch
vi. Depth of thread
vii. Major diameter
viii. Minor Diameter
ix. Pitch Diameter

Types of threads

According to Position

I. Internal Threads (Nuts),

II. External Threads (Bolts).

According to Shape

1. British Standard Whitworth

Symmetrical V-Shape threads,
55°,
Used in Screw Fastening.

2. British Association Threads

47.5°,
Used in Instrumental Work.

3. American Standard Threads

60°,
General Purpose threads.

4. Square Threads
High Efficiency,
Flat root and crest,
Used in Valves, Screw Jack,
Less frictional resistance.

5. ACME Threads
29°,
Modified Square Threads,
Trapezoidal cross,

11
 Stronger than Square threads,
Used in Lathe Machine Valves bench vise.

6. Knuckle Threads
Modified Square threads,
Round crest and root,
Used in Railway Carriage Coupling.

7. Buttress Threads
Same as V-threads in strength,
Less Frictional resistance,
Used in Ratchet of Micrometer.

8. Metric Threads
Indian Standard threads,
60°,
Same as BSW.

2. Milling Machine
Principle : Workpiece is fixed and the tool is
having rotatory and up and down motion.

Operations
i. Planing
ii. T-Slots Making
iii. Gear Cutting

3. Drilling
Principle
The tool is having rotatory motion and the
wokpiece is fixed.

Operations

i. Drilling
ii. Boaring
iii. Reaming
Types of Drilling Machines
i. Portable drilling machine
ii. Sensitive drilling machine
(a) Bench mounting
(b) Floor mounting
iii. Upright drilling machine

12
 (a) Round column section
(b) Box column section machine
iv. Radial drilling machine
(a) Plain
(b) Semi-universal
(c) Universal
v. Gang drilling machine
vi. Multiple spindle drilling machine
vii. Automatic drilling machine
viii. Deep hole drilling machine
(a) Vertical
(b) Horizontal

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

CNC machining is a manufacturing process in which pre-programmed computer
software dictates the movement of factory tools and machinery. The process can be
used to control a range of complex machinery, from grinders and lathes to mills and
routers. With CNC machining, three-dimensional cutting tasks can be accomplished
in a single set of prompts.

Short for “computer numerical control, the CNC process runs in contrast to — and
thereby supersedes — the limitations of manual control, where live operators are
needed to prompt and guide the commands of machining tools via levers, buttons and
wheels. To the onlooker, a CNC system might resemble a regular set of computer
components, but the software programs and consoles employed in CNC machining
distinguish it from all other forms of computation.

Open/Closed-Loop Machining Systems

Position control is determined through an open-loop or closed-loop system. With the
former, the signaling runs in a single direction between the controller and motor. With
a closed-loop system, the controller is capable of receiving feedback, which makes
error correction possible. Thus, a closed-loop system can rectify irregularities in
velocity and position.

In CNC machining, movement is usually directed across X and Y axes. The tool, in
turn, is positioned and guided via stepper or servo motors, which replicate exact
movements as determined by the G-code. If the force and speed are minimal, the
process can be run via open-loop control. For everything else, closed-loop control is
necessary to ensure the speed, consistency and accuracy required for industrial
applications, such as metalwork.

13
CNC Lathe
In lathe machines, pieces
are cut in a circular
direction with indexable
tools. With CNC
technology, the cuts
employed by lathes are
carried out with precision
and high velocity. CNC
lathes are used to produce
complex designs that
wouldn’t be possible on
manually run versions of
the machine. Overall, the
control functions of
CNC-run mills and lathes are similar. As with the former, lathes can be directed by
G-code or unique proprietary code. However, most CNC lathes consist of two axes —
X and Z.

Programming
G code and M code is used for CNC programming

G-Code is one of a number of computer code languages that are used to instruct CNC
machining devices what motions they need to perform such as work coordinates,
canned cycles, and multiple repetitive cycles. Industry has standardized on G-Code as
its basic set of CNC machine codes.

G-Code is the most popular programming language used for programming CNC
machinery. Some G words alter the state of the machine so that it changes from
cutting straight lines to cutting arcs. Other G words cause the interpretation of
numbers as millimeters rather than inches. Some G words set or remove tool length or
diameter offsets.

M-code (for 'miscellaneous function') is an auxiliary command; descriptions vary.

Many M-codes call for machine functions like 'open workstation door,' which is why
some say "M" stands for "machine", though it was not intended to.

Syntax
N00000 G00 X00 Y00 Z0000 M00 S00 T00;

Where

N= Sequence number
G= Preparatory Function
X= Dimension X coordinates

14
Y= Dimension Y coordinates
Z= Dimension Z coordinates
M= Miscellaneous Function
S= Spindle Function
T= Tool Function
;= End of Block

Program
;
O 0000 Program Number
--------- Block
--------- Block
--------- Block
.
.
.
.
.
M 30; End of Program

G-Code and M-Code

G00 Rapid Linear Interpolation
G01 Linear Interpolation
G28 Return To Reference Point
G92 Maximum RPM
G75 Repetition of Cycle
G96 Constant Cut Speed Command
M03 Spindle Clockwise Moment
M30 Program end and rewind

ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINING

1. Precision Components: The digital template and autonomous machining of
CNC practically eliminate human error and achieve accuracy within 1/1000th.

2. Reliable Endurance: CNC machines work around-the-clock daily, weekends

and holidays. They only stop for needed maintenance or repair.

3. High Production and Scalability: Once the design parameters and specification
have been entered into a CNC machine, it consistently executes huge quantities
and affords flexible scalability.

15
4. More Capability: When used in tandem with advanced design software, CNC
machines create outputs that cannot be replicated by manual machines. Even the
most gifted engineers can’t do with conventional machines what advanced
software can do with CNC machines. These machines can produce any size,
shape or texture needed.

5. Less Labor: CNC machining requires fewer personnel to execute the production
tasks. One skilled operator can run several of the autonomous CNC machines,
and one programmer can get them loaded with the needed designs. A manual
machine requires at least one skilled operator per machine plus usually a
supervisor for the group. What you save on manpower can be passed along to
customers, helping you achieve a competitive advantage.

6. Uniform Product: When you choose the advantages of CNC machines over
conventional machines, your CNC outputs match exactly. Even the most talented
engineers on a conventional machine will produce components that vary slightly.
With CNC machines, each part is a perfect match to the prototype’s exact
specifications.

7. Lower Costs: The collective result of high speed, efficiency, specialization,

precision and most of all, fewer labor hours, all add up to a better bottom line for
your business. The lower costs, in turn, can be used to create a competitive
advantage and business re-investment. Saving money or making more money is
one of the popular benefits of CNC machining.

8. Fewer Headaches: Manual machining serves many good purposes, but it

remains forever susceptible to the human element. You’re probably familiar with
the financial and cultural headaches it can cause when there are periods when
you’re short staffed, have people out sick, or on vacation and operators who don’t
perform to expectations. CNC machining nearly eliminates those concerning
issues.

9. Better Safety: Along with an expedient production process and consistent pieces
comes a safer environment. While there are operators involved in operating CNC
machines, it’s at a distance from the sharp tools, whereas the operators of
conventional-manual lathes, drills, punches and other tools come into direct
contact with the implement.

10. Design Retention: Once a design has been loaded into the CNC machining
software and a perfect prototype has been created, the program can easily retrieve
the design to run it and create the object again. The master file ensures that
regardless of external factors such as machine-operator changes, the CNC
machining process produces a spot-on match every time. Additionally, there is no
need to keep up with versions of the design that may exist on paper, a flash drive,
a disk, other computer or elsewhere.

11. Low Maintenance: The G-code-based software will automatically update itself
when needed, and CNC machines generally do not require much service other
than to change the cutting implements at the proper interval and do some light

16
 cleaning. None of the regular maintenance requires professional service, which
saves money.

12. Versatility: CNC machining itself creates virtually any component you can
imagine. Some of the models include special features and accessories that further
expedite and simplify the production process, for examples touch screens and
automated tool changers.

Disadvantages of CNC
It costs more initially to have CNC services done for you. Many companies rely on a
trusted vendor to do their CNC machining services for them, which works well for
many businesses across a lot of industries. The first production run will be more
expensive than subsequent ones.

Another disadvantage some machinists perceive with the CNC method is that it works
toward making conventionally manual skills obsolete. Along with them go the math
and science skills developed by those who learn through years of training to operate
lathes, mills, drills and more by hand.

While CNC machining has created tremendous, new opportunities for all kinds of
businesses, it has also led to less conventional machining and ultimately, some
unemployment. However, most experts do not agree that manual skills will become
obsolete. In fact, some think conventional machining will thrive through small and
specialty projects.

17
 Welding
The process of joining of two work pieces with a permanent joint in the presence of
heat with or without filler metal and with or without pressure.

Types
1. Fusion Welding
Gas Welding
Arc Welding
TIG, MIG, etc.

2. Non-Fusion Welding
Resistance Welding
Spot Welding
Seam Welding
Projection Welding, etc.

Gas Welding
Gas Used = Acetylene (C2H2)
Preparation of Acetylene
CaC2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
Flux in powdered form is used.
Flame produces is called Oxi-Acetylene Flame

Properties of Oxi-Acetylene Flame

Temperature = 3100-3300°C
Oxidizing Flame = 3300°C
Carborising Flame = 3100°C
Neutral Flame = 3200°C

Types of Flames

I. Oxidizing Flame
Gas : Air = 1 : 1.5
Used for increasing hardness

II. Carborising Flame

Gas : Air = 1 : 0.8
Used for pre-heating

III. Neutral Flame

Gas : Air = 1 : 1
Used in Alloys such as Brass

18
 Acetylene Cylinder Oxygen Cylinder
Maroon Colour Cylinder Black Colour Cylinder
Left Hand Thread nobe Right Hand Thread nobe
Cut Mark on the connecting socket No cut mark
Larger diameter cylinder and lower Smaller diameter cylinder and long
height cylinder
Gas pressure is not more than 15Kg/cm2 Gas pressure is not more than 150Kg/cm2

It has a volume of 6m3 It has a volume of 7m3

Cylinder gas pressure is kept below 54°C No temperature limitation
It has a bulb at bottom which blast off No bulb
when the temperature rises above 105°C
Flashback arrestor is used to prevent No flashback arrestor is required.
backfire.

Arc Welding
Temperature=5000°C

Polarity
I. DCSP(Direct Current Straight Polarity
For Work piece of thickness greater than 5mm
Heat Distribution=66% on job & 34% on electrode

II. DCRP(Direct Current Reverse Polarity)

For Work piece of thickness less than 5mm
Heat Distribution=34% on job & 66% on electrode

Electrode used = Core wire electrode

Electrode Standards
I. Length
a) 350mm
b) 400mm
II. Diameter
a) 1.2mm
b) 2.5mm
c) 3.15mm
d) 6mm
e) 8mm
f) 10mm
g) …...
III. Current Supply = (Electrode diameter * 40)A

Flux
Used to prevent oxidation of work piece at high temperature
Stablise Arc,

19
 Avoid Oxygen & Nitrogen Contact,
Flux is coated over the core wire.

Nomenclature of Electrode
E6013, E8018

Where
E = Electrode
60/80 = Tensile Strength (60*1000=60000psi or 80*1000=80000psi)
1 = Position (Down hand, Vertical, Horizontal, Overhead, Inclined)
3 = Flux [0,8]

Starting Arc Methods

1. Touching
2. Scratching (Most preferred)

Arc Length
The length between electrode top and job is called the arc length.

Types of arc length

I. Long Arc length
Arc length is more than electrode diameter
More arc length = more Heat so, this type of welding is pron to Slag
Inclusion, pin hole etc.

II. Medium Arc length

Arc length id equals to electrode diameter
Most suited arc length for welding

III. Short Arc length

Arc length is less than electrode diameter
Less Penetration in short length

Distortion in Welding
I. Slag Inclusion
II. Spatter
Due to moisture and wrong current selection.
III. Pin Hole
IV. Blow Hole
V.
VI. Creator
Hole at the end of welding
VII. Crack
Due to overheating

20
Testing of Weld Joint
I. Destructive Test
II. Non-Destructive Test
A. X-Ray Test
B. Ultrasonic Test
C. Liquid Penetration Test
D. AC Current Test
E. Magnetic Test

Joints
I. Butt Joint
II. T- Joint
III. Corner Joint
IV. Top Joint
V. Edge Joint

Distortion in Joints
Deformation in the internal structure due to over heat is called Distortion.

Types
I. Longitudinal
II. Transverse
III. Angular (Only in T-joints or edge or corner joints)

21
 Electrical
Switches
MCB(Miniature Circuit Breaker)
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short
circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike
a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset
(either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.

Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect
low-current circuits or individual household appliance, up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The
generic function of a circuit breaker, RCD or a fuse, as an automatic means of
removing power from a faulty system is often abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current
Protection Device).

Isolator
An isolator is a mechanical switching device that, in
the open position, allows for isolation of
the input and output of a device.
An isolator differs from a switch in that it is
intended to be opened when the circuit is not
carrying current.
An isolator is a device used for isolating a circuit or
equipment from a source of power.
An isolator is a mechanical switching device that, in
the open position, allows for isolation of the input and output of a device.

22
Transformer
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two
or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of
the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a
varying electromotive force (emf) or "voltage" in a second coil. Power can be
transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection between the two
circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric
power applications.

Cores

23
AutoTransformer
An Auto-transformer (sometimes called auto-step down transformer) is an
electrical transformer with only one winding. The "auto" (Greek for "self") prefix
refers to the single coil acting alone and not to any kind of automatic mechanism. In
an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both
the primary and secondary sides of the transformer. In contrast, an ordinary
transformer has separate primary and secondary windings which are not electrically
connected.

The winding has at least three taps where electrical connections are made. Since part
of the winding does "double duty", autotransformers have the advantages of often
being smaller, lighter, and cheaper than typical dual-winding transformers, but the
disadvantage of not providing electrical isolation between primary and secondary
circuits. Other advantages of autotransformers include lower leakage reactance, lower
losses, lower excitation current, and increased VA rating for a given size and mass.
Autotransformers are often used to step up or step down voltages in the 110-115-120
V range and voltages in the 220-230-240 V range - for example, providing 110 V or
120 V (with taps) from 230 V input, allowing equipment designed for 100 or 120 V to
be used with a 230 V supply. This allows US electrical equipment to be fed from the
higher voltages used in Europe and elsewhere. Autotransformers can also be used to
supply 230 V appliances from a 100 to 120 V supply within the US. In all cases the
supply and the autotransformer must be correctly rated to supply the required power.

Induction Motor
An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which
the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained
by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding.[1] An
induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the
rotor.[a] An induction motor's rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type.
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives
because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are
used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although
traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used
with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in variable-speed service. VFDs offer
especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective
induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load

24
applications. Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed
and variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications.

Starting Methods for Induction Motors

Different starting methods are employed for starting induction motors because they
draw more starting current during starting. To prevent damage to the windings due to
the high starting current flow, we employ different types of starters.

Introduction

Most large induction motors are started directly on line, but when very large motors
are started that way, they cause a disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due to
large starting current surges. To limit the starting current surge, large induction
motors are started at reduced voltage and then have full supply voltage reconnected
when they run up to near rotated speed.

Two methods of reduced voltage starting are star delta starting and autotransformer
stating. Contactors perform the switching action in the starter to connect and
disconnect the power supply to the motor. If the current is above the rated current for
the motor, the contactor will be tripped automatically to disconnect the motor from
the supply.

A three phase supply is given to the stator of the three phase induction motor, and this
in turn produces a magnetic field which revolves in space around the stator. As if the
magnetic poles are being rotated, the speed of the rotating magnetic field is given by

N = 120 f /P

Starting Principle

The high starting current will produce severe a voltage drop and will affect the
operation of other equipment. It is not desirable to start large motors direct on line
(giving full voltage to the stator). Normally with motors beyond 5 HP, starters are
provided. For reduction in the starting current, a lower voltage is applied to the stator,

25
especially for the squirrel cage induction motors. Full voltage is only applied when
the motor picks up speed.

Starting methods of Induction motor include:

Direct –On– line (DOL) starters for less than 10 Kw motors.

Star–Delta starters for large motors. The stator winding is initially connected in a star
configuration and later on changed over to a Delta connection, when the motor
reaches rated speed.
Auto transformer.

1. Direct On Line Starter

It is simple and cheap starter for a 3-phase induction motor.

The contacts close against spring action.
This method is normally limited to smaller cage induction motors, because starting
current can be as high as eight times the full load current of the motor. Use of a
double –cage rotor requires lower staring current( approximately four times) and use
of quick acting A.V.R enables motors of 75 Kw and above to be started direct on line.
An isolator is required to isolate the starter from the supply for maintenance.
Protection must be provided for the motor. Some of the safety protections are
over-current protection, under-voltage protection, short circuit protection, etc. Control
circuit voltage is sometimes stepped down through an autotransformer.

2. Star-Delta Starter
A three phase motor will give three times the
power output when the stator windings are
connected in delta than if connected in star,
but will take 1/3 of the current from the
supply when connected in star than when
connected in delta. The starting torque
developed in star is ½ that when starting in
delta.

A two-position switch (manual or automatic)

is provided through a timing relay.
Starting in star reduces the starting current.
When the motor has accelerated up to speed

26
and the current is reduced to its normal value, the starter is moved to run position with
the windings now connected in delta.
More complicated than the DOL starter, a motor with a star-delta starter may not
produce sufficient torque to start against full load, so output is reduced in the start
position. The motors are thus normally started under a light load condition.
Switching causes a transient current which may have peak values in excess of those
with DOL.

3. Auto Transformer Motor Starting

Operated by a two position switch i.e. manually / automatically using a timer to

change over from start to run position.
In starting position supply is connected to stator windings through an
auto-transformer which reduces applied voltage to 50, 60, and 70% of normal value
depending on tapping used.
Reduced voltage reduces current in motor windings with 50% tapping used motor
current is halved and supply current will be half of the motor current. Thus starting
current taken from supply will only be 25% of the taken by DOL starter.
For an induction motor, torque T is developed by V2, thus on 50% tapping, torque at
starting is only (0.5V)2 of the obtained by DOL starting. Hence 25% torque is
produced.
Starters used in lager industries, it is larger in size and expensive.
Switching from start to run positions causing transient current, which can be greater in
value than those obtained by DOL starting.

4. Rotor Resistance Starter

This starter is used with a wound

rotor induction motor. It uses an
external resistance/phase in the rotor
circuit so that rotor will develop a
high value of torque.
High torque is produced at low
speeds, when the external resistance
is at its higher value.
At start, supply power is connected

27
to stator through a three pole contactor and, at a same time, an external rotor
resistance is added.
The high resistance limits staring current and allows the motor to start safely against
high load.
Resistors are normally of the wire-wound type, connected through brushes and slip
rings to each rotor phase. They are tapped with points brought out to fixed contactors.
As the motor starts, the external rotor resistance is gradually cut out of circuit ; the
handle or starter is turned and moves the three contacts simultaneously from one fixed
contact to the next.
The three moving contacts are interconnected to form a start point for the resistors.
To ensure that the motor cannot be started until all rotor resistance is in circuit, an
interlock is fitted which prevents the contactors from being closed until this condition
is fulfilled.

Servo Motor Voltage Stabliser

A Servo Stabilizer is a Servo motor controlled stabilization system that performs
optimum voltage supply using a Buck\Boost transformer booster that captures voltage
fluctuations from input and regulates current to the correct output. An AC
synchronous motor adjusts voltage in clockwise or anticlockwise direction and
manages the output voltage with components like control card, dimmer, comparator,
transistors, mocs, etc.

Main Components & their Functioning

There are seven main components in a servo voltage stabilizer:-

1. Dimmer (Variable Transformer)
2. Buck Boost Transformer (Series Transformer)
3. Servomotor – Synchronizing Motors
4. Contactor or Relay
5. MCB, MCCB
6. Electronic Circuit
7. Carbon Brush

1. Dimmer (Variable Transformer)

It is normally round in the shape. Silicon
CRGO toroidal core is used for the base &
copper wire with specific turn ratio according
to the capacity is used. The basic purpose of
dimmer is to increase or decrease the voltage
which is fed to the buck boost transformer.
50% of the output Voltage is increased or
decreased by dimmer only.

Let us take an example: If the input voltage is

160V, the dimmer will increase it to 190V & rest of the 30V (since 220V is required
to run any single phase load) will be done by Buck Boost Transformer.

28
2. Buck Boost Transformer – Contrary to
dimmer it is in rectangular shape. Bobin is fitted
with EI CRGO core. When the transformer
structure is built, it is dipped in varnish tank for
extra protection.
This type of Insulating varnish also called
transformer varnish is put on all the windings used
in buck boost transformers to encapsulate them
before the servo stabilizer is ready for regress
testing. Transformer varnish enhances coil life and
protects windings in the transformer from environmental exposure that would
otherwise get damaged due to vibrations. This varnish can be used as a great insulator
for any coil of wire.

3. Servomotor (Synchronizing Motors) – Servomotor as the name suggests is the

main part of servo stabilizer. The motor rotates the arm connected on the dimmer in
clockwise or anti clockwise direction according to input voltage.

4. Carbon Brush – This is a moving part in servo stabilizer, it is fitted in the shaft to
make the contact with dimmer. If the input voltage variation is very frequent, this
carbon brush will erase early and customer has to replace it very frequently. That is
why servo stabilizer manufacturer should use best quality carbon brush.

5. Contactor – The function of contactor is to cut the output of any servo stabilizer if
it exceeds a prescribed limit.

6. MCB, MCCB – The MCB is used to switch on /off the servo stabilizer and gives
short circuit protection whereas MCCB is normally for overload protection.

7. Electronic Circuit – As the name suggests, it sends the signal to various parts of a
servo stabilizer like motor, dimmer, etc., so it works according to that signal & does
their part to correct the voltage.

These are the main components used in servo stabilizer though there are many other
parts also like voltmeter, ampere meter, connectors, etc.

The Servo stabilizer has definitely an edge over traditional stabilizers. Basically there
are two types of stabilizers, one is relay based and the other is Servo based. In relay
stabilizer, a switch corrects the output voltage accuracy at ±10%. But in Servo, the
primary Servo motor corrects supply using buck boost function. This type of stabilizer
is beneficial for high output voltage accuracy. It provides ±1 % voltage output where
input voltage alters up to ± 50 %. This type supports up to 5000 KVA & above so it
has a higher load capacity. Ultimately, the major difference between the two is
performance as Servo is a stepless correction technologically superior to traditional
relay transformers and gives accurate output.

29
A servo stabilizer is a popular replacement for low high rating appliances used in both
commercial and residential places, homes and industries that provides unmatched
voltage supply to protect your fragile equipments. Servo has both single-phase and
three-phase systems coming in Oil cooled and Air cooled units.

A Servo Stabilizer is not just a voltage fixing system, but a completely reliable energy
device that is advantageous over the traditional relay based stabilizer.

Advantages of Servo Stabliser over Conventional

Transformer
1. High voltage correction accuracy with output of ±1 voltage correction.
2. Switch less system to adjust fluctuating voltage at desired levels.
3. High load capacity that supports up to 5000 KVA or above.
4. Voltage is based on step less correction.
5. Perfect stabilization for hospitals best for intricate machineries like X-ray machines,
CAT scans, radiation and diagnostic equipments.
6. Wide functioning area from schools, offices, homes and industries.
7. Oil cooled and air cooled transformers that fit your budget.
Eventually, Servo stands the winner because of its unmatched performance and longer
life features

30
 The Stirling Cycle
History

The Stirling cycle is a thermodynamic closed cycle invented in 1816 by the Scottish
minister Robert Stirling. It was used as an engine and was considered at the time to be
capable of replacing the steam engine since their steam boilers were prone to
life-threatening explosions. The counterpart of the Stirling engine, the refrigerator,
was first recognized in 1832. Both machines experienced high and low points during
the nineteenth century. The principle behind the machines was almost condemned to
obscurity after the invention of the internal combustion engine (gas-, petrol-, and
diesel motors) and compressor refrigerators with external evaporation. In 1938 the
famous Dutch Philips Research Laboratory was looking for a means to power
electricity generators for short wave communication systems in remote areas without
electricity supply. The practically-forgotten Stirling engine attracted their attention. In
1946 Philips started optimizing the Stirling cycle to be used for cryogenic cooling.
The result was the development of the world conquering Stirling Cryogenerator,
marking the start of significant cryogenic activities at Philips. Though the Stirling
engine itself never became a commercial success, the Stirling Cryogenerator has been
selling by thousands worldwide and has been incorporated in equipment and projects
used from Antarctica to the North Pole. Today In the beginning of the 90’s the Philips
Cryogenic Division became independent and continued its worldwide activities under
the name of Stirling Cryogenics BV. Since 2014, DH Industries BV incorporated the
Stirling Cryogenics products as a brand alongside its CryoZone brand. DH Industries
is the only company in the world that successfully produces Stirling cycle-based
cryogenerators with cooling powers of 1,000-4,000 watt (at 77K) per unit. Thanks to
continuous innovation and considerable investment in R&D, the Stirling
Cryogenerator is now used in a wide range of applications, including the production
of liquid gases such as LN2, LOX, LNG, LAr and the cooling of research applications
and industrial processes between 20 and 200K. Stirling efficiency The Stirling
Cryogenerator is extremely efficient compared to other cryogenic cooling principles.
Carnot efficiency is 30% at 77K, resulting in a high practical over-all efficiency
defined as Watts of cooling power available to the application divided by kW of
electric input power. Depending the application’s temperature, the over-all efficiency
of the Stirling Cryogenerator varies between 10% for LN2 applications to over 20%
for LNG systems.

The Stirling Cycle

The central element in all equipment of the Stirling Cryogenics brand is the Stirling
Cycle Cryogenerator. The Stirling Cycle is remarkable because it is a closed cycle in
which the Cryogenerator’s internal working gas (He) never comes into contact with
the fluid to be cooled; they connect only by flow of heat through the heat-exchanger
wall. This concept eliminates contamination of the customers process as well as of the
Stirling Cycle working gas, resulting in long continuous operating periods and
longevity. The Stirling Cycle alternately compresses and expands a fixed quantity of
helium in a closed cycle. The compression takes place at room temperature to
facilitate the discharge of heat caused by compression, whereas the expansion is

31
performed at the cryogenic temperature required by the application. For the purpose
of explanation, the process may be split up into four distinct piston positions. In
position I, all
helium is at room
temperature in
space D. Going to
position II, this gas
is compressed by
piston B increasing
the gas temperature
to about 80°C in
column 1. When the
displacer C moves
down from position
II to III, the gas is
displaced from
space D to space E, forcing it first through the cooler H where the compression heat is
dissipated into the cooling water, reducing the gas temperature to about 15°C (column
2). Next, the helium flows through regenerator G. Using the cold which was stored in
the regenerator by the previous cycle, the helium gas is cooled to almost the final
liquefaction temperature when arriving in space E (column 3). The final and main
action is the displacer and piston moving down to position IV, expanding the helium
gas. This expansion creates the actual cooling power in the cold heat exchanger J
(column 3), cooling the customers process. For a new cycle to begin, the displacer
moves up to positon I, displacing the helium to space D again. The regenerator is
cooled by the passing helium, storing cold to be used in the next cycle. The helium is
reheated to nearly room temperature so the initial situation of the cycle has now been
restored for the cycle to repeat. This cycle is typically repeated at 25 Hz, providing a
continuous extraction of heat. When starting warm, the Cryogenerator will initially
first cool down itself, building up a cold buffer in the regenerator (column 3). This
cool-down requires about 10 minutes only, allowing a fast sart-up of the total process.

32
 Liquid Nitrogen Plant
The Stirling Cycle based systems of DH Industries are based on technology which has
been used for over more than sixty years, serving customers all over the world under
all possible conditions. This experience has culminated in our current range of
systems called StirLIN, producing liquid nitrogen in volumes from 60 to more than
3.000 liters per day. Our fully automatic StirLIN allows the user to concentrate on his
core activity, eliminating all issues involved with the purchasing and logistics of bulk
liquid nitrogen supply. This document contains detailed technical information and
specifications for the StirLIN-8 system. We trust that this information demonstrates
that our system will be a valuable asset in meeting your liquid nitrogen demand.
Thank you for your interest in our company and our products and we look forward to
receiving your valuable response.

Layout

33
 System Process Description
1. Ambient air is taken in by a compressor and fed to
a buffer vessel.
2. The air then passes a number of filters for cleaning
and to remove moisture and particles.
3. An air dryer removes the remaining moisture.
4. The dry, clean air is directed via PLC controlled
valves to one of the two-absorber beds of the
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) unit. The
principle of PSA is based on the property of
carbon molecular sieve to adsorb oxygen
molecules until saturation. The time for adsorption
in an adsorber bed is approximately one minute.
After this time, the automatic valves will switch
over to the second adsorber bed. The PSA bed just
taken offline is now regenerated by releasing
oxygen enriched air (with 25-30% oxygen) to
atmosphere. Continuous switching from one bed
to the other generates a constant flow of purified
nitrogen gas.
5. The nitrogen gas flows, via a buffer vessel, to an
adjustable pressure regulator. This is set to the
pressure at which the customer requires the liquid
nitrogen to be stored in the vessel.
6. The Stirling Cryogenics Cryogenerator will extract
heat from the nitrogen gas flow, due to which it is
first cooled an then liquefied at cryogenic
temperature. This cooling power is generated by
the Cryogenerator using the Stirling cycle. The
produced liquid nitrogen flows by gravity through
an insulated line into the storage vessel
7. Water cooling required for the cryogenerator can
either be tap water, or by a dedicated water chiller
available from Stirling Cryogenics.
8. The PLC will stop the StirLIN when the vessel is
full, and automatically re-starts when the level
drops to 80% due to liquid withdrawal.
9. Liquid nitrogen can be withdrawn from the vessel
via a flexible delivery line by opening a manually
operated valve. In this way small dewars can be
filled. For applications with an auto-fill system, a
direct connection line can be made between the
Stirling Cryogenics vessel and the application.
10. Liquid nitrogen withdrawal is independent from the system’s operation mode.
There is no requirement for a mechanical transfer pump.

34
 Technical Specifications
The StirLIN-8 liquid nitrogen plant has the following specifications.
Liquid Nitrogen Capacity at nominal conditions:

LN2 produced at [barg] 1 3 5

Purity (nitrogen + inerts) [%] 99 98 98
Production capacity [1/h] 97 124 151
Expanded to atmospheric [1/h] 89 98 106
pressure (usable liters)

Additional specifications

StirLIN-8 Optional water

Chiller
Plant Size l*w*h 490 * 434 * 270 * 110 * 160
m 200 (each)
Advised plant room l*w*h 650 * 580 * 730 * 210 * 260
m 300
Weight kg 5.200 2.700
Power Supply V/Hz Adapted for local Adapted for local
power supply power supply
Power Consumption kW 122 20(each)
Noise Level dBA 74 63
LN2 Storage capacity Liters 2.000 N/A
Maintenance interval Running Hours 6.000 N/A
(apart from oil and filter
changes)

35
 Cooled and Uncooled Thermal
Imaging
For many years, thermal imaging cameras have been used by scientists, researchers
and R&D specialists for a wide range of applications, including industrial R&D,
academics & research, non-destructive testing (NDT) & materials testing, and defense
and aerospace. However, not all thermal cameras are created equal and for some
applications dedicated, advanced thermal cameras with high speed stop motion
capability are required in order to get accurate measurements.

Thermal imaging cameras for Science / R&D applications are powerful and
non-invasive tools. With a thermal imaging camera you can identify problems early in
the design cycle, allowing them to be documented and corrected before becoming
more serious and more costly to repair.

Thermal Imaging in an R&D environment

Thermal imaging cameras use thermal radiation, which is not detectable by the human
eye, but can be converted into a visual image that depicts thermal variations across an
object or scene. Covering a part of the electromagnetic spectrum, thermal energy is
emitted by all objects at temperatures above absolute zero, and the amount of
radiation increases with temperature. Thermal imaging cameras are
used for capturing and recording thermal distribution and variations in real-time,
allowing engineers and researchers to see and accurately measure heat patterns,
dissipation, leakage, and other temperature factors in equipment, products and
processes. Some of these cameras can distinguish temperature changes as subtle as
0.02°C. They feature state-of-the-art detector technology and advanced mathematical
algorithms for high performance and precise measurements from -80°C to +3000°C.
The R&D camera ranges combine extremely high imaging performance and precise
temperature measurements, with powerful tools and software for analyzing and
reporting. This combination makes them ideal for a wide range of research, thermal
testing and product validation applications.

Cooled Thermal Image of a rotating Tire Uncooled Thermal image of rotating tire
Fig. 1

36
Cooled and Uncooled Cameras
There is plenty of choice when it comes to thermal imaging camera systems for
R&D/science applications. An often asked question is therefore: “Should I use a
cooled or an uncooled thermal imaging system and which one is the most cost
effective?” In fact, there are two classes of thermal imaging camera systems available
on the market today: cooled and uncooled systems. The component costs for these
two classes of systems can be quite different, making it extremely important to decide
which way to go.

Cooled Thermal Imaging Cameras

A modern cooled thermal imaging camera
has an imaging sensor that is integrated
with a cryocooler. This is a device that
lowers the sensor temperature to cryogenic
temperatures. This reduction in sensor
temperature is necessary to reduce
thermally-induced noise to a level below
that of the signal from the scene being
imaged. Cryocoolers have moving parts
made to extremely close mechanical
tolerances that wear out over time, as well
as helium gas that slowly works its way
past gas seals. Cooled thermal imaging
cameras are the most sensitive type of
cameras and can detect the smallest of
temperature differences between objects.
They can be produced to image in the
mid-wave infrared (MWIR) band and the
long-wave infrared (LWIR) band of the
spectrum where the thermal contrast is high
due to blackbody physics. Thermal contrast
is the change in signal for a change in target temperature. The higher the thermal
contrast, the easier it is to detect objects against a background that may not be much
colder or hotter than the object.

Uncooled Thermal Imaging Cameras

An uncooled infrared camera is one in which the imaging sensor does not require
cryogenic cooling. A common detector design is based on the microbolometer, a tiny
vanadium oxide resistor with a large temperature coefficient on a silicon element with
large surface area, low heat capacity and good thermal isolation. Changes in scene
temperature cause changes in the bolometer temperature which are converted to
electrical signals and processed into an image. Uncooled sensors are designed to work
in the Longwave infrared (LWIR) band, where terrestrial temperature targets emit
most of their infrared energy. Uncooled cameras are generally much less expensive

37
than cooled infrared cameras. The
sensors can be manufactured in
fewer steps with higher yields
relative to cooled sensors, less
expensive vacuum packaging, and
uncooled cameras do not require
cryocoolers, which are very costly
devices. Uncooled cameras have
fewer moving parts and tend to
have much longer service lives
than cooled came.

Cooled Cameras for R&D Applications

Advantages of uncooled cameras beg the question: When is it better to use cooled
thermal imaging cameras for R&D/science applications? The answer is: it depends on
the application requirements. If you want to see the minute temperature differences,
need the best image quality, have fast moving or heating targets, if you need to see the
thermal profile or measure the temperature of a very small target, if you want to
visualize thermal objects in a very specific part of the electromagnetic spectrum, or if
you want to synchronize your thermal imaging camera with other measuring devices,
then a cooled thermal imaging camera is the instrument of choice.

Cooled and Uncooled thermal camera image of electronics board

Speed

Cooled cameras have much higher imaging speeds than uncooled ones. High-speed
thermal imaging allows microsecond exposure times that stop the apparent motion of
dynamic scenes and permit capturing frame rates exceeding 62,000 frames per second.
Applications include thermal and dynamic analysis of jet engine turbine blades,
automotive tire or airbag inspection, supersonic projectiles, and explosions to name a
few. Cooled cameras have very fast response times and they make use of a global
shutter. This means that they will read out all pixels at the same time, as opposed to
reading them out line by line, which is the case with uncooled cameras. This allows
cooled cameras to capture images and take measurements on moving objects without
image blurring. The IR images in Figure 1 compare the capture results of a tire

38
rotating at 20mph. The upper image was taken with a cooled thermal imaging camera.
One would think the tire is not spinning, but this is the result of a very fast capture
rate of the cooled camera that has stopped the motion of the tire. The uncooled camera
capture rate is simply too slow to capture the rotating tire causing the wheel spokes to
appear transparent and blurred. You cannot accurately measure temperature on
blurred images.

Sensitivity
It is often difficult to fully appreciate the value offered by the improved sensitivity of
cooled thermal cameras. How do you get a feeling of the benefit from a 50mK
sensitivity uncooled thermal camera in comparison to a 20mK sensitivity cooled
thermal camera? To help illustrate this benefit we ran a quick sensitivity experiment
(See Figure 3). For this comparison we put our hand on a wall for a brief few seconds
to create a thermal handprint. The first two images show the handprint immediately
after the hand was removed. And the second set of images shows the thermal
handprint’s signature after two minutes. The cooled camera can still see most of the
thermal signature of the handprint, whereas the uncooled cameras only show the
partial remains of the handprint. The cooled camera clearly can detect smaller
temperature differences and for longer durations than the uncooled camera. This
means the cooled camera will provide better detail on your target and help you detect
even the faintest of thermal anomalies.

Cooled and Uncooled thermal camera image of handprint on wall initial image

Cooled and Uncooled thermal camera image of handprint on wall after 2 minutes

39
View publication stats

Reference

1. Notes made at SSPL, DRDO.

2. Internet
3. Stirling Cryogenics Manual and Data sheet
4. Flir Database, etc.

40