7.

Análisis del transporte de energía

7.1 Generalidades: definiciones: energía interna, conducción, convección, ecuaciones de cambio para
la energía
7.2 Estrategia general de análisis
7.3 Análisis de casos típicos

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7.1 Generalidades: definiciones: energía interna
De acuerdo con Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_energy):
“The internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the energy contained within it, measured as the quantity
of energy necessary to bring the system from its standard internal state to its present internal state of interest,
accounting for the gains and losses of energy due to changes in its internal state, including such quantities as
magnetization.[1][2] It excludes the kinetic energy of motion and the potential energy of position of the system
as a whole, with respect to its surroundings and external force fields, but it includes the thermal energy (i.e.
internal kinetic energy). The internal energy of an isolated system cannot change, as expressed in the law of
conservation of energy, a foundation of the first law of thermodynamics.

“The internal energy cannot be measured absolutely. Thermodynamics concerns changes in the internal
energy, not its absolute value. The processes that change the internal energy are transfers, into or out of the
system, of matter, or of energy, as heat, or by thermodynamic work.[3] These processes are measured by
changes in the system's properties, such as temperature, entropy, volume, electric polarization, and molar
constitution. The internal energy depends only on the internal state of the system and not on the particular
choice from many possible processes by which energy may pass into or out of the system. It is a state variable,
a thermodynamic potential, and an extensive property.

“Thermodynamics defines internal energy macroscopically, for the body as a whole. In statistical mechanics,
the internal energy of a body can be analyzed microscopically in terms of the kinetic energies of microscopic
motion of the system's particles from translations, rotations, and vibrations, and of the potential energies
associated with microscopic forces, including chemical bonds.
The unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J). The internal energy relative to the
mass with unit J/kg is the specific internal energy. The corresponding quantity relative to the amount of
substance with unit J/mol is the molar internal energy.[4]

Description and definition

The internal energy U of a given state of the system is determined relative to that of a standard state of the
system, by adding up the macroscopic transfers of energy that accompany a change of state from the reference
state to the given state:

∆𝑼 = ∑ 𝑬𝒊
𝒊

where ∆𝑼 denotes the difference between the internal energy of the given state and that of the reference state,
and the 𝑬𝒊 are the various energies transferred to the system in the steps from the reference state to the given
state. It is the energy needed to create the given state of the system from the reference state. From a non-
relativistic microscopic point of view, it may be divided into microscopic potential energy, 𝑼𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐,𝒑𝒐𝒕 , and
microscopic kinetic energy, 𝑼𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐,𝒌𝒊𝒏 , components:

∆𝑼 = 𝑼𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐,𝒑𝒐𝒕 + 𝑼𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐,𝒌𝒊𝒏

The microscopic kinetic energy of a system arises as the sum of the motions of all the system's particles with
respect to the center-of-mass frame, whether it be the motion of atoms, molecules, atomic nuclei, electrons, or
other particles. The microscopic potential energy algebraic summative components are those of the chemical
and nuclear particle bonds, and the physical force fields within the system, such as due to internal induced
electric or magnetic dipole moment, as well as the energy of deformation of solids (stress-strain). Usually, the
split into microscopic kinetic and potential energies is outside the scope of macroscopic thermodynamics.

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Internal energy does not include the energy due to motion or location of a system as a whole. That is to say, it
excludes any kinetic or potential energy the body may have because of its motion or location in external
gravitational, electrostatic, or electromagnetic fields. It does, however, include the contribution of such
a field to the energy due to the coupling of the internal degrees of freedom of the object with the
field. In such a case, the field is included in the thermodynamic description of the object in the
form of an additional external parameter.
For practical considerations in thermodynamics or engineering, it is rarely necessary, convenient, nor even
possible, to consider all energies belonging to the total intrinsic energy of a sample system, such as the energy
given by the equivalence of mass. Typically, descriptions only include components relevant to the system under
study. Indeed, in most systems under consideration, especially through thermodynamics, it is impossible to
calculate the total internal energy.[10] Therefore, a convenient null reference point may be chosen for the
internal energy.
The internal energy is an extensive property: it depends on the size of the system, or on the amount
of substance it contains.
At any temperature greater than absolute zero, microscopic potential energy and kinetic energy are
constantly converted into one another, but the sum remains constant in an isolated system (cf.
table). In the classical picture of thermodynamics, kinetic energy vanishes at zero temperature and the internal
energy is purely potential energy. However, quantum mechanics has demonstrated that even at zero
temperature particles maintain a residual energy of motion, the zero point energy. A system at absolute zero
is merely in its quantum-mechanical ground state, the lowest energy state available. At absolute zero a system
of given composition has attained its minimum attainable entropy.
The microscopic kinetic energy portion of the internal energy gives rise to the temperature of the system.
Statistical mechanics relates the pseudo-random kinetic energy of individual particles to the mean kinetic
energy of the entire ensemble of particles comprising a system. Furthermore, it relates the mean microscopic
kinetic energy to the macroscopically observed empirical property that is expressed as temperature of the
system. While temperature is an intensive measure, this energy expresses the concept as an extensive property
of the system, often referred to as the thermal energy,[11][12] The scaling property between temperature
and thermal energy is the entropy change of the system.
Statistical mechanics considers any system to be statistically distributed across an ensemble of N
microstates. In a system that is in thermodynamic contact equilibrium with a heat reservoir, each microstate
has an energy 𝑬𝒊 and is associated with a probability 𝒑𝒊 . The internal energy is the mean value of the
system's total energy, i.e., the sum of all microstate energies, each weighted by its probability
of occurrence:
𝑵

𝑼 = ∑ 𝒑𝒊 𝑬𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

This is the statistical expression of the law of conservation of energy.

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Internal energy changes
Thermodynamics is chiefly concerned with the changes in internal energy ΔU.
For a closed system, with matter transfer excluded, the changes in internal energy are due to heat transfer Q
and due to thermodynamic work W done by the system on its surroundings. Accordingly, the internal energy
change ΔU for a process may be written:
ΔU = Q − W (closed system, no transfer of matter) .
When a closed system receives energy as heat, this energy increases the internal energy. It is distributed
between microscopic kinetic and microscopic potential energies. In general, thermodynamics does not trace
this distribution. In an ideal gas all of the extra energy results in a temperature increase, as it is
stored solely as microscopic kinetic energy; such heating is said to be sensible.
A second kind of mechanism of change in the internal energy of a closed system changed is in
its doing of work on its surroundings. Such work may be simply mechanical, as when the system expands
to drive a piston, or, for example, when the system changes its electric polarization so as to drive a change in
the electric field in the surroundings.
If the system is not closed, the third mechanism that can increase the internal energy is transfer of
matter into the system. This increase, ∆𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 cannot be split into heat and work components.[3] If the
system is so set up physically that heat transfer and work that it does are by pathways separate from and
independent of matter transfer, then the transfers of energy add to change the internal energy:
𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾 + ∆𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 (matter transfer pathway separate from heat and work transfer
pathways).
If a system undergoes certain phase transformations while being heated, such as melting and
vaporization, it may be observed that the temperature of the system does not change until the entire sample
has completed the transformation. The energy introduced into the system while the temperature
does not change is called latent energy or latent heat, in contrast to sensible heat, which is
associated with temperature change.

History
James Joule studied the relationship between heat, work, and temperature. He observed that friction in a
liquid, such as caused by its agitation with work by a paddle wheel, caused an increase in its temperature,
which he described as producing a quantity of heat. Expressed in modern units, he found that c. 4186 joules of
energy were needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius.[17]

7.2 Estrategia general de análisis

El siguiente diagrama resume la estrategia general de análisis que usaremos para estudiar el
modelamiento de casos típicos de transporte de fluidos en ingeniería química.
Algoritmo general para la obtención de distribuciones de temperatura

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De acuerdo con este diagrama, para entender el problema por resolver se requiere hacer una
adecuada caracterización del sistema estudiado en los mismos términos que se hizo antes para el
análisis del transporte de cantidad de movimiento.
El planteamiento cualitativo de la ecuación de energía es:

Este planteamiento es general y la forma específica que adopte la ecuación depende de la

caracterización del sistema. La ecuación de energía, a diferencia de la ecuación de cantidad de
movimiento, tiene carácter escalar. De acuerdo con BSL, los tres primeros términos de la ecuación
de energía pueden resumirse usando el vector densidad de flujo de energía, tal como lo vimos en
(E6.2.2)
𝟏
̂ + 𝝆𝒖𝟐 ) 𝒗
⃗ = (𝝆𝑼
,𝒆 ⃗ + [𝝅
⃗ +𝒒 ̿ ∙ 𝐯⃗].
𝟐

Haciendo uso del vector densidad de flujo de energía, BSL hace la siguiente derivación de la
ecuación de energía con base en la siguiente caracterización:

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Por otro lado, usando un enfoque Euleriano, podemos, por ejemplo, derivar la ecuación de energía
para el caso de un fluido incompresible que fluye en régimen laminar a través de un volumen de
control cúbico (i.e., Cartesiano), en términos de la temperatura, así:

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Habiendo reemplazado la densidad de flujo de calor por conducción en términos de la temperatura
usando la Ley de Fourier, se tiene:

En el caso de la densidad de flujo de calor ligada al transporte convectivo, se apela al hecho que
este es un calor sensible y se aplica la relación termodinámica apropiada para este tipo de calor:

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Los dos tipos de transporte anteriores son de carácter superficial. En contraste, tanto los términos de
acumulación como de generación (o fuente/sumidero) de energía son de carácter volumétrico; es
decir, están contenidos en el volumen de control, por tanto:

Se puede notar que el término de acumulación también está ligado, en este caso, a un calor sensible.
Haciendo uso de lo anterior, la ecuación de balance de energía diferencial queda:

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Así como se derivó la ecuación anterior (flujo de fluido incompresible), se pueden derivar otras
versiones alternativas de la ecuación de energía a partir de una caracterización diferente del sistema.

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La siguiente tabla, tomada de BSL, resume diferentes versiones de las ecuaciones de cambio primero
en términos de la derivada sustancial y luego en términos de derivadas parciales. Estas serán usadas
a conveniencia del problema tratado; por ello es por lo que la caracterización del sistema termina
siendo el paso más importante en el modelamiento del proceso estudiado. Para efectos prácticos, se
usan directamente las versiones de las ecuaciones de cambio en términos de derivadas parciales.

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Para poder resolver las ecuaciones de cambio, se requiere el reemplazo de las ecuaciones
constitutivas que permiten expresar las propiedades de transporte en términos de las variables
respuesta de éstas; específicamente, densidad, velocidad y temperatura. A continuación, se
presentan las tablas adicionales (tomadas de BSL) que se requieren para tal fin:

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Versiones específicas de las ecuaciones de cambio:

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7.3 Análisis de casos típicos
Podemos dividir los casos típicos de análisis en función del tipo de sistema por estudiar. Los dos tipos
de sistemas básicos que consideraremos son: homogéneos y heterogéneos. Un sistema homogéneo
es uno constituido por un o varias sustancias en una única fase (sólido o fluido) mientras que un
sistema heterogéneo está constituido por una o más sustancias en fases diferentes. Así, son sistemas
heterogéneos aquellos que están compuestos por un sólido y un gas o un líquido o por dos líquidos
inmiscibles o por un líquido y un gas. De estos sistemas, los más simples de analizar son los sólidos
homogéneos. A continuación, se ilustran varios casos típicos para este tipo de sistema:

I. Análisis del calentamiento de un cable cilíndrico.

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II. Transferencia de calor en paredes compuestas

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III. Transferencia de calor en una aleta cuadrada

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IV. Conducción de calor en un fluido

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V. Transporte de calor por convección en fluidos

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 Solución completa

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VI. Transporte de calor en un medio heterogéneo

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