Applied Linguistics / Prof El-Mouhtarim

A summary
By Rachid

This work has been done to aid understanding and memorising this module.
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1. What is Applied Linguistics?

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies,
investigates, and offers solutions to language-related problems. There are many
definitions to this discipline:
• Kaplan and Widdowson (1992) define applied linguistics as “the application of
linguistic knowledge to real- world problems ... whenever knowledge about
language is used to solve a basic language-related problem, we may say that
applied linguistics is being practiced”
• According to the International Association of Applied Linguistics, applied
linguistics “is an interdisciplinary field of research and practice dealing with
practical problems of language and communication that can be identified,
analysed or solved by applying available theories, methods and results of
linguistics.”

2. Aims of applied linguistics:

Applied linguistics focuses on the relationship between theory and practice,
using the insights gained from the theory-practice interface for solving language-
related problems in a principled way. It is the study of language in order to address
real-world concerns.
3. The need for Applied Linguistics:
If we see language as a most useful tool for humanity, then, Applied
Linguistics is what puts that tool to work. Applied Linguistics helps us
identify, investigate, and offer solutions to many language related real-life

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problems. It is here to help us solve most of the language based issues we face in
life.
So, the need for applied linguistics springs from the fact that:
➢ The importance of AL lies in the significant role it has in solving
language-related problems.
➢ Language is crucial to human lives. Without language, most important activities
will be inconceivable. Applied linguistics is concerned with this magic tool.
➢ Throughout history and across the world, people have been using language to
communicate. Applied linguistics has a lot of contribution in this respect.
➢ In the world there are many rapid changes. These changes affect people,
language itself and how itis used. Applied linguistics is always involved in all
changes related to language.

4. The Scope of Applied Linguistics:

Applied linguistics as a problem-driven area of investigation seeks to find
solutions to the following intricate situations:

✓ A speech therapist sets out to investigate why a four-year-old child has failed to
develop normal language skills for a child of that age.
✓ A teacher of English as a foreign language wonders why groups of
learners sharing the same first language regularly make a particular
grammatical mistake that learners from other language backgrounds do not.
✓ An expert witness in a criminal case tries to solve the problem of who exactly
instigated a crime, working only with statements made to the police.
✓ An advertising copy writer searches for what would be the most effective
use of language to target a particular social group in order to sell a product.
✓ A literary scholar suspects that an anonymous work was in fact written by a
very famous writer and looks for methods of investigating the hypothesis.
✓ A group of civil specialists have a task related to standardizing language usage
in their country, or deciding major aspects of language planning policy that will
affect millions of people.

5. Major branches of applied linguistics:

❖ Language teaching methodology: applied linguistics seeks to uncover the best
teaching methods and techniques using classroom research.
❖ Syllabus and materials design: researchers in this field are concerned with the
order and the way in which learning material is presented to learners. Research

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 in this area is also interested in what type of syllabus to be adopted depending
on one’s understanding of how language is structured and how it is learned.
❖ Language assessment and testing: it is an important area of research into
language teaching and learning where the focus is placed on how learners’
ability is assessed. This has always involved the development and
implementation of frameworks for describing student’s progress in language
learning over time.
❖ Language for specific purposes: it examines the characteristics of the different
types of language with a view of how to teach learners to use these specific types
in everyday communicative situations.
❖ Second language acquisition: areas of interest here include for instance whether
or not there is a natural constant order of acquisition across all language
learning situations.
❖ Language policy and planning: the way language is controlled at
international, national and local levels; the role of official languages in national
identity; and what language(s) should be used as vehicle(s) of instruction at
schools make examples of research interests for language planners and policy
makers.
❖ Lexicography: Lexicography is important and an integral part of applied
linguistics in second/foreign language learning and teaching at all ages and
levels of education.
❖ Corpus Linguistics: This is aimed at improving language description and theory.
Corpus data are essentially for accuracy in the description of language use and
have shown how lexis, grammar and semantics interact.
❖ Discourse analysis and text analysis: This is related to different fields.
Each domain of language use makes its discourse and the analysis of
language used in a specific field helps to reveal its discourse. Among
the examples of discourse, there is the political
discourse, the scientific discourse, the religious discourse, the media
discourse, the educational discourse etc...
❖ Forensic linguistics: This is an integral part of applied linguistics.
Those who are interested in this field work and analyze statutes
(laws), legal procedures, courtroom language, and language used as
evidence in criminal and civil court cases.
❖ Translation studies: as one of the topics that fall under the general
rubric of applied linguistics, translation studies focus on the choices
that people make when translating from one language to the other.

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 6. Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching: An
Overview :
applied linguistics was once focused narrowly on foreign
language teaching and learning before undergoing a process of rapid
expansion of scope to become the discipline that covers a wide range of
practical and theoretical concerns as far as language use in the real
world is concerned. However, foreign language pedagogy “remains by
far the largest area of research activity in contemporary applied
linguistics, and this is likely to remain the case for the foreseeable
future” (Groom & Littlemore, 2011, p. 14).

7. Language acquisition and language learning:

a) What is language acquisition?
Language acquisition is the process whereby children acquire
their first language. All humans (without exceptional physical or mental
disabilities) have an innate capability to acquire language.
Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit
learning. In other words, children do not need explicit instruction to
learn their first languages, but rather seem to just “pick up” language in
the same way they learn to roll over, crawl, and walk.
Acquisition (as opposed to learning) depends on children
receiving linguistic input during the critical period. The critical period
is defined as the window of time, up to about the age of twelve or
puberty, in which humans can acquire first languages.
b) What is language learning?
Language learning, in contrast to language acquisition, is the process
whereby humans past the critical period learn second languages.
For example, a woman who acquired French as a child and learned
English as an adult would have one first language (French) and one
second language (English).

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 As opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously
through explicit instruction and education. In other words, older
children and adults past the critical period need explicit teaching to
learn their second languages. Language learning requires explicit
instruction in speaking and hearing additional languages. For example,
while children who acquire English as their first language just seem
unconsciously and without instruction to “know” that most adjectives
precede nouns in English, those same children as adults must be taught
that most adjectives follow nouns in Spanish.
c) What is language immersion:
Language immersion is a second language learning method in
which language learners immerse themselves in the target (second)
language. For example, Parents who want their children to learn French
as a second language might enroll their children into a school with a
language immersion program that teaches all subjects (math, science,
social studies) in the French language.
The goal of language immersion is to create a linguistic
environment that mimics the environment of first language acquisition.
The idea behind language immersion is that, if all incoming (auditory)
communication is in the target language, then students will eventually
be compelled to use the target language for all outgoing (spoken)
communication. The outcome of language immersion is language
learning, not language acquisition.
d) The possibility of second language acquisition:
The possibility of Second Language Acquisition The theory
behind language learning programs (with Rosetta Stone as the most
well-known) is that adults past the critical period can acquire language.
Although some older children and adults can seemingly acquire
languages in addition to their first, most people must learn second
languages.

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 To sum up, first language acquisition differs from second
language learning in that children acquire first languages innately and
passively while adults learn second languages actively through explicit
education and instruction. Older children and adults past the critical
period can successfully learn second languages through language
immersion. However, many language learning programs that promise
language acquisition through immersion fail to take into account the
differences between first language acquisition and second language
learning as well as the necessary linguistic environment for authentic
language immersion. Nonetheless, language immersion programs can
reinforce the learning that language learners gained through explicit
second language education and instruction.

Contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage analysis

are not included

8. The schools of thought: (Theories of Learning):

A lot of schools have dealt with learning and its nature. Before
presenting these schools, some definitions of learning will be presented
first.
a) Defining learning:
Learning has been defined in numerous ways by many different
theorists, researchers and educational practitioners.
The following definition by Shuell (as interpreted by Schunk,
1991) incorporates these main ideas: “Learning is an enduring change
in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of experience”.
Schunk (1991) lists five definitive questions that serve to
distinguish each learning theory from the others. Two more questions
are added these thought provoking questions.

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 How does learning occur?
Which factors influence learning? 3. What is the role of memory?
How does transfer occur?
What types of learning are best explained by the theory?
What basic assumptions/principles of this theory are relevant to
instructional design?
How should instruction be structured to facilitate learning?
b) Behaviourism:
Behaviorists, as the name implies, help us understand why we behave as we
do. They are interested in finding out how external, environmental stimuli cause
overt or observable learner behavior and how modifying a learner’s environment
can change behavior. The concepts of prime interest to behaviorists are contiguity,
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning.
▪ Cognitivity:
Contiguity refers to simple stimulus-response (S-R) pairings, associations, or
connections, such as lightning and thunder, which occur closely together. When
one experience (or a stimulus) is regularly associated with another, a response, an
S-R connection is established. We can learn by simple S-R pairing such facts as
Columbus landed in America in 1492 and 9 x 7 = 63. So, many concepts and facts
are learned through simple stimulus-response process.
▪ Classical conditioning:
refers to learning that occurs when we already have an established
connection (contiguity) between a primary or original stimulus and a response,
and then we pair a new, secondary stimulus with the original stimulus long enough
that it begins to evoke the original response even when the original stimulus is
absent.
>>>>>> think about pavlov’s dogs.
▪ Operant conditioning :
refers to learning facilitated through reinforcement. A learner does
something correctly or appropriately and, consequently, receives a reward.
Operant conditioning presumes that if we do something we are rewarded for or
which is rewarding in itself, we will doit again. Conversely, if we do something that
is not rewarded or rewarding, we will be less likely to repeat the behavior. Operant
conditioning is based upon a pleasure-pain view of human behavior.

▪ Observational learning :

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 According to its early theorist, Bandura (1986), for observational learning to
be effective, learners must attend to someone’s behavior, retain what they
observed the “model” doing, imitate or reproduce the behavior they saw, and
experience reinforcement or satisfaction as a consequence. We know learners are
most likely to model persons who are somewhat like themselves and whom they
perceive as competent, warm, or powerful. Thus, children frequently identify with
parents or with television or movie characters, especially superheroes, and mimic
what they do.
c) The Cognitive School of tought: Cognitivism.
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on the processes involved in
learning rather than on the observed behavior. Knowledge can be seen as schema
or symbolic mental constructions and learning is defined as change in a Jearner’s
schemata.
Cognitive Learning Theory is a broad theory that explains thinking and
different mental processes and how they are influenced by internal and external
factors in order to produce learning in individuals. These cognitive processes are:
observing, categorizing, and forming generalizations about our environment.
Briefly, cognitivism is the study that focuses on mental processes, including
how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and direct their
attention to one stimulus rather than another. Psychologists working from a
cognitivist perspective, then, seek to understand cognition.
Cognitivists have increased our understanding of how humans process and
make sense of new information, how we access, interpret, integrate, organize and
manage knowledge. They have given us a better understanding of the conditions
that affect learners’ mental states.

➔ The principles of cognitivism:

The principles of cognitivism can be summarized as follows:

 It sees the subject as an active processor of stimuli and this processing determines
behavior.
Learning is developing skills to understand reality that will generate appropriate
responses to various contexts.
It explores the following processes: memory, perception, forgetting, transference and
assimilation. Significant learning is achieved through assimilation.
To develop cognitive processes, cognitivism allows students to be aware of their own
cognitive processes, allowing them to be more independent and reflective.

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It considers the individual as an active being and a builder of his/ her own
knowledge.
This school of thought has its roots in cognitive science, a field that studies
how people think. Specifically, cognitive scientists try to fathom what goes on
inside our heads when we are learning. They have contributed two important,
wide-ranging concepts that help us understand how people learn and remember.
These are information processing and meaningful learning.
Information processing refers to the study of how we mentally take in and
store information and then retrieve it when needed.
Meaningful learning involves the study of how new information can be most
effectively organized, structured, and taught so that it might be used, for example
in problem-solving situations.
These two different and sometimes overlapping concepts are presented
in detail in the following sections:

 Information Processing :
o Cognitive scientists study how we attend to, recognize, transform, store, and
retrieve information.
o They develop models to illustrate how they believe information is processed.
o Essentially models such as this one suggest that although we encounter many
stimuli (A), we pay attention to only some of them (B). Of the stimuli we notice,
some will be discarded almost immediately (e.g. being casually introduced to
another person), while the rest go into our short-term (C), or working, memory.

 Short-term memory :
o as the term suggests, is a storage system that holds only a limited amount and
certain kinds of information for a few seconds.
o When these stimuli reach our short-term memory, the items we then use (think
about) to any degree are transferred to our long-term, or permanent, memory
and saved.
 Long-term memory :

o long-term memory is where we keep information for a longer time.

o Information that we do not use to any degree, and that therefore does not reach
long term memory, is forgotten as if we had never been exposed to it in the first
place. Much information to which we have been exposed is lost for lack of proper
storage and use.
 Beliefs about Attention :

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 Getting students to “pay attention” to information is a real challenge for
teachers. Cognitivists suggest that teachers use the following guiding principles to
gain and hold learners’ attention:
Learning experiences should be as pleasant and satisfying as possible. Students are
more likely to attend to something (mathematics, music, sports) when they have had
previous positive experiences with it.
Whenever possible, lessons should take into account the interests and needs of
students.
The attention of learners can be gained and held longer by making use of different
sensory channels and change.
Learners differ in their ability to attend and concentrate.
Call direct attention to information of importance. Highlight key points or say, “This
is important.”
Distractions interfere with attention. Find ways to eliminate the many
interruptions to learning that students, other teachers, and administrators can cause.
Learners can attend to only some information at a time. Students should not be
overwhelmed or they may become so confused that they attend to nothing.

 Beliefs about Short-term memory :

>The stimuli we attend to fin their way into short-term memory, now often
referred to as working memory. But, how do we get some of this information
beyond short-term and into long-term memory? Cognitivists believe the following
principles to be true.
>Short-term memory capacity is limited. Therefore, it is difficult to
remember a meaningless series of numerals.
>To overcome the limited capacity of our short-term memory, new
information can be both organized and connected to what we already know; for
example, learners can be helped to combine, or “chunk,” new information.
>Information can be remembered better by connecting it with what students
already know.
>To avoid forgetting new information, we must use it or, as cognitive
scientists say, engage in active “rehearsals” with it. Such rehearsals can involve
either practicing repeatedly or simply thinking about the information. When we
engage in recurrent practice, we can move information to our long-term memory
through sheer repetition or memorization.

 Beliefs about Long-term memory :

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 As noted, information that learners process extensively, or use in meaningful
ways finds its way into long-term memory. Cognitivists believe the following to be
true with regard to long-term memory:
The capacity of our long-term memory seems limitless. We never run out of
room to learn.
We are best able to retrieve information from our long-term memory if that
information was related to something we knew at that time.
We can call up, or recollect, related information from long-term memory
when processing new information in short-term, working memory.
Reviewing information fixes it more firmly. Think about how you have
retained the multiplication facts .
Mnemonic or memory tricks can also be used to aid remembering.
 General beliefs about the memory process :
The general beliefs of cognitivists with regard to memory include the following:

Information in short-term memory is lost either when that memory is overloaded or

with the passage of time.
When information in short-term memory is lost, it cannot be recovered. If we forget
a telephone number or person’s home, we must relearn it. In contrast, information in
long-term memory can be retrieved and used when conditions are right.
Retrieval, or remembrance, of information in our long-term memory is enhanced if
we connected the information to something we already knew at the time we originally
learned the new information.
Additionally, retrieval is easier when the information is originally presented in an
organized way and when that information is reviewed periodically.
 Meaningful learning:
Cognitive scientists are interested in information processing (attention,
short-term memory and long-term memory and retrieving). They are also
interested in how information can be made more meaningful so that it can be
better understood and used. These scientists address “meaningful learning,” and their
work has led to the development of approaches to it that teachers use.
The approaches include how to:
• Prepare students for learning.
• Present information logically and clearly.
• Connect new information to what learners already know.

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 • Make the information make sense for the learner.

d) Constructivism:
John Dewey is often cited as the philosophical founder of this approach.
Bruner (1990) and Piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the
cognitive constructivists, while Vygotsky (1978) is the major theorist among the
social constructivists.
According to this theory, learners construct knowledge rather than just
passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon
those experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new
information into their pre-existing knowledge.
Learning is an active rather than a passive process.
1) Basic Concepts of constructivism :
The two key concepts within this theory are assimilation and accommodation.
 Assimilation means incorporating new experiences into old experiences,
rethinking and altering perceptions.
On the other hand, accommodation reframes new experiences and keeps
changing as the context changes.
Teachers play a huge role within the constructivist learning theory. They
function as facilitators who help students understand concepts better. The
approach is different from delivering lectures as the teacher starts by asking
questions rather than talking about the concepts themselves.
The students then come to the conclusion using their own understanding and
the teacher continues discussions and conversations with students. Therefore,
agreeing with Piaget’s theory of constructivism, teachers should also be a mentor,
consultant and a coach to students.
2) Principles of constructivism :
Knowledge is constructed. Every student begins the learning journey with some pre-
existing knowledge and then continues to build their understanding on top of that.
Learning is a social activity. Interacting with others is vital to constructing
knowledge.
Learning is an active process. Students must actively engage in discussions and
activities in order to construct knowledge.
Learning is contextual. Isolation is not the best way to retain information. We learn
by forging connections between what we believe and the information we have already.

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People learn to learn, as they learn. As each student moves through the learning
journey, they get better at selecting and organizing information.
Learning exists in the mind. Hands-on activities and physical experience are not
enough to retain knowledge. Active engagement and reflection are critical to the
learning journey. In order to develop a thorough understanding, students must
experience activities mentally as well.
Knowledge is personal. Because every person’s perspective is unique, so will be the
knowledge gained.
Motivation is key to learning. It is crucial that educators work to motivate their
students to engage in the learning journey (learning never stops).

e) Innateness theory:
 A view on the basic principles:
Noam Chomsky is the leader of this theory.
Chomsky concluded that children must have an inborn faculty for language
acquisition. According to this theory, the process is biologically determined
The human species have evolved a brain whose neural circuits contain linguistic
information at birth.
This natural faculty (child’s natural predisposition to learn language) has become
known as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
 Limitations of Chomsky’s theory :

Chomsky’s work on language was theoretical.

He was interested in grammar and much of his work consists of complex
explanations of grammatical rules.
He did not study real children.
The theory relies on children being exposed to language but takes no account of
the interaction between children and their carers.

Good luck

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