III.

REPETITION AND REDUNDANCY

Repetition means to recite expressions that are used in a material, especially of prepared or
memorized one. It is used to explain a concept further or to offer more examples on a subject
studied. Redundancy, on the other hand, means excessive wordiness or repetition in expression.
There is a fine line between repetition and redundancy.
Repetition, if used well, can add emphasis to what you are trying to say and strengthen a point.
Redundancy, on the other hand, cannot be a good thing. Redundancy happens when the
repetition of a word or idea does not add anything to the previous usage; it just restates what has
already been said, takes up space, and gets in the way without adding meaning.
To understand repetition better, some restatement techniques should be studied. Restatement is
used in academic writing to state something again in a new form, to expand or to explain. Even
though there are several techniques to restate the sentences, following examples contain the basic
ones. Study the following examples to see different techniques:

a) * The hotel offers turndown service; i.e. the maid will prepare the bed for sleeping and
leave a small treat on the pillow.
* Using different methods in teaching, i.e. audio-lingual, total physical response,
grammar translation, enables different kinds of learners benefit more during learning.
b) * I need to go to the supermarket to buy 3 things — toothpaste, shampoo, and soap.
* There is a wide range of pharmacological agents which are used for getting rid of
cellulite, including methylxanthines – caffeine and theobromine.
c) * The contribution of cognitive ability to university success may be higher in physics and
music than in sociology and psychology. That is, success in psychology and sociology
may require abilities and dispositions not included in the entrance examination.
* He was found innocent in the court. That is, the court could not convict him legally.

In a and b, the second part of the sentence explains what is meant by method, service, things and
methylxanthines. In c, the second sentence develops the first to make it clearer. Note that the
restatements are introduced by i.e., a dash or ‘that is’. As you can see, the restated parts extend
the explanation while focusing on the same subject. To be more understandable, repetition is
required.

There are several points to consider about redundancy. As it was explained before, good writing
aims for economy and precision. If the writer cannot offer these, then the quality of paper
decreases. To simply explain, “redundancy” is using unnecessary words, word groups and
explanations. Analyse the following sentences:

 University education in Spain is cheaper than university education in the UK.

 University education in Spain is cheaper than in the UK.

 Homelessness is a global problem in the whole world.

 Homelessness is a global problem.

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As you can see, even though “university education” and “in the world” are not mentioned, the
concepts mentioned in the sentences are still obvious.
How to avoid redundancy

 Eliminate redundant pairs: e.g.: global, in the world, new innovations, 8 am in the morning
 Delete unnecessary quantifiers and modifiers.
 Reduce prepositional phrases: e.g.: return back
 Do not use two transitions/phrases which mean the same: So therefore it is necessary.
 Combine short sentences to avoid using the subjects and objects again.
 If necessary, you may also change the sentence structure by converting active ones to
passive or vice versa.
 Always make sure that you check a dictionary or thesaurus.

Exercise 1: In the following text, remove repetition and redundancy where necessary.1

a) Scientists often experience setbacks in their research. The scientists should not feel
discouraged, however, because setbacks can help scientists make new discoveries that might
have been overlooked.

b) There are two advantages of having friends who are different from us. One advantage of
having friends who are different from us is that you can share different opinions. A second
advantage of having friends who are different from us is that you will learn a lot and help
each other because they have different qualities which are not similar. So therefore there are
lots of advantages of having friends.

c) Employees must take occasional vacations to reduce stress and stay efficient. Some
employers encourage employees to take vacations, but some employers discourage
vacations.

d) The lifestyle of people who live in cities is totally different from the lifestyle of people who
live in small towns or rural areas. People who live in cities often walk quickly and speak
quickly because they are under pressure. Time is money for them. However, people who live
in small towns do everything more and more slowly.

e) I want to improve my English, especially reading and listening. Practicing reading is quite
easy because I can use the internet, but it is not easy to find material to practise listening.
f) Students often ask me about language tests, especially TOEFL and IELTS. I usually
recommend IELTS because it is a bit more ‘user-friendly’.

1
https://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472034031-5.pdf

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 IV. SYNONYMS

When writing, it is necessary to find synonyms in order to provide variety and interest for the
reader. Synonyms are also needed when paraphrasing or notetaking to avoid plagiarism.
The accuracy of a synonym is often dependent on context. Both pupil and student could be used
to identify a 10-year old schoolgirl, but when she goes to university only student is normally
used. Scholar might be a possible synonym, but it is very formal. Similarly, at university a
lecturer could also be called a teacher, but in school the only possible synonym for teacher is the
old-fashioned master or mistress. Synonyms are not always exactly the same in meaning, but it is
important not to change the register. Firm is a good synonym for company, but boss is too
informal to use for manager. Many basic words, e.g. culture, economy, society, science, have no
effective synonyms.

Study the following paragraph to see synonym usage.

General Motors is the largest motor company in the world, with total revenues amounting to
15% of the global automotive market. The giant firm employs 360,000 people internationally.

largest company → giant firm

motor → automotive
in the world → global/internationally
Exercise 1: Study the following two texts. First, decide if the texts are repetitive or not.
Then, try to find the synonyms used instead of key words. 2

a) Stress is a term adopted from engineering science by psychology and medicine. Simply
defined, stress in engineering means force upon an area. As so many forces working upon us
in the modern age, and we find it extremely difficult to cope under so much pressure, stress
is called the “disease of civilization” and it seems that our modern world has not only
created an advanced technological environment but also a stressful environment. Philip
Zimbardo, in his “Psychology and Life”, traces four interrelated levels at which we react to
the pressures exerted upon us from our environment.
b) Energy is the most important source of modern society; without power to work our machines
and give us heat and light our society could not exist. Until half way through this century
society was confident that the world’s supply of fossilized energy would last forever. But
now that that preposition has been questioned and it seems that our supplies of coal, gas and
oil are destined to run out. The production of nuclear energy leaves the producer with
dangerous waste materials to dispose of. For these reasons mankind is investigating
alternative sources of energy and of these, solar energy, energy collected from the sun,
seems most promising. This assignment will explain in detail how solar energy is collected

2
http://sydney.edu.au/learningcentre/clearer_writing/module3/vocabulary/synonymy_antonomy/in_academic_paragraphs/
syn_academic_eg_ex.html

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 for the generation of heat. It will examine the design and use of low temperature, medium
temperature and high temperature collectors.

It should be noted that while using synonyms in a piece of writing, it is very important to
determine the correct style and tone. As most pieces in this course require formal writing, formal
words should be focused on and studied.

Exercise 2: Identify the words or phrases that make the sentences below informal. Then
change them with suitable synonyms. 3

a) Expert systems can help out the user in the diagnosis of problems. ………………
b) The program was set up to improve access to medical care. ………………
c) Research expenditure has gone up by nearly $3.6 million. ……..………
d) Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects. ………………
e) The use of optical character readers (OCRs) should cut down on the number of problems
with Australia Post. ………………
f) Building nuclear power will not get rid of the power crisis. ………………
g) Researchers have been looking into this problem for more than fifteen years. ………………
h) The issue was brought up for investigation. ………………
i) Engineers have come up with better designs using computer simulations. ………………
j) The emission levels have been going up and down. ………………

Some common academic synonyms are as below. Make use of them in your writing.

Nouns Verbs
Goal target reduce decrease, cut
study research achieve reach
results findings alter change
area field evaluate examine
authority source claim suggest
benefit advantage assist help
category type challenge question
component part clarify explain
concept idea quote cite
controversy argument concentrate focus
beliefs ethics confine limit
expansion increase show demonstrate
interpretation explanation eliminate remove
issue topic found establish
method system develop evolve
option possibility maintain insist
statistics figures predict forecast
framework structure prohibit ban
trend tendency retain keep
drawback disadvantage strengthen reinforce
output production accelerate speed up

3
https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/4_WritingSkills/writing_pdf/super_style.pdf

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 V. VERBS OF REFERENCE

While writing on a specific subject, you may need to use some supporting sources, such as
books, internet pages, articles. However, if you are using external sources, you need to clearly
indicate that somebody else’s ideas are consulted. If you fail to refer to the original source, it is
against the academic integrity and considered as plagiarism.

In order to avoid plagiarism, you need to use reference verbs indicating another source is used in
your work along with paraphrasing and summarizing. Using verbs of reference is, actually,
something we do all the time. Check the following examples:

e.g.:Will says that the single play is consigned to television history (Will, 12).
e.g.:Erie indicates that adaptation to prison was facilitated by the guardian (Erie, 23).

The first thing you should do is to put a reference verb at the beginning of the sentence in which
somebody else’s ideas are used. However, while doing that the problem is choosing the correct
verb of reference. Even though it is believed that only putting “X says that ... (X, 134).” would
be enough, the meaning of the reference verb should be considered. Verbs of reference can
basically be categorized in three groups:

1. Neutral Verbs: These verbs are used to simply “say” or “reveal” what the original source
states. They are generally used if there is a fact; in other words, when the writer does not
speculate, but explains the data:
 describe, show, reveal, study, demonstrate, indicate, report, state, mention etc.

2. Tentative Verbs: These verbs are used to show the writer’s “mild” approach to the subject:
 suggest, imply, propose, question, recommend, propose etc.

3. Strong Verbs: These verbs are used to show writer’s strong arguments and/or claims.
 argue, claim, deny, negate, reject, challenge, refute, assert etc.

Check the following sample paragraph to see the usage of different verbs of reference: 4

Jian-yi Huang has corroborated this finding in his extensive study of the learning strategies
of Chinese students within the American higher education system (Huang, 1997). Huang
found that despite their cultural distinctiveness, American and Chinese students in fact have
rather similar cognitive profiles. He also notes that Chinese students have an even better
ability to categorise information in broad terms than their American counterparts. In terms of
learner styles and preferences, he contends that Chinese students have an equal preference
for group work and collaborative learning (Huang, 1997). Huang and Sisco, meanwhile,
observe that Chinese students have a somewhat broader spectrum of learning and thinking

4
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/learning_english/leap/grammar/reportingverbs/sample1/

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 styles than is often anticipated, even if Chinese students are sometimes seen as more
‘pragmatic’ in their approach to their studies (Huang and Sisco, 1994).

As is clearly seen in the paragraph, depending on the defence of the writer, the reference verb is
changed. It should also be noted that after putting a verb of reference, the original source should
be paraphrased or summarized (which is the next module of the İNG 003 course); in other words,
you should restate the ideas of the writer in your own words. Using direct quotation may result in
plagiarism as well. You need to indicate the details of the original source at the end of the
sentence in parenthesis. It can be the page number of the book, name of the article, internet page
address etc.

Exercise 1: Check the following sentences and try to put a proper verb of reference.

a) Boynton _________ the reader that ordinary chocolate is ‘too frail to withstand heat,
moisture and proximity to baked beans’ (Boynton, 1982, p. 79).
b) Hanks ___________ an idiom as an expression whose ‘meaning is distinct from the sum of
its parts’ (Hanks, 2004, p. 257).
c) Smith _____________ Fry when she maintains that many students have trouble with
reporting verbs (Smith, Teaching Grammar, 2010).
d) Some people subscribe to the idea that chocolate is unhealthy, but Boynton’s book
_________ this claim (Boynton, 1982).
e) Joshua Smith, in his paper, ___________ the effects of classroom environment in learning
(Smith, Creating Creativity, 1993).

VI. PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism means taking information from another writer and using them in your own work,
without acknowledging the source in an accepted manner. Some students may think using
information from external sources is only copying or borrowing. However, it should be noted
that plagiarism is not only a matter of copying information, it is a serious literal offense and it
has some serious results. According to Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, to “plagiarize”
means:
 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own to use (another’s
production) without crediting the source.
 to commit literary theft to present as new and original an idea or product derived from
an existing source.

In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. The expression of original ideas is considered
intellectual property and is protected by copyright laws, just like original inventions. Almost all
forms of expression fall under copyright protection as long as they are recorded in some way. 5
Types of Plagiarism
 plagiarism (intihal)

5
http://its.austincollege.edu/web-services/turnitin-2/

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  duplication (kopyalama – özellikle internetten yapılan alıntılarda)
 multiple submission (ödev çoğaltma)
 fabrication (uydurma)
 falsification (veri çarpıtma)
 forgery (bir şeyin sahtesini yapıp orijinal olduğunu ileri sürme)

How to Avoid Plagiarism

 Make a plan before starting to write.
 Read and investigate as much as you can.
 Do not take information from only one source.
 Organize and combine your ideas with the help of the information from the source.
 Make it clear who said what.
 Paraphrase and summarise the original text.
 Use quotation marks if you need to use someone else’s words as they are.
 Be sure that you, yourself, write the paper with your own words and ideas.

Exercise 1: Which of the following would be considered as plagiarism?

a) Not providing a reference when you have used somebody’s idea.

b) Copying a few sentences from an article on the internet without giving a reference.
c) Not giving a reference when you use commonly accepted ideas, e.g. AIDS is a growing
problem.
d) Giving the reference but not using quotation marks when you take words from another
writer’s article.
e) Taking sentences without saying them in your own words and stating the original source.
f) Taking a paragraph from a classmate’s essay without giving a reference.
g) Presenting the results of your own research.

Exercise 2: Read the following extracts and then check the following paragraphs with your
partner. Which of the following are plagiarized and which are acceptable?6

1.Original Source: Murphy, Claire. “The Art of Complaining.” Marketing 27 Sept. 2006: 18.

Corporate mud-slinging tends to be concentrated in a handful of highly competitive sectors:

utilities, telecoms (especially the broadband market), and airlines. These sectors are united by
being highly price-competitive and inclined toward ads that rely heavily on ‘knocking copy’ -
content that brags about the brand’s superiority over a rival on the basis of specific criteria.

a) One way corporations try to get ahead of the competition is by complaining about their
rivals’ advertisements. Highly competitive sectors, such as utilities, telecoms, and
airlines, have the highest incidence of this kind of corporate mud-slinging.

6
https://www.libraries.psu.edu/psul/lls/students/plagiarism_examples.html

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 b) One way corporations try to get ahead of the competition is by complaining about their
rivals’ advertisements. Highly competitive sectors, such as utilities, telecoms, and
airlines, have the highest incidence of this kind of “corporate mud-slinging” (Murphy,
18). 

2. Original Source: Treadway, Joan. “Violence Hits Rich Women Hard Too.” Times-
Picayune 19 Aug. 2002: 1.

Cases where the alleged abusers are affluent create specific obstacles for their victims, experts
say. The batterer — typically a man, though not always — is often someone well-known in the
community. He has the financial means to hire pricey attorneys and private investigators. And
his lawyers are well-versed in the intricacies of the judicial system and can easily win
continuances and drag cases on for years. 

a. Affluent women who are victims of domestic violence face particular difficulties when
seeking legal recourse against their attackers. The batterer can afford to hire expensive
lawyers who are well-versed in the intricacies of the judicial system (Treadway, 22).
b. Affluent women who are victims of domestic violence face particular difficulties when
seeking legal recourse against their attackers. As Treadway points out, the batterer can
afford to hire expensive lawyers who are “well-versed in the intricacies of the judicial
system” (Treadway, 22).

3. Original Source: Segal, Nancy L. “New Twins Studies Show: The Career of Your Dreams
May Be the Career of Your Genes.” Psychology Today. Sept. /Oct. 2006:
54-60.

Increasingly, researchers have been turning to identical and fraternal twins for answers, with
dramatic results. They are finding that genetics, in addition to familial interests, educational,
social and other environmental pressures, have a considerable impact on how we choose what we
do--and how happy we are with that choice.

a) Recent research on identical and fraternal twins indicates that while external influences
such as social pressure have some impact on career choice, genetics also plays a major
role in how people decide what to do for a living (Segal, 54). 

b) To answer the question of how genetics influence career choices, researchers have turned
to identical and fraternal twins, with impressive results. They have found that genetics, in
additional to familial interests, educational, social and other environmental pressures,
have a major impact on how people choose what they do - and how satisfied they are
with that choice (Segal, 54). 

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