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1 PHYSICS

Units, Measurements
and Errors
Physical Quantities
Anything which can be expressed in numbers is called quantity. Different events in
nature take place in accordance with some basic laws. Revealing these laws of nature
from the observed events, we need some quantities which are known as physical
quantities. e.g., length, mass, temperature, time, force, speed, distance, acceleration,
velocity, momentum, current, etc.

Types of Physical Quantities

I. On the basis of units and their measurement
(i) Fundamental or Base Quantities The physical quantities which do not depend on
the other physical quantities are known as fundamental (or base) physical quantities.
e.g., length, mass, electric current, time, temperature, luminous intensity, amount of
substance, etc.
(ii) Derived Quantities All the physical quantities which are not the fundamental
physical quantities but are derived from it are known as derived physical quantities.
e.g., work, force, pressure, area, volume, energy, etc.
(iii) Supplementary Quantities There are also two physical quantities which are
neither fundamental nor derived. These quantities are called supplementary
quantities. These are plane angles and solid angles.
II. On the basis of direction and their magnitude
(i) Scalar Quantity A physical quantity which has only its magnitude but no direction
is called a scalar quantity. e.g., distance, energy, power, time, speed, volume, density,
pressure, work, charge, electric current, temperature, specific heat, frequency,
mass, etc.
(ii) Vector Quantity A physical quantity which has magnitude as well as direction is
called a vector quantity. e.g., displacement, velocity, torque, position, acceleration,
force, weight, momentum, impulse, electric field, magnetic field, current density,
angular velocity, etc.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
2

Units
To measure a physical quantity, a standard value of same physical quantity is used, which
indicates that, how many times the standard physical quantity is used to measure the
whole physical quantity. This standard value of the physical quantity is known as its unit
and when any given quantity is measured in the term of this unit, the process is called
measurement.
e.g., F = 10 N
Here, 10 indicates the unit of force (1 N) is ten times used to measure the force of 10 N.
Units are also divided into the following parts

Fundamental Units or Base Units

The units of fundamental physical quantities are called fundamental units. There are
seven fundamental units i.e., metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela and mole.
These units are used as standards for the concerned physical quantity and are
independent of each other.
Initially, only metre, kilogram and second were considered to be fundamental but later on
units of ampere (electric current), kelvin (temperature), candela (luminous intensity) and
mole (amount of substance) were added to fundamental units.

Derived Units
The units of all other physical quantities except fundamental physical quantities which
are obtained with the help of fundamental units are called derived units. e.g., units of
area, volume, density, speed, power, work, force, energy, acceleration, momentum, etc.

Supplementary Units
The units used for the supplementary quantities are known as supplementary units.
e.g., units of plane angle and solid angle.

System of Units
A complete set of units having both the base units and derived units is known as the
system of units.
The common systems of units are
(i) MKS System (Metre Kilogram Second) In this system, the units of length, mass and
time are respectively metre, kilogram and second.
(ii) CGS System (Centimetre Gram Second) In this system, the units of length, mass
and time are respectively centimetre, gram and second. It is also called Gaussian
system.
■ The MKS and CGS system are called metric or decimal system.
(iii) FPS System (Foot Pound Second) In this system, the units of length, mass and time
are respectively foot, pound and second. It is also called British system.
(iv) SI System (International System of Units) SI was adopted and accepted in the
International Conference of Weights and Measures held at Geneva in 1960, on the
basis of comprehensive consensus. SI system is extended and modified form of MKS
system.
UNITS, MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
3
There are following seven fundamental units and two supplementary units in SI system.

Fundamental Units and their Symbols in SI System

Name of Name of
Symbol Definition
Quantity Unit
Length metre m The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a
second. (1983)
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram is equal to the mass of international
prototype of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy
cylinder) kept at International Bureau of Weights and
Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)
Time second s The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of
the radiation corresponding to the transition between the
two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the
cesium-133 atom. (1967)
Electric current ampere A The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained
in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart
in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length.
(1948)
Thermodynamic kelvin K The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
temperature thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
(1967)
Amount of mole mol The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which
substance contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms
in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. (1917)
Luminous candela cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
intensity direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation
of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz and that has a radiant
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
(1979)

Supplementary Units and their Symbols in SI System

Name of Quantity Name of Unit Symbol Definition
Plane angle radian rad The radian is the plane angle subtended at the
centre by an arc of a circle having a length equal
to radius of the circle. All plane angles are
measured in radian.
Solid angle steradian Sr The steradian is the solid angle which has the
vertex at the centre of the sphere, and cut off an
area of the surface of sphere equal to that of
square with sides of length equal to radius of
sphere.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
4
Important Formulae and Units of Derived Units
Physical Quantities Formulae SI Units
Area of rectangle Length × Breadth ( l × b) m2
Area of square (Side)2 m2
Area of triangle 1
× Base × Height m2
2
Density Mass/Volume kg m −3
Acceleration Change in Velocity /Time ms −2
Pressure Force/Area (F/A) Nm −2 or pascal
Work or energy Mass × Acceleration due to Gravity N-m or joule
× Height (PE = mgh)
Power Work/Time Js −1 or watt
Impulse Force × Time N-s
Volume of cuboid Length × Breadth × Height ( l × b × h) m3
Displacement
Velocity ms −1
Time
Force Mass × Acceleration kg ms −2 or newton
Linear momentum Mass × Velocity kg ms −1
Force N amp −1 m −1 or tesla or
Magnetic field
Electric Current × Displacement weber /m2
Frequency 1 s − 1 or hertz
Time Period

Practical Units of Length, Mass and Time

Practical Units of Length Practical Units of Mass Practical Units of Time
1 Angstrom (Å) = 10−10 m 1 Microgram (μg) = 10−9 kg 1 Picosecond (ps) = 10−12 s
1 Nanometre (nm) = 10−9 m 1 Milligram (mg) = 10−6 kg 1 Nanosecond (ns) = 10−9 s
1 Micrometre (μm) = 10−6 m 1 Gram (g) = 10−3 kg 1 Microsecond (μs) = 10−6 s
−3
1 Millimetre (mm) = 10 m 1 Quintal = 10 kg2
1 Millisecond (ms) = 10−3 s
−2
1 Centimetre (cm) = 10 m 3
1 Metric tonne = 10 kg 1 Minute = 60 s
+3
1 Kilometre (km) = 10 m 1 Atomic mass unit 1 Hour = 60 min = 3600 s
1 Terametre = 10 +12 m = 1.66 × 10−27 kg 1 Day = 24 hours = 1440 min
1 Light year = 9.46 × 1015m or 1016 m 1 Pound = 0.4537 kg = 86400 s
1 Astronomical unit (1AU) 1 Chandrashekhar limit 1 Week = 7 days
= 1.5 × 1011 m = 1.4 × Mass of sun 1 Lunar month = 28 days = 4 weeks
1 Parsec = 3.26 light year = 2 .8 × 1030 kg 1 Solar month = 30 or 31 days
= 3.083 × 1016 m 1 Slug = 14.59 kg = 28 or 29 days (feb)
1 Mile = 1.6 km 1
1 Year = 365 days
1 Fermi = 10−15 m 4
1 Moon month = 27.3 solar day
1 Solar day = 86400 s
1 Leap year = 366 day (There are
29 days in feb of leap year)
1 Shake = 10−8 s
UNITS, MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
5

Conversions of Units
Some conversions of units are given below

Conversion of Mass
10 milligram (mg) = 1 g = 15.43 grains = 10 −3 kg
1000 (10 3 ) g = 1 kilogram (kg) = 2 . 205 pounds
1000 kg = 1 tonne

Conversion of Length
10 millimetre (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm) = 0 . 394 inch
100 centimetre = 1 metre (m) = 39 . 4 inch = 1.094 yard
1000 ( 10 3 ) metre (m) = 1 kilometre (km) = 0 . 6214 mile
1 foot = 0 . 3048 m

Conversion of Area
4046 square metre ( m 2 ) = 1 acre
100 hectare = 1 square kilometre ( km 2 )

Conversion of Volume
10 millilitre (mL) = 1 centilitre (cL) = 0.018 pint (0.021 USpint)
100 ( 10 2 ) centilitre (cL) = 1 litre = 1.76 pint
10 litre = 1 decalitre (daL) = 2 . 2 gallon (2.63 USgallon)

Metric Prefixes for Power of 10

The physical quantities whose magnitude is either too large or too small can be expressed
more compactly by the use of certain prefixes (in accordance with power of 10) are given
in the table.
Prefix Symbol Power of 10
yotta Y 1024
zetta Z 1021
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 10 9
mega M 10 6
kilo k 10 3
hecto h 102
deca da 101
deci d 10 −1
centi c 10 −2
milli m 10 −3
micro μ 10 −6
nano n 10 −9
pico p 10 −12
femto f 10 − 15
atto a 10 −18
zepto z 10 − 21
yocto y 10 − 24
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
6

Dimensions of Physical Quantities

The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the units of base
quantities are raised to represent a derived unit of that quantity.
Use of square bracket [ ] around a quantity means that we are dealing with the
dimensions of the quantity.
In dimensional representation, the magnitudes are not considered i.e., dimension of both
10 m of length and 100 m of length will be [L].

Dimensional Representation of Physical Quantities

In mechanics, all the physical quantities can be written in terms of the dimensions of
fundamental (or base) physical quantities such as
[M] for Mass, [L] for Length, [T] for Time, [A] for Electric current, [K] for Temperature
[cd] for Luminous intensity, [mol] for Amount of substance.

Dimensional Formula and Dimensional Equation

The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represents a physical
quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical quantity.
e.g., [M L T − 2 ] is the dimensional formula of force. It reveals that unit of force depends on
[M],[L] and [T].
Further, if we represent force by [F], then [F] = [M L T − 2 ], is called the dimensional
equation of force.
For example,
Distance [L]
(i) Speed = = = [LT −1 ]
Time [T]
Force Mass × Acceleration
(ii) Pressure = =
Area Area
[ M ] × [ LT −2 ]
= = [ ML−1T −2 ]
[ L2 ]

Some Physical Quantities and their Dimensional Formulae

Physical Quantity with Formula Dimensional Formula
Area = Length × Breadth [L × L] = [L 2 ] = [M0 L2 T 0 ]
Volume = Length × Breadth × Height [L × L × L] = [L 3 ] = [M0 L3 T 0 ]
Velocity = Displacement/Time [L]
= [M0LT −1 ]
[T]
Acceleration = Velocity/Time [LT −1 ] / [T] = [M0LT −2 ]
Force = Mass × Acceleration [M][LT −2 ] = [MLT −2 ]
Work = Force × Displacement [MLT −2 ][L] = [ML 2 T −2 ]

Kinetic energy =
1
× Mass × (Speed)2 [M] [LT −1 ] 2 = [ML 2 T −2 ]
2
Potential energy = Mass × Acceleration due [M][LT −2 ][L] = [ML 2 T −2 ]
to gravity × Height
UNITS, MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
7

Dimensionless Quantities
The physical quantities which have zero dimensions are called dimensionless quantities.
The dimensionless quantities are angle, solid angle, relative density, specific gravity,
Poisson’s ratio. A dimensionless quantity has same numeric value in all system of units.

Uses of Dimension
There are mainly three uses of dimension
(i) To check an equation whether it is homogeneous or not.
(ii) To establish the relation among the physical quantities.
(iii) To convert the units from one system to another system.
Important Scientific Instruments and their Use
Altimeter It measures altitudes and is used in aircrafts.
Ammeter It measures strength of electric current (in ampere).
Audiometer It measures intensity of sound.
Barometer It measures atmospheric pressure.
Binocular It is used to view distant objects.
Burette It is used to deliver any required volume of a liquid upto its maximum
capacity.
Calorimeter It measures quantity of heat.
Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph.
Cinematography It is an instrument used in cinema making to throw on screen and enlarged
image of photograph.
Dynamo It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Dynamometer It measures electrical power.
Electrometer It measures electricity.
Electroscope It detects presence of an electric charge.
Endoscope It examines internal parts of the body.
Electroencephalogram (ECG) It is a test used to evaluate the electrical activity in the brain.
Fathometer It measures the depth of the ocean.
Galvanometer It measures the electric current of low magnitude.
Hydrometer It measures the specific gravity of liquids.
Hygrometer It measures humidity in air.
Hydrophone It measures sound under water.
Lactometer It determines the purity of milk.
Manometer It measures the pressures of gases.
Mariner’s compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the direction.
Microphone It converts the sound waves into electrical vibration and to magnify the
sound.
Microscope It is used to obtain magnified view of small objects.
Odometer An instrument by which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is
measured.
Phonograph It is used for producing sound.
Photometer It compares the luminous intensity of the source of light.
Periscope It is used to view objects above sea level (used in sub marines).
Radar It is used for detecting the direction and range of an approaching plane by
means or radio microwaves.
Pyrometer It is a remote - sensing radiation thermometer used to measure the high
temperature of the surface.
Pyrheliometer It is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar irradiance.
Radiometer It measures the emission of radiant energy.
Screw gauge It is used to measure thickness of a thin glass plate and diameter of a thin
wire or a small sphere.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
8
Seismograph It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.
Salinometer It determines salinity of solution.
Sonometer To measure frequency of a tunning fork.
Spectrometer It is an instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular type
of radiation.
Speedometer It is an instrument placed in a vehicle to record its speed.
Sphygmomanometer It measures blood pressure.
Spherometer It measures the curvatures of surfaces.
Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures.
Stethoscope An instrument which is used by the doctors to hear and analyse the heart
and lung sounds.
Straboscope It is used to view rapidly moving objects.
Tachometer An instrument used in measuring speeds of aeroplanes and motor boats.
Telescope It views distant objects in space.
Thermometer This instrument is used for the measurement of temperatures.
Thermostat It regulates the temperature at a particular point.
Voltmeter It measures the electric potential difference between two points.
Vernier callipers To measure lengths accurately.

Error in Measurement
The difference between true value and measured value of a quantity is called error of
measurement. The error cannot be eliminated totally, however it can be minimise.
Resolution It is the least count of output of an instrument.
Accuracy An instrument is said to be accurate, if the physical quantity measured
by it resembles very closely to its true value.
Precision An instrument is said to have high degree of precision, if the measured
value remains unchanged, howsoever large number of times it may have been
repeated.

Classification of Errors
I. On the basis of nature of errors

1. Systematic Errors
The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or
negative. The causes of these errors are known, so these can be minimised.
Some of the sources of systematic errors are
(i) Instrumental Errors These errors arise due to defect in the manufacturing or in
design of the measuring instrument.
(ii) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure.
(iii) Personal Errors These errors arise due to inexperience of the observer.

2. Random Errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random with
respect to sign and size. Errors due to external causes arise due to external factors such as
temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, etc.

3. Least Count Errors

The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least
count errors. All the readings or values measured by any measuring instrument are good
only upto its least count. This error is associated with the resolution of the instrument.
UNITS, MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
9
This type of error can be minimised by using the instruments of higher resolution and by
improving experimental techniques.
■ The errors as a whole is termed as gross error.
II. On the basis of mathematical calculations of measurement

1. Absolute Error
In the measurement of a physical quantity, the difference between true value and an
individually measured value of the quantity is known as absolute error.

2. Mean Absolute Error

The arithmetic mean of absolute errors in all the measurement of the quantity is known
as mean absolute error.
Sum of absolute errors in each observation
Mean absolute error =
Number of observations

3. Relative Error
The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity is called relative error
or fractional error.
If this ratio is expressed as percentage, then the error is called percentage error.

Significant Figures
The digits that are known reliably plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant
digits or significant figures.
e.g., suppose a measured distance is 574.5 m. It has four significant figures 5, 7, 4 and 5.
The digits 5, 7 and 4 are certain and reliable while the digit 5 is uncertain.

Common Rules for Counting Significant Figures

(i) All non-zero digits are significant.
(ii) All zeroes occurring between two non-zero digits are significant no matter, where
the decimal point is, if at all.
(iii) If the number is less than one, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point and to the left
of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
(iv) In a number without a decimal point, the terminal or trailing zeroes are not
significant.
(v) In a number with a decimal point, the trailing zeroes are significant.
(vi) Change of unit does not change the number of significant figures.
(vii) The digit 0 conventionally, but on the left of a decimal for a number less than 1 is
never significant.

Arithmetic Operation with Significant Numbers

(i) Addition and Subtraction In both addition and subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as are there in the number with the least
decimal places.
(ii) Multiplication and Division In multiplication and division, the final result should
retain as many significant figures as are there in the original number with least
significant figures.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
10

Assessment
1. Identify the unit of measuring intensity 12. Which one of the following is the unit of
of sound [SSC CGL 2018] force? [SSC (10+2) 2019]
(a) Knots (b) Ampere (a) Pascal (b) Watt
(c) Candela (d) Decibel (c) Joule (d) Newton
2. What is the unit of the physical quantity, 13. Light year is a unit for measurement of
Momentum? [SSC (10+2) 2017] (a) very large distances. [NDA 2019]
(a) Newton second (b) Joule second (b) time interval in years.
(c) Erg second (d) Pascal second (c) amount of light received on earth in a
3. Frequency is measured in year.
[BPSC (Pre) 2018] (d) mass of atoms.
(a) hertz (b) metre/second 14. Light year is the unit of ……… .
(c) radian (d) watt [RRB 2019]
4. What is measured in hertz? (a) length (b) mass
[BPSC (Pre) 2019] (c) time (d) area
(a) Frequency (b) Energy
15. The unit of momentum is [RRB 2018]
(c) Heat (d) Quality
(a) kgms2 (b) kgms–1
5. Which one of the following physical (c) kgms (d) kgms–2
quantities has the same unit as that of
16. Which of the following quantities does
pressure? [NDA 2017]
not have any unit? [SSC 2017]
(a) Angular momentum
(a) Speed (b) Density
(b) Stress
(c) Relative density (d) Acceleration
(c) Strain
(d) Work 17. Maxwell is the unit of which one of the
6. Angstrom is a unit of [BPCS (Pre) 2018] following? [SSC 2017]
(a) Magnetic flux
(a) wavelength (b) energy
(b) Permeability
(c) frequency (d) velocity
(c) Magnetic susceptibility
7. What is the unit of pressure? (d) Intensity of magnetisation
[BPCS (Pre) 2018]
18. The SI unit of radioactivity is ……… .
(a) Newton/sq metre
[SSC (10+2)2019]
(b) Newton-metre
(a) Ampere (b) Becquerel
(c) Newton
(c) Decibel (d) Cobolt
(d) Newton/metre
19. The SI unit of weight is [RRB 2018]
8. The unit of pressure is [BPSC (Pre) 2019]
(a) kilogram (b) newton
(a) kg/cm2 (b) kg/cm (c) gram (d) dyne
(c) kg/mm (d) None of these
20. Hertz is the SI unit of [SSC 2019]
9. Which one of the following quantities (a) frequency (b) force
does not have unit? [BPSC (Pre) 2019] (c) pressure (d) energy
(a) Stress (b) Force
21. The SI unit for electrical resistivity is
(c) Strain (d) Pressure [RRB 2019]
10. Which one of the following is not the unit (a) ampere/metre (b) volt/metre
of heat? [UPRO/ARO (Pre) 2017] (c) tesla (d) ohm metre
(a) Centigrade (b) Calorie 22. Which of the following quantities have its
(c) Erg (d) Joule SI unit named after Blaise Pascal?
11. Which of the following is the SI unit of (a) Energy [SSC 2019]
temperature? [SSC (10+2) 2019] (b) Pressure
(a) Kelvin (b) Reaumur scale (c) Work
(c) Candela (d) Ampere (d) Power
ASSESSMENT
11
23. Newton-metre (N-m) is the SI unit of Codes
which of the following physical quantity? ABCD ABCD
[SSC 2017] (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(a) Acceleration (b) Torque (c) 4 3 1 2 (d) 3 4 1 2
(c) Power (d) Force 30. If a physical quantity has the units- ampere
24. Match the following. [SSC 2017] meters per second squared, then what are
Quanity SI Unit it’s dimensions? [SSC (10+2) 2018]
A. Frequency 1. Ohm (a) [I LT-2] (b) [ALT-2]
B. Force 2. Hertz (c) [I MS-2] (d) [AMS-2]

C. Resistance 3. Newton 31. Which instrument is used to measure

humidity? [BPCS 2018]
Codes
(a) Hydrometer (b) Hygrometer
AB C A B C
(c) Pyrometer (d) Lactometer
(a) 2 3 1 (b) 1 3 2
(c) 3 2 1 (d) 2 1 3 32. Electroencephalogram (ECG) is used in
25. Light year is [WBCS 2019] monitoring [BPCS 2018]
(a) light emitted by Sun in one year. (a) heart (b) liver
(c) pancreas (d) brain
(b) time taken by light to travel from Sun
to Earth. 33. Which one of the following thermometers
(c) the distance travelled by light in free is known as pyrometer? [UPPCS 2016]
space in one year. (a) Thermo - electric thermometers
(d) time taken by Earth to go once around (b) Radiation thermometers
the Sun. (c) Gas thermometers
(d) Liquid thermometers
26. A nautical mile is equal to ……… .
[SSC CGL 2019] 34. Which one of the following devices is used
(a) 2000 metres (b) 1852 metres to measure extremely high temperature?
[UPPCS 2016]
(c) 1672 metres (d) 2450 metres
(a) Pyrometer (b) Photometer
27. Which one of the following is the value of (c) Phonometer (d) Pycnometer
1 nanometre? [CDS 2018]
35. Pyrheliometer is used for measuring
(a) 10−7 cm (b) 10−6 cm
(a) sun spots [UPPCS 2015]
(c) 10−4 cm (d) 10−3 cm
(b) solar radiation
28. 1 dyne (a unit of force in CGS system) (c) air temperature
equals to [NDA/NA 2019] (d) temperature of plants
(a) 10 3 g- cm /s 2 (b) 10 −3 g- cm /s 2 36. The density of milk is measured by
(c) 10 5 kg- cm /s 2 (d) 10 −5 kg- m /s 2 (a) loctometer [MPPCS 2015]
29. Match the List I with List II and select the (b) hydrometer
(c) barometer
correct answer using the codes given
(d) hygrometer
below:
37. A student measures certain lengths using
List I List II a meter scale having least count equal to
A. Acceleration 1. Joule 1 mm. [NDA/NA 2019]
B. Force 2. Newton-second Which one of the following measurement
C. Work done 3. Newton is more precise?
D. Impulse 4. Metre per second2 (a) 0.50 mm (b) 29.07 mm
(c) 0.925 mm (d) 910 mm
[UPPCS 2005]

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (d) 29. (b) 30. (a)
31. (b) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (a)
2 Motion
In our daily life we see some objects in motion e.g., walking men, moving cars, running
trains, and some objects at rest e.g., furnitures, houses, trees, etc. In both the cases, we see
that in motion, the position of objects change with time while at rest, the position of
objects do not change with time.

Rest
If an object does not change its position with respect to its surroundings with time, then it
is called at rest. e.g., a book lying on a desk is at rest, because its position with respect to
the desk does not change with time.

Motion
If an object changes its position with respect to its surroundings with time, then it is called
in motion. e.g., fish swims in water, car or bus moves on a road, train moves on the track,
bird flying in air, etc.
■ Rest and motion are relative terms i.e., an object in one situation can be at rest but in other
situation same object can be in motion.
e.g., if two cars are going side by side with the same velocity, then with respect to each other,
they are in a state of rest, but with respect to trees and persons going on the road, they are in
a state of motion.

Types of Motion of a Body

Generally, the motion of a body can be of the following three types
(i) Rectilinear and Translatory Motion The motion in which a particle moves along
a straight line, is called rectilinear motion. If a body (or a particle) moves along a
straight line, then the motion is called translatory motion.
e.g. Motion of sliding body on an inclined plane.
(ii) Circular and Rotatory Motion The motion in which a particle moves along a
circular path, is called circular motion. e.g. A string whirled in a circular loop.
If a body rotates about a line (axis) passing through it then the motion is called
rotatory motion or rotational motion. e.g. Fan moving in the house.
(iii) Oscillatory and Vibratory Motion The motion in which a body moves to and fro
or back and forth repeatedly about a fixed point, is called oscillatory motion
(the extent to which the body moves on either side of the fixed point is called the
amplitude). If in oscillatory motion, the amplitude is very small, then the motion is
said to be vibratory motion. e.g. Simple pendulum.
MOTION
13

One, Two and Three Dimensional Motion

One-Dimensional Motion When the
position of the object changes only in one
Everyday Science
direction, then the motion of an object is a The motion of a car on the road or an
called one-dimensional motion. object falling freely under gravity is
the example of one-dimensional
or motion.
When a body moves along a line, then the
motion is called one-dimensional motion. a The motion of a planet around the
sun and projectile motion are the
Two-Dimensional Motion When the example of two-dimensional motion.
position of the object changes in two a The motion of a bird in the sky and
direction, then the motion of an object is motion of a flying kite in the sky, etc
called two-dimensional motion. are the examples of three-dimensional
motion.
or
When a body moves on a plane, then the motion is called two-dimensional motion.
Three-Dimensional Motion When the position of the object changes in three
direction, then the motion of an object is called three-dimensional motion.
or
When a body moves in a space, then the motion is called three-dimensional motion.

Some Basic Terms Related with Motion

The various terms required to describe motion are

Reference Point
A fixed point or a fixed object with respect to which the given body changes its position is
known as reference point or origin.
■ An object is said to be in motion, if its position changes continuously with respect to a fixed
reference.

Position
It is the point in space where an object is present with respect to the reference point.

Distance
The distance travelled by a body is the actual length of the path covered by a moving body
irrespective of the direction in which the body travels. It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is
metre.
■ Distance can never be negative.

■ Odometer is a device used to measure the distance travelled by the vehicle.

Path Length
It is the length of the curve joining the initial and final positions along which the particle
has actually moved. Its SI unit is metre.

Speed
The time rate of change of position of the object in any direction is called speed of the
object.
Distance travelled ( s )
Speed ( v ) =
Time taken ( t )
It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is m/s and its dimensional formula is [M 0 LT −1 ].
For a moving body, speed is always positive and can never be negative and zero.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
14
Types of Speed
There are four types of speed
(i) Uniform Speed or Constant Speed If an object covers equal distances in equal
intervals of time, then its speed is called uniform speed or constant speed.
(ii) Non-uniform Speed or Variable Speed If an object covers unequal distances in
equal intervals of time, then its speed is called non-uniform speed or variable speed.
(iii) Average Speed The ratio of the total distance travelled by the object to the total
time taken is called average speed of the object.
Total distance travelled
i.e., Average speed =
Total time taken
If a particle travels distances s 1, s 2 , s 3 .... with Everyday Science
times t 1, t 2 , t 3 ...., then
s + s 2 + s 3 + ..... a A motorcycle moving along a
Average speed = 1 straight line path such that it
t 1 + t 2 + t 3 + ..... covers equal distance in
equal time intervals, then it is
Example 1 A car travels first half distance said to be uniform speed.
between two places with a speed of 40 km/h and a A motorcycle moving through
the rest half distance with a speed of 60 km/h. a crowded market has
What is the average speed of the car? non-uniform speed because

Sol Let the total distance travelled be x km. Then, the

time taken to travel the first half distance is
x
2 = x h
40 80
Time taken to travel the rest half distance is
x
2 = x h
60 120
Total distance
∴ Average speed =
Total time
x
= = 48 km/h
x x
+
80 120
(iv) Instantaneous Speed The speed of a particle at any instant of time is known as its
instantaneous speed.
Δs ds
Instantaneous speed = lim =
Δt → 0 Δt dt

Displacement
When a body moves from one position to another, the shortest distance i.e., straight line
between the initial position and final position of the body along with direction is known
as displacement. It is a vector quantity directed from initial position to final position. Its SI
unit is metre.
■ The magnitude of the displacement for a course of motion may be zero when the
corresponding distance covered is not zero.
■ Displacement of the object can be positive, negative or zero.
MOTION
15
■ Displacement of a moving object can never be greater than the distance travelled by it.
Displacement ≤ Distance
Displacement
∴ ≤1
Distance
i.e., the ratio of displacement and distance is always less than or equal to 1.

Velocity
The time rate of change of displacement of a body is called its velocity. It is a vector
quantity.
Displacement
Velocity =
Time
The SI unit of velocity is m/s and its dimensional formula is [M 0 LT–1 ].
■ Velocity of an object can be changed by changing the object’s speed or direction of motion or both.

■ Velocity of an object can be positive, negative and zero.

■ The velocity of an object is taken to be positive if the object is moving towards the right of the

origin and is taken to be negative if the object is moving towards the left of the origin.
■ For an object in a time interval (t)

| velocity | ≤ speed
i.e., the magnitude of velocity of an object is always equal to or less than its speed.

Types of Velocity
There are four types of velocity
(i) Uniform Velocity or Constant Velocity If an object covers equal displacement in
equal intervals of time, then it is said to be moving with a uniform velocity or
constant velocity.
(ii) Non-uniform or Variable Velocity If an object covers unequal displacement in
equal intervals of time, then it is said to be moving with a non-uniform or variable
velocity.
(iii) Average Velocity The ratio of the total displacement to the total time taken is called
average velocity.
Total displacement
Average velocity =
Total time
If velocity of the object changes at a uniform rate, then
Initial velocity + Final velocity u + v
Average velocity = =
2 2
(iv) Instantaneous Velocity The velocity of a particle at any instant of time is known
as its instantaneous velocity. Its unit is m/s.
■ Speed and velocity have the same units i.e., m/s.
■ If a body is moving in a single straight line, then the magnitude of its speed and velocity will
be equal.

Relative Velocity
The relative velocity of one object with respect to another is the velocity with which one
object moves with respect to another object. Hence, relative velocity is defined as the time
rate of change of relative position of one object with respect to another.
If two objects a and b are moving with velocities v a and v b respectively, then
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
16
Relative velocity, v ab = v a − v b (if objects are moving in same direction)
v ab = v a + v b (if objects are moving in opposite directions)

Acceleration
The time rate of change of velocity of a body is called acceleration. It is a vector quantity,
denoted by a and its SI unit is m/s 2 .
Change in velocity ( Δv )
∴ Acceleration =
Time interval ( Δt )

If in a given time interval t the velocity of a body changes from u to v, then acceleration a
is expressed as
Final velocity − Initial velocity v− u
a= =
t t
When the velocity of a body increases with time, acceleration is positive (i.e., the body is
said to be accelerated) and when the velocity of a body decreases with time (i.e., u > v),
then acceleration becomes negative (i.e., the body is said to be retarded). Negative
acceleration is also called deceleration or retardation.
Types of Acceleration
There are four types of acceleration
(i) Uniform Acceleration or Constant
Acceleration If the velocity changes
Everyday Science
uniformly at equal intervals of time, then a A body falling down from a height
acceleration is said to be uniform or a body rolling down on a smooth
inclined plane, has uniform
acceleration.
acceleration.
(ii) Non-uniform Acceleration or Variable a The acceleration is created by
Acceleration If the velocity of the accelerator of the vehicles and the
particle does not change equally in equal applications of breaks give the
uniform deceleration to the
intervals of time, then the acceleration is vehicles.
said to be non-uniform acceleration.
a The acceleration produced in
(ii) Average Acceleration When an object spring-block system is non-uniform
is moving with a variable acceleration, acceleration.
then the average acceleration of the object a If a car travelling along a straight
for the given motion is defined as the ratio road increases its speed by unequal
amounts in equal intervals of time,
of the total change in velocity of the object then the car is said to be moving
during motion to the total time. with non-uniform acceleration.
Average acceleration
Total change in velocity
=
Total time taken
■ The average acceleration can be positive or negative depending upon the sign of change of
velocity. It is zero if the change in velocity of the object in the given interval of time is zero.
(iv) Instantaneous Acceleration The acceleration of the object at a given instant of
time or at a given point during the motion, is called its instantaneous acceleration.

Uniform and Non-Uniform Motion

An object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform
motion. e.g., a car moving along a straight line path such that it covers equal distances in
equal intervals of time, then it is said to be in uniform motion.
MOTION
17
On the other hand, if an object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, it is
said to be in non-uniform motion. e.g., when a car is moving on a crowded street or a
person is jogging in a park, these are said to be in non-uniform motion.
■ The direction of motion changes at every point of motion in uniform circular motion. This
direction is given by that of a tangent drawn at that point.
■ For uniform motion along a straight line in given direction, the magnitude of the
displacement is equal to the actual distance covered by the object.
■ No force is required for an object to be in uniform motion.
■ The velocity in uniform motion does not depend upon the time interval.

Graphical Representation of Motion

Motion of a point or body or a particle in all aspects can be shown with the help of the
graph, such as displacement-time graph, velocity-time graph, displacement-velocity
graph, acceleration-time graph, etc.

Displacement-Time Graph
Case I When an object is at rest
Then the (s-t) graph is a straight line parallel to time axis.
s

A B

O t

From the graph, it is clear that with the passage of time, there is no change in the
position of the body, it remains at point A, i.e., the body is stationary.
Case II When an object is moving with zero acceleration
Then the (s-t) graph is a straight line with positive slope and the object is
initially at some distance from the origin.
s B

A
O t

From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time, the body covers equal
distances, so the motion is uniform and graph is a straight line.
Case III When an object is moving with uniform positive acceleration
Then the (s-t) graph is a curve with positive slope and the object is initially at
some distance from the origin.
s B

O t

From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time of one second, the body is
covering unequal distances and this distance goes on increasing. That means, with
the passage of time, the body is covering more and more distance in equal time i.e.,
the speed of the body is increasing. Hence, the slope of graph is positive.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
18
Case IV When an object is moving with negative acceleration
Then the (s-t) graph is a curve with negative slope and the object is initially at
some distance from the origin.
s

x
B
O t

From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time of one second, the body is
covering unequal distances and this distance is goes on decreasing. That means,
with the passage of time, the body is covering lesser and lesser distance in equal
time i.e., the speed of the body is decreasing. Hence, the slope of the graph is negative.
■ Slope of displacement-time graph gives average velocity.

Velocity-Time Graph
Case I When an object is moving with constant velocity (zero acceleration)
Then the (v - t) graph is a straight line parallel to time axis.
v

A B

O t
a=0
From the graph, it is clear that with the change of time, there is no change in the velocity.
Hence, the slope of the graph is zero.
Case II When an object is moving with positive constant acceleration having some
initial velocity
Then the ( v - t ) graph is a straight line.
v
B

u A
O t
where u ≠ 0

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, velocity changes by equal amount.
Case III When an object is moving with constant positive acceleration having zero
initial velocity
Then the ( v - t ) graph is a straight line passing through the origin.
v
B

O t
where u = 0

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, velocity changes by equal
amount.
Case IV When an object is moving with canstant negative acceleration having some
positive initial velocity
MOTION
19
Then the ( v - t ) graph is a straight line and slope is negative.

From the graph, it is clear that velocity is decreasing uniformly with time.
Case V When an object is moving with increasing acceleration having zero initial
velocity
Then the ( v - t ) graph is a curve.
v B

O t

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, the change in velocity are
unequal. That is the reason, the graph is curve shaped.
Case VI When an object is moving with decreasing acceleration
Then the ( v - t ) graph is a curve.
v
B

O t

From the graph it is clear that velocity is decreasing non-uniformly with time.
■ Slope of velocity-time graphs gives average acceleration.
■ Area of speed-time graph gives distance.

Equations of Motion
When a body is moving along a straight line with uniform acceleration, we can establish
the relation between velocity of the body, acceleration of the body and the distance
travelled by the body in a particular time interval by a set of equations. These equations
are known as equations of motion.
The three equations of motion on a straight line are
1. v = u + at 2. s = ut + 1 / 2 at 2 3. v 2 − u 2 = 2 as
where u is the initial velocity of the body, a is the uniform acceleration of the body, v is
the final velocity of the body after t second and s is the distance travelled in this time.
Distance travelled in nth second
1
sn = u + a ( 2n − 1)
2
where, s n = distance covered by a body in nth second.

Example 2 A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 4 m/s2 for 6 s. Find
the velocity acquired by car and the distance it covers during this time.
Sol Given, initial velocity (u) = 0, acceleration (a) = 4 m/s2 and time (t) = 6 s
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
20
Now, using first equation of motion, v = u + at
= 0 + 4 × 6 = 24 m/s
Again, using second equation of motion,
1 2 1
s = ut + at = 0 × t + × 4 × ( 6 ) 2 = 0 + 2 × 36
2 2
s = 72 m
Example 3 A train is travelling at speed of 90 km/h. Brakes are applied so as to
produce a uniform acceleration of – 0.5 m/s2. Find how far the train will go before it
is brought to rest.
5
Sol Given, initial speed = 90 km/h = 90 × m/s = 25 m/s
18
Acceleration, a = −0.5 m/s 2
Train brought to rest, so final speed, v = 0
From third equation of motion,
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
( 0 ) 2 = ( 25 ) 2 + 2 × ( − 0 .5 ) × s
0 = 625 − 1 × s
s = 625 m

Freely Falling Objects

The objects falling towards the earth under the gravitational force alone, are called freely
falling objects and such fall is called free fall.
Whenever an object falls towards the earth, an acceleration is involved, this acceleration
is due to the earth’s gravitational pull and is called acceleration due to gravity. The value
of acceleration due to gravity near the earth surface is 9.8 m/s2.
Though the value of g is independent of freely falling mass, a feather falls much slowly
than a coin when released from a height. This is due to the resistance offered by air to the
falling mass. If both the bodies were released at the same time in vacuum, they would
reach the earth surface within the same duration of time.
The three equations of free fall of an object near the surface of the earth are
1. v = u + gt 2. h = ut + 1 / 2 gt 2 3. v 2 = u 2 + 2 gh
where h is the height from which the object falls, t is the time of fall, u is the initial
velocity and v is the final velocity when the body accelerates at g.
■ The only difference between the equations of motion for object moving in straight line is that
in place of acceleration a , we take acceleration due to gravity g.

Cases of Free Fall

● If an object falls vertically downward then acceleration due to gravity is taken as positive
(since its velocity increases while falling).
● If an object is thrown vertically upward then acceleration due to gravity is taken as negative
(since its velocity decreases as it moves upward).
● If an object is dropped freely from a height, its initial velocity u is zero.
● If an object is thrown vertically upwards, its final velocity v becomes zero.
● Time taken by an object to fall from a height is same as that taken by it to rise the same height.
MOTION
21

Motion in a Plane
If an object is in the motion such that its position at any time can be given with reference
axes (two mutually perpendicular lines passing through the origin) then the motion of
object is said to be motion in a plane. Projectile motion, circular motion, etc are the
examples of this motion.

Projectile Motion
u
When an object is thrown obliquely near the earth’s Y
surface, its motion on a parabolic path is known as projectile H
motion and path followed by the object is called trajectory. u cosθ

Projectile motion can be considered as combination of two u max

u sin θ
independent one-dimensional motion i.e., motion along a
θ
straight line; one along horizontal direction with constant O X
u cos θ
velocity and the other along vertical direction under gravity
R (Range)
effects.
Point of projection
e.g.,
■ The motion of bullet fired through the firing tank shows the projectile motion.
■ The motion of a rocket after burn out.
■ The motion of a bomb dropped from an aeroplane.
■ The motion of a ball thrown in a horizontal direction.
■ The motion of a ball after hitting the bat, etc.

Formulae for Projectile Motion

(i) Component of Velocity The horizontal component of initial velocity, u x = u cos θ,
where θ is the angle by which object is projected near the earth’s surface called angle
of projection and u is velocity of projection also called muzzle velocity.
The vertical component of initial velocity u y = u sin θ
The equation of trajectory of the projectile is given by
1 g
y = (tan θ ) x − x2
2 u cos 2 θ
2

(ii) Time of Ascent The time for which the projectile is ascending up is termed as time
of ascent. It is denoted by t a .
u sin θ
Time of ascent, t a =
g
(iii) Time of Descent The time for which the projectle is descending down is termed as
time of descent. It is denoted by t d .
u sinθ
Time of descent, t d =
g
It is clear that time of ascent is equal to time of descent and it can also easily be
interpreted by symmetrical motion of projectile under the earth’s gravity effect.
(iv) Time of Flight The total time for which the projectile is in motion is termed as time
of flight. It is denoted by T.
u sin θ u sin θ 2 u sin θ
Time of flight, T = t a + t d = + =
g g g
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
22
(v) Maximum Height The maximum value of vertical displacement of projectile
during its course of motion is termed as the maximum height. It is denoted by H.
u 2 sin 2 θ
Maximum height, H =
2g
(vi) Range The horizontal displacement of projectile during its motion is termed as range
of the projectile. It is denoted by R.
u 2 sin 2θ
Range, R =
g
u2
Maximum range of projectile, R max = (when sin 2θ is maximum i.e., θ = 45 °)
g
When range of projectile is maximum, then maximum height of projectile,
u 2 R max
Hmax = =
4g 4
■ Horizontal distance or range for a projectile would be maximum at an angle of projection 45°
for a particular speed of projectile.
■ For the angles of projection θ and ( 90° − θ), the horizontal ranges are same.
■ In projectile motion, horizontal component of the velocity of projectile always remains constant.
■ Speed of the projectile is minimum at the topmost point on the trajectory and it is equal to
u x = u cos θ.
■ Acceleration of projectile during its motion always remains constant.

Everyday Science
a In base ball game, a player adjusts the speed and angle of projection so that ball covers
the desired distance in minimum time.
a An athelete, taking part in javellian throw (or long jump) runs along a track fastly for
some distance to acquire high velocity before reaching the marking point and then
throws the javellian (or takes long jump), making an angle of 45° with the horizontal.
The horizontal range of javellian throw (or long jump) is maximum.

Circular Motion
The motion in which a particle moves along a circular path, is called circular motion.
When a particle moves on a circular path with a constant speed, then its motion is said to
be a uniform circular motion in a plane. In this motion, velocity of particle change
continuously (due to direction of particle changes). That is, these is an acceleration in
circular motion whose magnitude remains constant, but direction change continuously.
Some terms related to circular motion are given below
(i) Time Period In circular motion, the time period is defined as the time taken by the particle
to complete one revolution on circular path. It is denoted by T and its unit is second.
(ii) Frequency The frequency is defined as the number of revolutions completed by the
object on its circular path in a unit time. It is denoted by n and its unit is s−1 or Hertz.
MOTION
23
(iii) Angular Displacement The angular displacement of the object
in a given time, moving around a circular path is defined as the Arc
angle swept by the radius of the circular path in the given time. It is θ
denoted by θ and its unit is radian. Radius (r)
Arc
Angular displacement =
Radius
(iv) Angular Velocity The angular velocity of an object moving around a circular path
is defined as the time rate of change of its angular displacement. It is denoted by ω and
its unit is radian/second. Its direction is normal to the plane of circle.
Angular displacement θ
Angular velocity = or ω =
Time t
If θ = 2 π, then t=T
∴ ω = 2 π / T or ω = 2 πn (Q n = 1 / T )
When a particle performs uniform circular motion, then along with angular velocity it
also has linear velocity (v) along the tangent of the circular path.
(v) Angular Acceleration The angular acceleration of an object moving around a
circular path is defined as the time rate of change of its angular velocity. It is denoted
by α and its unit is radian/second 2 .
It occurs due to change in direction of angular velocity. So, its direction is also normal
to the plane of circle in accordance with the direction change of angular velocity.
(vi) Centripetal Acceleration
Acceleration acting on the particle Everyday Science
undergoing a uniform circular motion
towards the centre of the circle is called a While going in a bus from plane
to hill station on a road with
centripetal acceleration. It always acts on
slopes and curves, one feels
the particle along the radius and given by
vomiting because on a sloppy
v2
Centripetal acceleration, a = = rω 2 and curved road of the hills, the
r tangential and centripetal
where, r is the radius of the circular path accelerations of the bus are not
and v is linear velocity of particle. constant. It causes uneven
Thus, a particle describing circular motion vibrations in the stomach of the
with constant (uniform) linear speed passengers sitting in the bus,
experiences two types of acceleration; resulting in vomiting.
angular or tangential acceleration and
centripetal acceleration.
■ Relation between time period and frequency,
1 1
time period = or T =
frequency n
■ Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity,
v = rω
■ Relation between angular acceleration and linear acceleration,
a = rα
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
24

Assessment
1. For an object, the state of rest is (d) The direction of the velocity of a body
considered to be the state of ……… can change when its acceleration is
speed. [SSC CGL 2017] constant.
(a) increasing (b) decreasing 7. A car starts from Bengaluru, goes 50 km in
(c) inverse (d) zero a straight line towards South, immediately
2. Match the following lists. turns around and returns to Bengaluru.
The time taken for this round trip is 2h.
List I List II
The magnitude of the average velocity of
A. Motion of billiards 1. One-dimensional
the car for this round trip [NDA 2019]
ball motion
(a) is zero (b) is 50 km/h
B. Motion of flying 2. Two-dimensional
insect motion (c) is 25 km/h
(d) cannot be calculated without knowing
C. Motion of freely 3. Three-dimensional
falling body motion acceleration
8. As the object covers unequal distances in
Codes equal intervals of time, it is said to be in
AB C AB C ……… motion. [SSC (10+2) 2018]
(a) 1 2 3 (b) 1 2 2 (a) uniform (b) linear
(c) 2 3 1 (d) 3 2 2 (c) non-uniform (d) equilibrium
3. An object travels 20 m in 6s and then 9. The rate of change of displacement with
another 30 m in 4s. What is the average time is called as ...... . [SSC 2017]
speed of the object? [RRB Group D 2018] (a) force (b) acceleration
(a) 8 m/s (b) 6 m/s (c) retardation (d) velocity
(c) 5 m/s (d) 7 m/s
10. During ........... motion of an object along a
4. After meeting with an accident, a train straight line, the change in velocity of the
2 object for any time interval is zero.
starts moving at its speed. Due to this, it
3 [SSC (10+2) 2018]
is 45 min late. Find the original time of (a) linear (b) translational
the journey beyond the point of the (c) equilibrium (d) uniform
accident. [RRB Group D 2018] 11. Which one of the following does not match
(a) 90 min (b) 120 min the group? [RRB NTPC 2016]
(c) 45 min (d) 135 min (a) Speed (b) Time
5. If the distance s covered by a moving car (c) Mass (d) Acceleration
in rectilinear motion with a speed v in 12. In negative acceleration, the velocity of a
time t is given by s = vt , then the car body ............ . [RRB Group D 2018]
undergoes [NDA/NA 2014] (a) is zero (b) increases
(a) a uniform acceleration (c) decreases (d) remains constant
(b) a non-uniform acceleration
13. ……… is the change in velocity per unit
(c) a uniform velocity
time. [RRB Group D 2018]
(d) a non-uniform velocity
(a) Acceleration (b) Momentum
6. Which of the following statements is (c) Force (d) Inertia
false?
14. For a body moving with uniform
(a) A body can have zero velocity and still
acceleration its final velocity equals
be accelerated.
........... . [SSC (10+2) 2018]
(b) A body can have a constant velocity
(a) average velocity − initial velocity
and still have a varying speed.
(b) 2 × average velocity − initial velocity
(c) A body can have a constant speed and
(c) 2 × average velocity + initial velocity
still have varying velocity.
(d) average velocity + initial velocity
ASSESSMENT
25
15. Find the acceleration (in m/s 2 ) of a body 23. In a vacuum, a five-rupee coin a, feather
which accelerates from 10 m/s to 20 m/s of sparrow bird and a mango are dropped
in 4 seconds. [SSC (10+2) 2018] simultaneously from the same height. The
(a) 7.5 (b) 5 (c) 15 (d) 2.5 time taken by them to reach the bottom is
16. If an object moves with constant t1 , t 2 and t 3 , respectively. In this situation,
velocity, then which one of the following we will observe that [NDA 2017]
statement is not correct? [NDA 2018] (a) t 1 > t 2 > t 3
(a) Its motion is along a straight line. (b) t 1 > t 3 > t 2
(b) Its speed changes with time. (c) t 3 > t 1 > t 2
(c) Its acceleration is zero. (d) t 1 = t 2 = t 3
(d) Its displacement increases linearly 24. The distance - time graph for the motion of
with time.
an object moving with a constant speed is
17. A passenger in a moving train tosses a a [SSC CGL 2018]
five rupees coin. If the coin falls behind (a) dot (b) circle
him, then the train must be moving with
(c) straight line (d) curve
a uniform [NDA/NA 2014]
(a) acceleration (b) deceleration 25. If an object is at rest, then the time
(c) speed (d) velocity (X-axis) versus distance (Y - axis) graph
(a) is vertical [CDS 2019]
18. The speed of a car travelling on a straight
(b) is horizontal
road is listed below at successive
(c) has 45° positive slope
intervals of 1 s.
(d) has 45° negative slope
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 26. The figure shown below gives the time (t )
Speed (m/s) 0 2 4 6 8 versus position ( x ) graph of three objects
A, B and C. Which one of the following is
Which of the following is/are correct? the correct relation between their speeds
The car travels [NDA 2017]
v A, v B and vC , respectively at any instant
I. with a uniform acceleration of 2 m/s 2 . (t > 0)? [NDA 2019]
II. 16 m in 4 s.
Time C
III. with an average speed of 4 m/s.
(t)
(a) Only I (b) I and II B
(c) II and III (d) All of these A
19. In the equation of motion v = u + at , u
represents ........... . [SSC (10+2) 2018]
O Position (x)
(a) initial velocity (b) final velocity
(c) kinetic energy (d) potential energy (a) v A < v B < v C
(b) v A > v B > v C
20. The first equation of motion gives the
relation between [RRB ALP 2018] (c) v A = v B = v C ≠ 0
(a) position and time (d) v A = v B = v C = 0
(b) velocity and time 27. The slope of a velocity-time graph
(c) position and velocity represents [SSC CHSL 2018]
(d) velocity and acceleration (a) acceleration (b) displacement
21. The second equation of motion gives the (c) distance (d) speed
relation between [RRB 2018] 28. An object is moving with uniform
(a) velocity and time acceleration a. Its initial velocity is u and
(b) position and time after time t , its velocity is v. The equation
(c) position and velocity of its motion is v = u + at . The velocity
(d) velocity and acceleration
(along Y -axis)-time (along X-axis) graph
22. The motion of a freely falling body is an will be a straight line [NDA 2018]
example of ........... accelerated motion. (a) passing through origin
[SSC (10+2) 2018] (b) with X-intercept u
(a) non-uniformly (b) uniformly (c) with Y-intercept u
(c) uniquely (d) specially (d) with slope u
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
26
29. In the given velocity ( v ) versus time (t ) 35. If an object moves in a circular path with
graph, accelerated and decelerated uniform ……… its motion is called uniform
motions are respectively represented by circular motion. [SSC CGL 2017]
line segments [NDA 2019] (a) speed (b) time
(c) velocity (d) acceleration
A D
Velocity (v) 36. A car undergoes a uniform circular motion.
The acceleration of the car is [CDS 2019 (II)]
B C (a) zero
Time (t) (b) a non-zero constant
(c) non-zero but not a constant
(a) CD and BC (b) BC and AB (d) None of the above
(c) CD and AB (d) AB and CD 37. If an object undergoes a uniform circular
30. If an object moves at a non-zero constant motion, then its [NDA/NA 2013]
acceleration for a certain interval of time, (a) acceleration remains uniform
then the distance it covers in that time (b) velocity changes
[NDA 2019] (c) speed changes
(a) depends on its initial velocity (d) velocity remains uniform
(b) is independent of its initial velocity 38. A motor vehicle is moving on a circle with a
(c) increases linearly with time uniform speed. The net acceleration of the
(d) depends on its initial displacement vehicle is [NDA/NA 2013]
31. Which of the following equations (a) zero
represents the velocity - time relation? (b) towards the centre of the circle
[RRB Group-D 2018] (c) away from the centre along the radius of
1
(a) s = ut + at 2 (b) 2 as = v 2 − u 2 the circle
2 (d) perpendicular to the radius and along
(c) v = u + at (d) v = u − at
the velocity
32. An iron ball and a wooden ball of the
39. A person standing at the middle point of a
same radius are released from the same wooden ladder which starts slipping between
height in a vacuum. The time taken by a vertical wall and the floor of a room, while
both of the these to reach the ground is continuing to remain in a vertical plane. The
(a) roughly equal (b) zero path traced by a person standing at the
(c) exactly equal (d) unequal middle point of the slipping ladder is
33. During the motion of a projectile fired (a) a straight line (b) an elliptical line
from the earth surface, [SSC CGL 2016] (c) a circular path (d) a parabolic path
(a) its kinetic energy remains constant 40. An object moves in a circular path with a
(b) its momentum remains constant constant speed. Which one of the following
(c) vertical component of its velocity statement is correct? [NDA 2017]
remains constant (a) The centripetal acceleration of the object
(d) horizontal component of its velocity is smaller for a gentle curve (i.e. curve of
remains constant larger radius) than that for a sharp curve
34. A body moving in a circular path with a (i.e. curve of smaller radius).
constant speed has a [SSC CGL 2016] (b) The centripetal acceleration is greater for
(a) constant velocity a gentle curve than that for a sharp curve.
(c) The centripetal acceleration is the same
(b) constant acceleration
for both the gentle and sharp curves.
(c) constant kinetic energy
(d) The centripetal acceleration causes the
(d) constant displacement
object to slow down.

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (a)
31. (c) 32. (c) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (a)
3
Force and Laws
of Motion
Force
Any action which causes pull or push on a body is called force. Forces are used in our
everyday actions like pushing, pulling, lifting, stretching, twisting and pressing.
Force is a vector quantity, its SI unit is newton and the CGS unit is dyne.
1 newton = 1 kg-ms −2
1 newton = 10 5 dyne
e.g., a force is used when we kick a football, we lift a box from the floor, we stretch a
rubber band, etc.

Fundamental or Basic Forces in Nature

Mainly there are four types of forces occurring in nature
(i) Gravitational Forces Every object in this universe attracts each other, this force of
attraction is called gravitational force. It is the weakest force among all existing forces
and is negligible for all lighter and smaller bodies but becomes significant and
considerable in all celestial bodies.
(ii) Weak Nuclear Forces These forces were discovered during the study of the
phenomenon of β-decay, in radioactivity. These are the forces of interaction between
elementary particles of short life times. The weak nuclear forces are 10 25 times
stronger than gravitational forces.
(iii) Electromagnetic Forces The electromagnetic forces are the forces between
charged particles. When the charges are at rest, the forces are called electrostatic
forces. The forces between unlike charges are attractive and the forces between like
charges are repulsive. These forces are governed by Coulomb's law.
Matter consists of elementary particles like electrons and protons. The electrons and
protons are charged. Electromagnetic force is much stronger than the gravitational
force, it dominates all phenomena on atomic and molecular scales.
(iv) Strong Nuclear Forces The forces that bind the neutrons and protons together in a
nucleus are called the strong nuclear forces. These forces act between two protons or
two neutrons or a proton and a neutron, but only if the particles are very close
together. These are the strongest forces in nature. These are 10 38 times stronger than
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
28
gravitational forces, 10 2 times stronger than electrostatic forces and 10 13 times
stronger than the weak forces.

Fundamental Forces in Nature

Relative
S. No. Name Range Operates Among
Strength
1. Gravitational force 1 Infinite All objects in universe
2. Weak nuclear force 10 25 Very short subnuclear size Some elementary particles
(≈ 10−16 m) like electron and neutrino
3. Electromagnetic force 1036 Not very large Charged particles
4. Strong nuclear force 1038 Very short nuclear size Nucleons, heavier
(≈ 10−15 m) elementary particles

Types of Force
There are two types of force
(i) Balanced Forces When the net effect produced by a number of forces acting on a
body is zero, then the forces are said to be balanced forces. Balanced forces can only
bring a change in the shape of the body. e.g., If the block is pulled from both the sides
with equal forces, the block will not move, such forces are called balanced forces.
(ii) Unbalanced Forces When the net effect produced by a number of forces on a body
is non-zero, then the forces are said to be unbalanced forces.
■ An object moves with a uniform velocity when the force acting on the object are balanced and
there is no net external force on it.
■ If an unbalanced force is applied on the object, there will be a change, either in its speed or in the
direction of its motion. Thus, to accelerate the motion of an object, an unbalanced force is required.

Contact Forces and Field Forces

Force by the virtue of bodies in contact is called contact forces while force
between the two body which is not in contact is known as field force such as
gravitational force, electric force, etc.

Inertia
The property of an object to resist any change in its state of motion along a straight line or
rest is called inertia.
There are three types of inertia
(i) Inertia of Rest If an object resists the change in its state of rest, its inertia is called
inertia of rest.
(ii) Inertia of Motion If an object resists the change in its state of motion, its inertia is
called inertia of motion.
(iii) Inertia of Direction If an object resists the change in direction of its motion, its
inertia is called inertia of direction.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Laws of motion was propounded by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687, in his book Principia.
There are three laws of motion
FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION
29

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Every body retains its state of rest or state of motion along a straight line until an external
force is applied on it. This law is also known as law of inertia.

Some Common Phenomena based on

Newton’s First Law of Motion
■ A person standing in a bus falls backward when bus starts moving suddenly. This
happens because the person and bus both are in rest while bus is not moving. As bus
starts moving, the legs of the person start moving alongwith bus but rest portion of
his body has tendency to remain in rest.
■ If a moving bus suddenly stops, then the passenger falls in forward direction,
because the passengers who had inertia of motion, oppose a change in their state.
However, the lower portion of their body comes to rest with the bus. So, they fall
forward.
■ When we shake a tree vigorously, its fruits and leaves fall down. This happens
because the fruits and leaves were at rest initially and as tree is shaken vigorously,
the tree moves to and fro but the force is not acting on leaves and fruits, and they try
to maintain their states of rest due to inertia and hence fall.
■ The seat belts are used in car and other vehicles to prevent the passengers being
thrown, in the condition of sudden stopping of the vehicles. This is because in that
condition passengers may be thrown in the direction of the motion of vechicle due
to the tendency to remain in the state of motion (i.e., inertia of motion).
■ If we suddenly and rapidly pull the table cloth on which dishes are placed, then
dishes remain on the table and the cloth comes out from the table. This is because of
the fact that dishes were initially at rest and due to their inertia, they try to maintain
their state of rest and force exerted by us on table cloth is not transmitted to the
dishes.

Momentum
The momentum of a moving body is equal to the product of its mass and its velocity. It is a
vector quantity having SI unit kg-m/s.
If a body of mass (m) moves with a velocity (v), then momentum (p) is given by p = mv

Everyday Science
a A much greater force is required to push a truck than a car to bring them to the same
speed in the same time, because due to higher mass heavy body requires higher
momentum. Similarly, a greater force is required to stop a heavy body than a light body
in the same time.
a A bullet fired from a gun can easily pierce through a target but a stone of same thrown
by hand can be easily stopped, because bullet fired from gun has much higher velocity
than stone so due to its higher momentum it pierces the target easily.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

If no external force acts upon a system of two (or more) bodies, then the total momentum
of the system remains constant. This is called the law of conservation of momentum.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
30
If m 1 and m 2 be the two masses of colliding particles, u 1 and u 2 are the velocities of the
respective particles before collision and v 1 and v 2 are the velocities of the particles after
collision, then by the law of conservation of linear momentum.
Total linear momentum before collision = m 1u 1 + m 2 u 2
Total linear momentum after collision = m 1v 1 + m 2 v 2
Thus, m 1u 1 + m 2 u 2 = m 1v 1 + m 2 v 2

Some Common Phenomena based on

Law of Conservation of Momentum
■ When a man jumps out of a boat to the shore, the boat is pushed slightly away from the
shore. The momentum of the boat is equal and opposite to that of the man in accordance
with the law of conservation of momentum.
■ Rocket Propulsion The conservation law of momentum can be applied to study the
motion of the body.
In a rocket, the fuel burns and produces gas at high temperature. The gas is ejected out of
the rocket from a nozzle, at the back side of the rocket.
The ejecting gas exerts a forward force on the rocket which helps in accelerating. Though
the mass of gas escaping per second is very small and its momentum is very large due to
its tremendous velocity of escape, an equal and opposite momentum is imparted to the
rocket which despite its large mass builds up a high velocity.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is
proportional to the applied unbalanced force in the direction of force.
According to Newton’s second law,
Force, F ∝ Rate of change of momentum
dp
F∝
dt
where, dp = change in momentum and dt = change in time.
On further calculation, F = ma
where, m = mass of the body and a = acceleration of the body.
If acceleration a = 0, then F = 0 (mass of the body can never be zero)
It means that in the absence of external force the body either moves with constant
velocity or comes to rest.
By Newton’s second law F = ma , here if m = 1 kg and a = 1 m/s 2 , then F = 1 N. Thus, 1 N is
the force required to produce an acceleration of 1 m/s in a body of mass 1 kg.

Some Common Phenomena based on

Newton’s Second Law of Motion
■ During the game of table tennis if the ball hits a player, it does not hurt him. On the other
hand, when a fast moving cricket ball hits a spectator, it may hurt him because the speed
of cricket ball is higher due to which its acceleration is also higher.
FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION
31
■ In a high jump athletic event, the athletes are made to fall either on a cushioned bed or on
a sand bed. This is to increase the time of the athlete’s fall to stop after making the jump.
This decreases the rate of change of momentum and hence the force.
■ A cricket player moves his hand backwards on catching a fast cricket ball, because the
cricket player increases the time during which the high velocity of moving ball decreases
to zero. Thus, the acceleration of the ball is decreased and therefore, the impact of
catching the fast moving ball is also reduced. If the ball is stopped suddenly then its high
velocity decreases to zero in a very short interval of time. Thus, the rate of change of
momentum of the ball will be large. Therefore, a large force would have to be applied for
holding the catch that may hurt the palm of the player.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and both acts on two different
bodies. So, this law is also known as law of action and reaction.

Some Common Phenomena based on Newton’s Third Law of Motion

■ While walking a person presses the ground in the backward direction (action) by his feet,
the ground pushes the person in forward direction (reaction), with equal force making
the person to walk.
■ A swimmer pushes the water backwards (action) with a force. The water pushes the
swimmer forward (reaction) with the same force. Hence, the swimmer swims.
■ It is difficult to walk on sand, because on pushing, sand gets displaced and reaction from
sandy ground is small.

Impulse
If a large force is acting on a body for a very short time, then the product of this large
force and time is known as impulse and large force itself is called impulsive force.
Impulse = Change in momentum = Force × Time
It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s.

Some Common Phenomena based on Impulse

■ Chinawares are wrapped in paper or straw pieces while packing. In the event of fall,
impact will take a longer time to reach the glass/chinawares through paper or straw. Due
to which the force on the chinawares is small and chances of their breaking reduce.
■ Bogies of a train are provided with the buffers, due to which they avoid severe jerks
during shunting of the train. The presence of buffer increases the time of impact, so force
during jerks decreases, hence the chances of damage decrease.
■ An athlete is advised to come to stop slowly after finishing a fast race, so that time to stop
increases and hence force experienced by him decreases.

Reference Frame
In study of various physical activities the position of a system or body is made to be fixed
and distances of other bodies are measured called reference frame.

Inertial and Non-inertial Frame of Reference

■ A frame of reference is know as an inertial frame if all acceleration of any particle in
it are caused by real forces. On the other hand, a frame of reference is called a
non-inertial frame, if the accelerations are caused by fictitious forces or pseudo
forces.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
32
■ In inertial frame of reference Newton’s law of motion holds good, while Newton’s
law of motion are not applicable in non-inertial frame of reference.

Apparent Weight of a Person in a Lift

Suppose a person of mass m is in a lift, then the actual weight of the person is mg,
which acts on the lift floor in downward direction, due to which the floor offers the
reaction (R). This reaction is called apparent weight of the person. Relation
between R and mg in different situation is discussed below in different cases
Case I When the lift is at rest
When the left or elevator is at rest then the apparent weight of the person
is equal to the actual weight of the person.
Case II When the lift is moving uniformly in upward/downward direction
In uniform motion, the apparent weight of the person is equal to the actual
weight of the person.
Case III When the lift is accelerating upwards
If lift is accelerating upwards, then the apparent weight of the person is
more than the actual weight of the person.
Case IV When the lift is accelerating downwards
If the lift is accelerating downwards, then the apparent weight of the
person is less than the actual weight of the person.
Case V When the lift is falling freely
If chord of the lift breaks then it is said to be falling freely. In this case, the
apparent weight of the person becomes zero i.e., the person feels the
condition of weightlessness.

Friction
When a body slides or rolls over another body or on a surface, then a force opposing the
motion acts between those surfaces of the body which are in contact, this force is called force
of friction. Actually, whenever the surface of a body slides over the surface of another body,
each body exerts a frictional force on the other which is parallel to the surface in contact.
Types of Friction
There are three types of friction which are discussed below

1. Static Friction
The force of friction that comes into play between two surfaces in contact before the actual
motion starts, is called static friction. Static friction is a self adjusting force which increases as
the applied force is increased.
∴ Static friction (fs ) = μ s R
where, μ s = coefficient of static friction and R = normal reaction.
If angle of friction is θ, then coefficient of static friction μ s = tan θ.
2. Limiting Friction
The maximum force of static friction which comes into play before a body just begins to slide
over the surface of another body, is called limiting friction.
∴ Limiting friction (fl ) = μ l R
where, μ l = coefficient of limiting friction and R = normal reaction.
Limiting friction does not depend on area of contact surface but depends on their nature,
i.e., smoothness or roughness.
FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION
33
3. Kinetic Friction
When a body moves over the other body, then the force of friction acting between two
surfaces in contact in relative motion is called kinetic friction (fk ).
Kinetic friction, fk = μ k R
where, μ k = coefficient of kinetic friction and R = normal reaction.
The kinetic friction does not depend on the magnitude of relative speed but for very high
speed it drops to zero.
Kinetic friction is of two types
(i) Rolling Friction When one body rolls over the other body, then the frictional force
acting between the two is called rolling friction. Rolling friction is negligible in
comparison to the static or kinetic friction which may be present simultaneously.
(ii) Sliding Friction When a body slides over the other body, the frictional force between
the two is called sliding friction. Sliding friction is always more than rolling friction.

Friction is a Necessary Evil

Friction is called necessary evil. It is a necessity, because we cannot do without it and at the
same time, it is evil because it involves unnecessary wastage of energy.
Friction is a Necessity
(i) Walking will not be possible without friction. If there is no friction, then our foot pressing
the ground for walking will slip.
(ii) No two bodies will stick each other if there is no friction.
(iii) Brakes of the vehicles will not work without friction.
(iv) Nuts and bolts for holding the parts of machinery together will not work without friction.
(v) Writing on black board or on paper will also not be possible without friction.

Friction is an Evil
(i) Friction causes wear and tear of the
parts of the machinery in contact, Everyday Science
thus their life time reduces. a When the forces causing the rocks to slide
(ii) Frictional forces result in the exceed the force of friction, the rock will tend
to move with the consequent release of
production of heat, which causes tremendous amounts of energy causing the
damage to the machinery. earthquake.

Methods of Reducing Friction

Some of the ways of reducing friction are
(i) By Polishing the surfaces can be made smoother, therefore friction reduces.
(ii) Lubricants like oil, grease etc., fill up the irregularities of the surfaces, making them
smoother. Hence, friction decreases.
(iii) Ball Bearing To reduce the wear and tear and energy loss Fixed part

against friction, small steel balls are kept between the Ball
rotating part of machines which are known as ball bearings
Rotating
bearings. In a ball bearing system, one part moves with part
respect to the other, the balls roll on between two parts.
No kinetic friction is involved and rolling friction being
very small, causes much less energy loss. Ball Bearing
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
34

Centripetal Force
A body performing circular motion is acted upon by a force directed along the radius towards
the centre of the circle. This force is called the centripetal force.
Q Centripetal force = Mass × Centripetal acceleration
mv 2
F= ⇒ F = mrω2
r
where, v = linear velocity of the body on circular track.

Some Phenomena based on Centripetal Force

(i) Circular Motion in Nature The earth moves round the sun under a centripetal force
directed towards the sun. This force is provided by gravitational attraction on the
earth by the sun. Similarly the moon moves around the earth under the centripetal
force provided by the gravitational attraction exerted on the moon by the earth.
(ii) Circular Motion in Atom In an atom, electrons continue to revolve around the
nucleus in circular orbits. The centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force
of attraction between the negatively-charged electron and positively-charged
nucleus.

Centrifugal Force
It is a force that arises when a body is moving actually along a circular path, by virtue of
tendency of the body to regain its natural straight line path. It is regarded as reaction of
centripetal force. It acts along the radius and away from the centre of the circle.

Everyday Science
a When a vehicle goes round a curved road, it requires some centripetal force. So, to provide the
necessary centripetal force, outer edge of the curved road is raised above the inner edge. By
doing so, a component of normal reaction of the road provides the centripetal force. This
phenomenon of raising other edge of curved road is called banking of roads.
a Centrifuge A device by means of which light particles and heavy particles are separated to each
other.
a Cream Separator It is a device working on the principle of centrifugal force. It is a vessel
containing milk. On rotating fast, the lighter particles of cream collect in a cylindrical layer around
the axis and the skimmed milk is drained through an outlet fitted on the wall of the vessel. The
particles, whose density is less than those of the liquid are driven towards the axis of rotation and
those whose density is greater than that of the liquid are driven away from the axis.
a Washing Machine Drier In washing machine or in laundries, wet clothes are dried by packing
them in a cylindrical vessel with perforated walls which are rotated with a very high speed. Due
to centrifugal force, the water particles move through the walls of the vessel and escape
through the holes.
ASSESSMENT
35

Assessment
1. The displacement-time (s-t) graph of a 9. An athlete runs before long jump to get
particle acted upon by a constant force is advantage on
(a) a straight line [NDA 2015] (a) inertia of motion
(b) a circle (b) frictional force
(c) a parabola (c) moment of a force
(d) any curve depending upon initial (d) principle of moments
conditions 10. A passenger falls in the direction when a
2. Which one of the following is not a moving bus applies brakes to stop and falls
contact force? [NDA 2016] backwards when it accelerates from rest.
(a) Push force (b) Gravitational force This is because of [RRB Group-D 2018]
(c) Frictional force (d) Strain force (a) force (b) displacement
3. The known forces of nature can be (c) inertia (d) momentum
divided into four classes, viz, gravity, 11. Newton’s first law is also known as …… .
electromagnetism, weak nuclear force [SSC CHSL 2017, Chhattisgarh PCS 2019]
and strong nuclear force. With reference (a) law of friction (b) law of momentum
to them, which one of the following (c) law of inertia (d) law of motion
statements is not correct? [UPSC 2013] 12. Newton’s laws of motion do no hold good
(a) Gravity is the strongest of the four for objects
(b) Electromagnetism acts only on (a) at rest
particles with an electric charge (b) moving slowly
(c) Weak nuclear force causes (c) moving with high velocity
radioactivity (d) moving with velocity comparable to
(d) Strong nuclear force holds protons and velocity of light
neutrons inside the nucleus of an atom
13. A particle is moving with constant speed
4. Which of the following quantity is a along a straight line path. A force is not
measure of inertia? required to
[SSC 2017, Delhi Police SI 2017] (a) increase its speed
(a) Velocity (b) Acceleration (b) decrease the momentum
(c) Mass (d) Weight (c) change the direction
5. The tendency of undisturbed objects to (d) keep it moving with uniform velocity
stay at rest or to keep moving with the 14. A batsman hits a cricket ball which than
same velocity is called [RRB 2018]
rools on a level ground. After covering a
(a) velocity (b) force
short distance, the ball cames to rest.
(c) momentum (d) inertia
The ball slews to a stop because
6. Which one of the following has maximum [MPPCS 2017]
inertia? [NDA 2018] (a) the batsman did not hit the ball hard
(a) An atom (b) A molecule enough
(c) A one rupee coin (d) A cricket ball (b) velocity is proportional to the force
7. The inertia of an object tends to cause the exerted on the ball
object (c) There is a force on the ball opposing
(a) to increase its speed the motion
(b) to decrease its speed (d) There is no unbalanced force on the
(c) to resist any change in its state of motion ball, so the ball would try to come to
(d) to decelerate due to friction rest
8. When a running car stops suddenly, the 15. Linear momentum is equal to [RRB 2018]
passengers tend to lean forward because (a) mass × velocity
of [SSC (10+2) 2012] (b) speed × weight
(a) centrifugal force (b) inertia of rest (c) force × height
(c) inertia of motion (d) gravitational force (d) mass × volume