OSCILLATIONS

Chapter-14 OSCILLATIONS

Periodic motion: A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.
Ex: Motion of planets in solar system, uniform circular motion.

Oscillatory motion: A motion in which a body moves to and fro between two extreme positions
about an equilibrium position.
Ex: boat tossing up and down, piston of a steam engine, motion of simple pendulum.

Equilibrium (Mean) position: It is the position of a body during oscillatory motion at which the
net external force acting on the body is zero.
It is the position, at which if it is at rest, it remains at rest forever.

Oscillations or vibrations: The motion of a body between two extreme positions forms oscillations
or vibrations.

Note: (i) There is no significant difference between oscillations and vibrations. When the frequency
is small we call it oscillation, while the frequency is high we call it vibrations.
(ii) Every oscillatory motion is periodic; but every periodic motion need not be oscillatory.

Importance of oscillatory motion: This motion is basic to physics. In musical instruments we come
across vibrating strings, membranes in drums and diaphragms in telephone and speaker system
vibrate, vibrations of air molecule, vibrations of atoms in solid include oscillatory motion. The
concepts of oscillatory motion are required to understand many physical phenomena listed above.

Description of oscillatory motion: The description of oscillatory motion requires some

fundamental concepts like period, frequency, displacement, amplitude and phase.

Period or Time period (T): The smallest interval of time after which a periodic motion repeats is
called period.
In case of oscillation, the time taken by the body to complete one oscillation is called period. SI unit
of period is 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.

Frequency (𝝂): Number of times a periodic motion repeats per unit time is called frequency.
In case of oscillations, number of oscillations per unit time is called frequency. SI unit of frequency
is ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧). 1𝐻𝑧 = 1 oscillation per second.

Note: Relation between period and frequency is given by, 𝑇 = 1⁄𝜈 or 𝜈 = 1⁄𝑇

Displacement (x or y): The term displacement refers to change of physical quantity with time. In
periodic motion displacement may be linear as well as angular.

Linear displacement: The straight line distance travelled by a particle

from its equilibrium position.

Angular displacement: It is the angle through which position vector of the body rotates in a given
time.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,

UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 1
Above line hide when print out
 OSCILLATIONS
Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of the particle from its equilibrium
position is called amplitude.

Periodic function: Any function which repeats itself after a regular interval of time
is called periodic function.
In periodic motion displacement is periodic function and it can be represented by a mathematical
function of time. The simplest of these functions is given by, 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡.
If 𝜔𝑡 is increased by an integral multiple of 2𝜋 radian, the value of the function remains same and
𝑓(𝑡) is periodic.
2𝜋
If 𝑇 =
𝜔
𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔(𝑡 + 𝑇)
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔 (𝑡 + )
𝜔
𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋)
𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)

Note: (i) In cos 𝜔𝑡, the term 𝜔 is called angular frequency.

(ii) The function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 is also periodic.
(iii) The linear combination of both sine and cosine function is also periodic and it is represented
by 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 cos 𝜔𝑡 and it is called Fourier series.
By putting, 𝐴 = 𝐷 cos 𝜙 and 𝐵 = 𝐷 sin 𝜙
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐷 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + 𝐷 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙
𝐵
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐷 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) where 𝐷 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 and 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐴)

Simple harmonic motion (SHM): The oscillatory motion is said to be simple harmonic, if the
displacement of the particle from the origin varies with time as;
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) or 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙).
Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion in which displacement is a sinusoidal function of
time.

Note: The simplest kind of periodic motion is simple harmonic motion.

Analysis of simple harmonic motion:

Consider a particle oscillating back and forth about the origin along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 between the limits +𝐴
and −𝐴 as shown.

Figure shows graph of 𝑥 versus 𝑡 which gives the values of displacements as function of time.

Phase: During the periodic motion, the position and velocity of the particle at any time 𝑡 is
determined by the term (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) in cosine function. This quantity is called phase of the motion.

Phase constant (Phase angle):

The value of phase at 𝑡 = 0 is 𝜙 and it is called the phase constant or phase angle.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,
UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 2
Above line hide when print out
 OSCILLATIONS
Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion:
Consider a particle moving with a uniform sped along the circumference of circle of radius 𝐴.
Let the particle start from the point 𝑋 with a constant speed 𝜔.
After some time it reaches to 𝑃.
Draw 𝑃𝑀 perpendicular to 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑂𝑀 represents the projection of position vector of the particle on 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

When the particle moves from 𝑋 to 𝑌 its projection of the position

vector moves from 𝑂 to 𝑌. As the particle moves from 𝑌 to 𝑋 ′ , its
projection moves from 𝑌 to 𝑂. Similarly the particle moves from 𝑋 ′ to
𝑋 via 𝑌 ′ , its projection moves from 𝑂 to 𝑌 ′ and 𝑌 ′ to 𝑂. This shows
that if the particle moves uniformly on a circle, its projection on the
diameter (𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠) of the circle executes SHM.

The position of the particle on the circle is given by, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
The displacement of the projection on 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is given by, 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) which is also SHM
with same amplitude but different in phase by 𝜋⁄2.

Equation of SHM:
Consider a particle moving on a circle of radius 𝐴 with uniform velocity 𝜔.
Let the particle start from 𝑋 and subtend an angle 𝜃 in time 𝑡 and reaches 𝑃.
𝜃
Angular velocity, 𝜔 =
𝑡
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
The projection of the particle on 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is, 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑥
𝑂𝑁 𝑥
In Δ𝑂𝑃𝑀, cos 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝑃 𝐴
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝒙 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
If the particle starts from 𝑄, 𝒙 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)

Velocity of the particle:

We have, 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
Further, 𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔√1 − cos 2 𝜔𝑡

𝑥 2
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔√1 − ( )
𝐴

𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔√
𝐴2

𝒗 = −𝝎√𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
Negative sign shows that 𝑣 has a direction opposite to the positive direction of 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

The above equation tells that,

(i) When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝜔𝐴 - velocity is maximum, velocity is maximum at equilibrium (mean)
position
(ii) When 𝑥 = 𝐴, 𝑣 = 0 - velocity is minimum, velocity is minimum at extreme position.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,
UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 3
Above line hide when print out
 OSCILLATIONS
Acceleration:
We have 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎 = 2 = −𝐴𝜔2 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙
Negative sign indicates that the direction of displacement and acceleration are opposite to each
other.
(i) When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑎 = 0, acceleration is minimum at mean position.
(ii) when 𝑥 = 𝐴, |𝑎| = 𝜔2 𝐴, acceleration is maximum at extreme position.

𝑑2 𝑥
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0, is called differntial equation of SHM.
𝑑𝑡 2

Force law for SHM:

Acceleration of a particle executing SHM is given by, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
From Newton’s second law, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 = 𝑚(−𝜔2 𝑥)
𝐹 = −𝑚𝜔2 𝑥
𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2
Negative sign indicates that force and displacement are oppositely directed.

Note: (i) A particle oscillating under a force given by 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 is called linear harmonic oscillator

𝑘
(ii)We have 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 , 𝜔=√
𝑚

Energy in SHM:
A particle executing SHM possess,
(i) Kinetic energy - because it is moving.
(ii) Potential energy - because it is subjected to conservative force 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
1
Kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝐴2 𝜔2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2
1
𝐾 = 𝑘 𝐴2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2

1
Potential energy, 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
1
𝑈 = 𝑘 𝐴2 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2

1 1
Total energy, 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑘 𝐴2 sin2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) + 𝑘 𝐴2 cos2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2 2
1
𝐸 = 𝑘 𝐴2 [sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) + cos2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]
2
𝟏
𝑬 = 𝒌 𝑨𝟐
𝟐

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,

UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 4
Above line hide when print out
 OSCILLATIONS
Variation of Kinetic energy and potential energy of oscillator:
1 1
(i) When the particle is at mean position, 𝑈 = 0 and 𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 = 𝑘 𝐴2
𝑥 = 0,
2 2
At mean position kinetic energy is maximum and potential energy is zero.
1
(ii)When the particle is at extreme position, 𝑥 = 𝐴, 𝑈 = 𝑘 𝐴2 and 𝐾 = 0
2
At the extreme positions kinetic energy is zero and potential energy is maximum.

Some systems executing SHM:

There are no practical examples for absolutely pure simple harmonic motion. But under certain
conditions, some systems can be considered as approximately simple harmonic.

(i) Oscillations due to spring (Expression for Time period of oscillating string):
Consider a block of mass 𝑚 attached to a spring. The other end of the spring is rigidly fixed.
If the block is pulled and released, it executes to and fro motion.
Let 𝑥 = 0 be the mean position of the block.
The restoring force of the block is given by, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑘
𝑎 = −( )𝑥 − − − (1)
𝑚
The standard equation for SHM is, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 − − − (2)
𝑘
On comparing, 𝜔2 =
𝑚
𝑘
𝜔=√
𝑚
𝟐𝝅 𝒎
Time period of the block is, 𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√
𝝎 𝒌

(ii) Simple pendulum (Expression for time period of Simple pendulum):

Consider a simple pendulum of mass 𝑚 tied to a string of length 𝐿.
Let the bob is set into oscillations.
Let 𝑃 be the position of the bob at time 𝑡.
Let 𝜃 be the angle made by the string with the vertical.
Force acting on the bob are,
(i) weight of the bob 𝑚𝑔, vertically downwards, which can be
resolved into two components; 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 along the string and
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 perpendicular to the string.
(ii) Tension 𝑇 in the string towards point of suspension.
The bob has two accelerations (i) radial acceleration
(ii) tangential acceleration
Radial acceleration provided by 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
Tangential acceleration provided by 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,
UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 5
Above line hide when print out
 OSCILLATIONS
Radial force gives zero torque.
Therefore, Torque on the bob |𝜏⃗| = |𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ |
𝜏 = −𝐿𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
Negative sign indicates that the restoring torque tends to reduce angular displacement.
By Newton’s second law, 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
𝐼𝛼 = −𝐿𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝛼=− sin 𝜃
𝐼
𝑚𝑔𝐿
If 𝜃 is small, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 , 𝛼 = − 𝜃
𝐼
Comparing with, 𝛼 = −𝜔2 𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝜔2 =
𝐼
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝜔=√
𝐼

2𝜋 𝑚𝑔𝐿
=√
𝑇 𝐼

𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚𝑔𝐿

𝑚𝐿2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ (𝐼 = 𝑚𝐿2 )
𝑚𝑔𝐿

𝑳
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝒈

Damped simple harmonic motion:

Damped oscillations: The oscillations of decreasing amplitude due to force opposing the motion
of the particle are called damped oscillations.
In damped oscillations, the energy of the system dissipates continuously.

Damping force: The force which opposes the simple harmonic motion of the particle is called
damping force. Ex: air drag, viscous force.

Analysis of Damped oscillations:

Generally damping forces are velocity dependent.
The damping force 𝐹𝑑 is given by, 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣
where 𝑏 is the positive constant called damping co-efficient and depends on characteristics of the
medium. The negative sign indicates the 𝐹𝑑 is opposite to 𝑣.
The restoring force acting on the object is, 𝐹𝑅 = −𝑘𝑥
The net force on the oscillator is, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝑑
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝟐
𝒅 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒎 𝟐 +𝒃 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
This is the differential equation of damped SHM.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,

UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 6
Above line hide when print out
 OSCILLATIONS
𝑏𝑡
For small damping, the solution of the equation is given by, 𝑥 = 𝐴0 (𝑒 − 2𝑚 ) cos(𝜔′ 𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑘 𝑏2 𝑏𝑡
where 𝜔′ = √ − and Amplitude, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 (𝑒 − 2𝑚 )
𝑚 4𝑚2
The amplitude of the oscillation decreases exponentially with time and finally becomes zero.

Energy of the damped oscillator:

1
The total mechanical energy of un damped oscillator is, 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝐴2
2
1
𝐸 = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝐴2
2
𝑏𝑡
For damped oscillator, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 (𝑒 − 2𝑚 )
1 𝑏𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑘 𝐴20 (𝑒 − 𝑚 )
2
𝒃𝒕
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 (𝒆− 𝒎 )
The equation shows that the total energy of the system decreases exponentially with time.

Free oscillations: When a particle set into oscillations, it oscillates with its own frequency 𝜔, these
oscillations are called free oscillations and the frequency is called natural frequency.
All the free oscillations eventually die out because of the ever present damping forces.

Forced or driven oscillations: When a body is subjected to periodic force, it oscillates with the
frequency of the periodic force. Such oscillations are called forced oscillations.

Note: In forced oscillations the system oscillates not with its natural frequency but at the frequency
of the external agency.

Analysis of forced oscillations:

The periodic external force is given by, 𝐹 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
The motion of the particle under the combined force is given by,
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣 + 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The particle initially oscillates with natural frequency 𝜔. The oscillations with natural frequency
die out due to damping. Then the particle oscillates with frequency of the external periodic force.
Displacement is given by, 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝐹0
Amplitude of the oscillation is given by, 𝐴 = 1
[𝑚2 (𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑑 )2 + 𝜔𝑑2 𝑏2 ] ⁄2
2

−𝑣0
and 𝜙 = tan−1 ( )
𝜔𝑑 𝑥0
where 𝑚 is mass of the particle, 𝑣0 is velocity and 𝑥0 is the displacement of the particle at time 𝑡 =
0 at which we apply periodic force.

Case(i) Small damping, Applied frequency far from natural frequency.

Here 𝜔𝑑 𝑏 ≪ 𝑚(𝜔2 − 𝜔𝑑2 ) 𝑎nd we can neglect the term 𝜔𝑑 𝑏.
𝐹0 𝐹0
Then 𝐴 = 1⁄ = 2 2 2
[𝑚 (𝜔 − 𝜔𝑑 ) ] 2 𝑚(𝜔 − 𝜔𝑑 )
2 2 2 2

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,

UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 7
Above line hide when print out
 OSCILLATIONS
If we go on changing the applied frequency, the amplitude tends to infinity, when 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑑
This cannot happen in reality as zero damping is ideal.

Case(ii) Applied frequency close to natural frequency.

When 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔𝑑 , 𝜔𝑑 𝑏 ≫ 𝑚(𝜔2 − 𝜔𝑑2 )
𝐹0
Then, 𝐴 =
𝜔𝑑 𝑏
The maximum amplitude for a given applied frequency depends on the applied frequency and the
damping force.

Resonance: The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when applied frequency is close to the
natural frequency of the oscillator is called resonance.
The frequency at which resonance takes place is called resonant frequency.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,

UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 8
Above line hide when print out
 OSCILLATIONS
Suggested Questions.
One mark.
1) What is phase of an oscillating particle?
2) What happens to the time period of simple pendulum when it is taken from equator to the
pole?
3) Define Amplitude of simple harmonic oscillator.
4) What are damped oscillations?
5) What is resonance?
6) What is frequency of an oscillator?

Two marks.
1) What is simple harmonic motion? Write an expression for linear oscillator.
2) Write the expression for total energy of a simple harmonic motion and explain the symbols.
3) Mention any two characteristics of SHM.
4) Define SHM with an example.
5) Mention the expression for the velocity of the particle executing SHM and explain the symbol.
6) What are forced oscillations? Mention the condition for resonance.
7) On an average the human heart is found to beat 75 times in minute. Calculate its frequency.
8) Where is the velocity of the body maximum and minimum in case of simple harmonic
motion?
9) Mention an expression for the period of oscillation of a spring and explain the terms.

Three marks.
1) Obtain an expression for Time period of oscillating string.
2) Mention the expression for the velocity of the particle executing SHM and mention the
position where it is maximum and minimum?
3) Mention the expression for the acceleration of the particle executing SHM and mention the
position where it is maximum and minimum?

Five marks.
1) Obtain an expression for kinetic and potential energies of a particle in SHM varying between
zero and their maximum values with diagram giving total energy.
2) Derive the expression for time period of simple pendulum.
3) What is Simple Harmonic motion? Mention the characteristics of SHM.
4) What is SHM? Write its characteristics and give its graphical representation.

Numerical Problems.
1) The equation of a sinusoidal wave travelling along negative x-axis is 𝑦 = 0.4 sin 10𝜋 (3𝑡 + 2𝑥)
where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are in meters and 𝑡 is in seconds. Calculate the amplitude, wave length,
frequency and wave velocity.
2) The displacement of an oscillating particle varies with time according to the equation 𝑦 =
2 sin(0.5 𝜋𝑡), where 𝑦 is in metre and time in second. Calculate, (a) Amplitude of oscillation (b)
Time period of oscillation (c) Maximum velocity of wave particles and (d) Acceleration of the
wave.
3) A particle executes SHM along the x-axis, its displacement varies with the time according to
𝜋
the equation: 𝑥(𝑡) = 5.4 cos(6𝜋𝑡 + ), where 𝑥(𝑡) in metre and 𝑡 is in second. Determine the
4
amplitude, frequency, period and initial phase of the motion.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,

UseHiriyur Taluk Save Trees
E-Papers, Page | 9
Above line hide when print out