Module-1

Oscillations
Periodic motion: The motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called
periodic motion

Oscillation: Oscillation is a repeating motion that occurs when a periodic force acts
on the system. Oscillations are periodic motions.

Free Oscillations: If the oscillations occur without the action of an external periodic
force then such oscillations are called free oscillations.

Simple Harmonic Motion: The motion of an object is said to be simple harmonic

motion if the restoring force (or acceleration) is directly proportional to the
displacement and acts in the direction opposite to that of motion.

Examples for SHM: Oscillations of a pendulum, Vertical oscillations of a mass

attached to a spring, Uniform circular motion, The motion of piston of a cylinder
(suspension system), Movement of fluid in a U-tube column etc.

In general the equation for the displacement in SHM is given by

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖n(𝜔0𝑡 + 𝜙)

Here 𝜙 is the initial phase and 𝐴 is the amplitude of SHM.

Mechanical Simple Harmonic Oscillator:

Expression for SHM (Equation for Free Oscillations)

Consider a body of mass m attached to spring of negligible mass which is suspended

from a rigid support. The oscillations are due to the restoring force developed in the
spring.

According to Hooke’s Law the restoring force is directly proportional to displacement

That is F = -k y

Here 𝑘 is called spring constant or stiffness factor or force constant and y is

displacement. According to Newton’s second law, the restoring force produces
acceleration

Therefore 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘 𝑦

By applying equation of kinematics of motion to the above equation, we get

 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝒎 𝟐 = −𝒌𝒚
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒌
𝟐
=− 𝒚
𝒅𝒕 𝒎
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒌
+ 𝒚=𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒎
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
+ 𝝎𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐
This is the second order differential equation for SHM (This is also the equation of
motion for free oscillation)

Where 𝝎 is the natural frequency (When a body exhibits free oscillations the
frequency with which the oscillations occur is called Natural Frequency)

𝒌
𝝎=√
𝒎

Also,
𝒌
𝟐𝝅𝒇 = √
𝒎

Or
𝟏 𝒌
𝒇= √
𝟐𝝅 𝒎

𝑑2 𝑦
NOTE: Solution for the equation + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0 is 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠in(𝜔0𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡 2

Characteristics of SHM

1. It is a periodic motion
2. Acceleration of a particle is directly proportional to its displacement, and
directed towards the mean position
3. Velocity is maximum at mean position and zero at extreme position
4. Acceleration is maximum at extreme position and zero at mean position
5. SHM can be represented by sine or cosine functions
Spring constant:

It is defined as the force required to produce unit displacement. It is given by 𝑘 = 𝐹/ 𝑦

Its SI unit is N/m

Significance: The spring constant gives the measure of how much force is required to
deform a spring. In other words, it explains how stiff a spring is. A higher spring
constant means a stiffer spring and vice-versa.

Combination of springs:

1. Series Combination:

Consider two springs of spring constants k1 and k2 connected in series as shown in

the figure. Let F be the common force acting on the combination. Let y1 be the
extension produced in the spring with spring constant k1 and y2 be the extension
produced in the spring with spring constant k2

Applying Hooke’s law to the first spring, we get 𝐹 = −𝑘1 𝑦1 and for the second
spring we have, 𝐹 = −𝑘2 𝑦2
𝐹
Therefore 𝑦1 = …………………..(1)
𝑘1

𝐹
and 𝑦2 = ………………………(2) (considering the magnitude of force)
𝑘2

The net extension for series combination is 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 …………………….(3)

If 𝑘𝑠 is the effective spring constant of the series combination and if 𝐹 is the force
applied on the combination then we get
 𝐹
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑠 𝑦 or 𝑦 = ………………..(4)
𝑘𝑠

Substituting for 𝑦, 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 in equation (3), we get

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
= +
𝑘𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘2

Therefore
1 1 1
= +
𝑘𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘2

2. Parallel Combination:

Consider two springs of spring constants k1 and k2 connected in parallel as shown in

the figure. Let F be the force acting on the combination, which will divide into F1 and
F2 between the springs. Let y be the common extension produced in the springs.

Applying Hooke’s law to the first spring, we get 𝐹1 = −𝑘1 𝑦 …………..(1)

and for the second spring we have, 𝐹2 = −𝑘2 𝑦 …………………(2)

Now the net force acting on the group of springs is given by

𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 …….(3)

But 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑝 𝑦 ……………..(4)

Substituting for 𝐹, 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 we get

𝑘𝑝 𝑦 = 𝑘1 𝑦 + 𝑘2 𝑦

Therefore

𝑘𝑝 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
Applications of springs:

1. Compression Springs

A compression spring is a helical spring with an open coil. Its role is to absorb
potential energy during compression and release the same during expansion.
Compression springs are very effective in building up energy. It has gaps between its
coils in an unloaded state. The distance between the coils is reduced when the spring
is loaded and compressed.

Uses: A compression spring can be used as a pure energy accumulator, shock

absorber, suspensions, vibration, damper or force generator.

2. Leaf springs

The Leaf Spring is made of arc-shaped layers of steel of varying sizes sandwiched one
upon the other and bolted together. Its construction creates a reinforced bow-like item.
It is then attached to the rear axle and the chassis. The overall purpose of a leaf spring
is to provide support to a vehicle. It also creates a smoother ride, absorbing any bumps
or potholes on the road

Uses: The leaf springs are used control the height at which the vehicle rides and keep
the tyres aligned on the road. Leaf springs are most useful for train, trucks and vans
moving on heavy loads.
Types of Oscillations:

Based on the amplitude of vibration, Oscillations can be classified into three types
namely

 Free oscillations

 Damped oscillations

 Forced oscillations

1. Free oscillation: If there is no resistance offered to the motion of an oscillating

body by any source such as air resistance or internal forces, the body will keep on
oscillating indefinitely. Such an oscillation is called free oscillation. In a free
oscillation, amplitude remains constant.

Free oscillations are represented by

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
+ 𝝎𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐
Solution for this equation is 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠in(𝜔0𝑡 + 𝜙)

2. Damped Oscillation: Oscillation in which amplitude decreases due to damping

forces is called damped oscillation.

Ex: i) Mechanical oscillations of a simple pendulum. ii) Electrical oscillations in an

LC – circuit

iii) A swing left free to oscillate after being pushed once etc.

Theory of Damped Oscillations: (Derivation of Expression of Decaying

Amplitude)

Consider a body of mass m executing damped oscillations. It is always subjected to

two forces. They are

i) A restoring force, 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜 = −𝑘𝑦 where k is force constant and y is the

displacement
𝑑𝑦
ii) A resistive force, 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡 = −𝑟𝑣 = −𝑟 where r is damping constant
𝑑𝑡

The net force acting on the body is 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡 + 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜

Therefore, from Newton’s second law

 𝑑𝑦
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑟 − 𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 2 = −𝑟 − 𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Dividing by m on both sides, we get

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑟 𝑑𝑦 𝑘
2
=− − 𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑟 𝑑𝑦 𝑘
+ + 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 2𝑏 + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0 ……………………(1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑟 𝑘
Here 2𝑏 = and 𝜔2 = where ‘2b’ is damping coefficient and ‘ω’ is angular
𝑚 𝑚
frequency or natural frequency of the oscillating body.

Equation (1) is the differential equation of motion for damped oscillation. Its
general solution is
2 −𝜔 2 )𝑡 2 −𝜔 2 )𝑡
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 (−𝑏+√𝑏 + 𝐷𝑒 (−𝑏−√𝑏 …………..(2)

Equation (2) is the expression for decaying amplitude in case of damped

oscillations.

Types of Damping

1. Overdamping
The oscillations are said to be overdamped if the oscillating systems comes to
equilibrium position slowly without making oscillations. The condition for
overdamping is b > 𝜔. In this case, both the exponential terms in eqn (2) are
negative but the second term is more negative. Hence the damping is more and
the body takes more time to reach equilibrium position.
Examples: An oscillating system in a highly viscous liquid and automatic door
closing system
2. Critical damping
The oscillations are said to be critically damped if the system comes to
equilibrium position quickly without making any oscillations. The condition for
critical damping when b = 𝜔.
Examples: Electrical meters are designed to undergo critical damping so that
the pointer moves quickly to the initial position without oscillating. The shock
 absorbers in cars critically damp the suspension of the vehicle in order to resist
the setting up of vibration.
3. Underdamping
Oscillations are said to be under damped if the retarding force is weaker than
the restoring force. Here the amplitude of oscillation decreases with time, but
gradually. The condition for underdamping is b < 𝜔.
Examples: Oscillation of a pendulum in air and oscillation of a body attached
to a spring.

Graph representing the types of damped oscillations

A represents critical damping, B represents overdamping and C represents

underdamping

Engineering applications of damped oscillations:

Automatic Door Closures:

Principle: It works on the principle of overdamping. In other words, a heavily

damped system returns very slowly to equilibrium position, without undergoing any
oscillation. Heavy damping occurs due to large resistive force.

Structure and Working:

• One end of the hydraulic damper is attached to the door, and the other end to the
door frame.
• When door is opened, the hydraulic door closer pulls the door and politely closes it
rather than slamming the door. This happens because the closer has a sealed tube
which contains a strong spring as a damper.
• It also includes a fluid-filled chamber which releases the pressure to close the door in
a slow manner rather than banging it.
Automobile Suspension System:
Principle: The Automobile Suspension System works on the principle of critical
Damping. The damper in the suspension returns to the equilibrium position quickly.
Structure and Working
• The automobile suspension consists of a compression spring of suitable damping
connected between drive shaft and chassis.
• Spring must be flexible so that it can absorb road shocks.
• But if it is too flexible it may rebound excessively and repeatedly resulting in a
rough ride.
• For effective cushioning even a cylinder-piston damper is also fixed in vehicles

Forced Oscillations

The oscillations occur that under the action of an external periodic force are called
forced oscillations. During forced oscillations the system oscillates with the frequency
of the applied external periodic force.

Examples: Oscillations of a swing which is pushed periodically by a person,

Vibrations of ear drum caused by sound from a sounding body and motion of hammer
in a calling bell.

Theory of Forced Oscillations

Consider a body of mass m oscillating with natural frequency 𝜔 and displaced through
a distance y in a resistive medium. Let an external periodic force F sin(pt) act on it in
the opposite direction. Where F is the magnitude of applied periodic force and p is its
angular frequency.

Therefore the forces acting on the system during forced oscillations are

1. Restoring force acting in a direction opposite to the displacement

2. Resistive force due to the viscous medium

3. External periodic force

The net force acting on the body is 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡 + 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜 + 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 2 = −𝑟 − 𝑘𝑦 + 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 2 +𝑟 + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑟 𝑑𝑦 𝑘 𝐹
2
+ + 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝐹
+ 2𝑏 + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡) ………………….(1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑚

𝑟 𝑘
Here 2𝑏 = and 𝜔2 = where ‘2b’ is damping coefficient and ‘ω’ is angular
𝑚 𝑚
frequency or natural frequency of the oscillating body.

Equation (1) is the differential equation of motion for forced oscillation.

Its general solution is 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑝𝑡 − 𝛼)

Where A is the amplitude of forced oscillation and is given by

𝐹⁄
𝑚
𝐴= ………….(2)
√4𝑏2 𝑝2 +(𝜔2 −𝑝2 )2

The phase 𝛼 of the forced oscillation is given by

2𝑏𝑝
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) ………….(3)
𝜔2 −𝑝2

Variation of amplitude (A) with frequency of applied force (p)

Case (1) For 𝒑 ≪ 𝝎

If the frequency of the applied force is far less than the natural frequency of the
oscillator, then

𝑝2 becomes very small and hence equation (2) becomes

𝐹 ⁄𝑚
𝐴= and 𝛼 = 0
𝜔2

Thus 𝐴 is independent of 𝑝 but depends on (F/m) and constant for given F. Also,
the displacement and force will be in same phase as 𝛼 = 0.

Case (2) For 𝒑 = 𝝎

If the frequency of the applied force is equal to natural frequency of the oscillator,
then
𝐹 ⁄𝑚 𝐹 ⁄𝑚 𝐹
𝐴= = 𝑟 =
2𝑏𝑝 2( )𝜔 𝑟𝜔
2𝑚

Thus, 𝐴 will have highest value for the given damping force F. Also, the
𝜋
displacement lags behind force by 𝛼 =
2
Case (3) For 𝒑 ≫ 𝝎

This case is significant only when damping (b) is small

𝐹 ⁄𝑚
For small damping 𝐴 = . Thus, as p increases, 𝐴 decreases. Also, the
𝑝2
displacement lags behind force by 𝛼 = 𝜋.

Resonance

When the frequency of the external periodic force acting on a body becomes equal
to the natural frequency of the body, the amplitude of oscillation becomes
maximum. This situation is called resonance. When an oscillating system is under
resonance, the energy transfer from external periodic force is maximum.
𝐹 ⁄𝑚
When 𝑝 = 𝜔, 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑏𝑝

Examples for Resonance:

1. Helmoltz resonator

2. Resonance in LCR circuits, an example for electrical resonance

3. Resonance air column

Sharpness of Resonance

The sharpness of resonance is the rate of change of amplitude of oscillation with

respect to a small change in frequency of the applied external periodic force.
∆𝐴
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
∆𝜔
 SHOCK WAVES
Mach number (M):

Mach number ‘M’ is defined as the ratio of speed of an object through a fluid to the
speed of sound in the same fluid.

If ‘v’ is the velocity of object through a fluid and ‘𝑎′ is the velocity of sound in
the fluid, the Mach number M is given by

v
M=
a

Mach number gives a measure of how fast a body is moving with respect to the speed
of sound. Mach number has no unit and is a dimensionless quantity.

Classification of waves based on Mach regimes:

Subsonic and Supersonic waves:

The terms Subsonic and Supersonic are the terms related to speed of fluid flow or
objects with reference to the speed of sound.

The objects are said to be moving with Subsonic speed, if the speed of object in a
fluid is less than that of sound. For bodies moving with subsonic speeds, Mach
number is less than one (M<1). Generally, in this case M lies between 0.3 and 0.8
(0.3<M<0.8). For a body moving with subsonic speed, the sound emitted by it move
ahead and away from the body since it is faster than the body (fig.1).

Ex: The speeds of motor cars or trains, Speed of flight of birds,aircraftetc.

Fig. 1: Subsonic Flight (v<𝑎)

The objects are said to be moving with Supersonic speed, if the speed of object in a
fluid is more than that of sound. For bodies moving with supersonic speeds Mach
number is greater than one (M>1).Generally, in this case M lies between 1.2 and 5.0
(1.2<M<5.0).

A body moving with supersonic speed, moves ahead by crossing its own sound
curtain, leaving behind a series of expanding sound waves with their centers displaced
continuously along its trajectory (Fig.2).

Ex: Fighter jets, missiles etc.

Fig. 2: Supersonic Flight (V>𝑎)

Note 1: Based on the value of Mach number there are two more types of speeds of objects
a) Transonic speed: Here Mach number lies between 0.8 and 1.2 (0.8<M<1.2).
b) Hypersonic speed: Here Mach number is greater than 5 (M>5)

Description of a Shock Wave:

A Shock wave is a type of propagating disturbance. Like an ordinary wave, it

carries energy and can propagate through a medium (solid, liquid, gas or plasma) at
higher speed. Shock waves are characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous
change in the characteristics of the medium. Across a shock wave there is always an
extremely rapid rise in pressure, temperature and density of the flow
 Shock waves can be generated during a sudden release of large amount of
energy such as during an explosion or lightning strike. Also, shock waves are
produced by objects moving through a medium at supersonic speeds.Though a shock
wave itself cannot be heard, we hear a booming sound as the velocity of object
increases from subsonic to supersonic. It is called ‘sonic boom’.
As the shock wave is formulated, it becomes a distinct surface constituted by
the medium itself. In aerodynamics, shock wave is defined in technical terms as
follows;
“A shock wave is a surface that displays as a discontinuity in a fluid
medium in which it is propagating with supersonic speed’.

Properties of shock waves:

1) They always travel in a medium with Mach number greater than 1.
2) Shock waves obey the laws of fluid dynamics.
3) The effects caused by shock waves result in increase of entropy.
4) The thickness of a shock front is very small i.e of the order of 1 m.
5) The temperature, pressure and density inside a shock front are extremely
high.
6) They physically pass through any medium on impact.
7) While they turn around a convex corner, they breakup into a large number
of expanding supersonic waves from a central spot. This process is called
supersonic expansion fan.
8) Across a shock wave, supersonic flow changes into subsonic flow. This
process occurs adiabatically with a change in internal energy.

Construction and working of Reddy Shock Tube:

Reddy tube is a hand operated shock tube capable of producing shock waves using
human energy. It was developed by K.P.J. Reddy and his group at I.I.Sc., Bangalore,
India. It is a class of free-piston driven shock tube.
Construction:

Fig. : Reddy Shock Tube

Reddy tube consists of a cylindrical stainless tube of about 30mm diameter and length
nearly 1 meter as shown in below figure. The cylindrical tube is divided into two
sections each of length about 0.5m. The section on left side is called driver section
filled with a gas called driver gas and the other one on right side is called driven
section filled with a gas called test gas. The driver section is maintained at high
pressure and driven section is maintained at lower pressure. These two sections are
separated by a thin (around 0.1mm thick) aluminium or mylar or paper diaphragm.
The tube has a piston fitted at the far end of the driver section whereas the far end of
driven section is closed. A port is provided at the closed end of the driven section for
filling the test gas to the required pressure.

A digital pressure gas is mounted in the driven section near the diaphragm to measure
the rupture pressure. Two piezoelectric sensors S1 and S2 are mounted 70mm apart
towards the closed end of the shock tube in driven section.

Working:

The driver gas is compressed by pushing the piston hard into the driver section until
diaphragm ruptures. Following the diaphragm rupture, the driver gas rushes into the
driven section, and pushes the test gas in it towards the far downstream end. This
generates a moving shock wave that traverses the length of driven section. The
primary shock wave instantaneously raises the temperature and pressure of the test gas
as it moves over it. The propagating primary shock wave is reflected from the
downstream end. After the reflection, the test gas undergoes further compression
which raises its temperature and pressure to still higher values. This state of high
values of pressure and temperature is sustained at the downstream end until an
expansion wave reflected from the upstream end of the driver tube arrives there and
neutralises the compression partially. Expansion waves are created at the instant of
diaphragm rupture and travel in a direction opposite to that of the shock wave. The
time period over which the extreme conditions of pressure and temperature at the
downstream end are sustained depends on the properties of driver and test gases, and
also on the dimensions of shock tube. This time is typically of the order of
milliseconds. The pressure rise by primary and reflected shock waves is sensed by
sensors S1 and S2 respectively. These pressures are recorded in terms of voltage on
CRO, as S1& S2 are connected to CRO. The voltage can be converted into pressure by
suitable conversion factors. Since millisecond time scale is involved in the
experiment, the rise time of CRO should be a few microseconds i.e. Bandwidth
should be 1MHz or more. The shock arrival times can be found out by associated time
base calculations in CRO. Using the data so obtained velocity of shock wave, Mach
number, temperature and pressures can be calculated.

Characteristics of Reddy tube:

1. The Reddy tube operates on the principle of free piston driven shock tube
(FPST).
2. It is a hand operated shock producing device.
3. It is capable of producing shock wave of Mach number greater than 1.5.
4. The temperatures exceeding 900K can be easily achieved by using helium as
driver gas and argon as the test gas.
5. The rupture pressure in Reddy tube is a function of thickness of diaphragm.
Applications of Shock Waves:
Shock waves have number of applications in different fields. Few of them are briefly
discussed below.
1. Treatment of dry bore wells: Water will be available in bore wells when
water from the feeder sources accumulates in the bore well through a number
of seepage points which are porous. Sometimes, such seepage points are
 blocked by sand particles obstructing the pores. A shock wave sent through
such a dry bore well clears the blockages and rejuvenates/refreshes the bore
well into a water source.
2. Drying of wood in pencil industry: In pencil industry, the wood used for
making pencil is first of all softened by soaking in a polymer at 700C for about
three hours and then dried. Drying of wood takes usually few days. The time
required for drying of wood could be reduced drastically to very short time
(few minutes) by passing shock waves into the liquid containing wood. The
liquid gets into the wood almost instantaneously in the presence of shock
waves facilitating rapid drying.
3. Wood preservation: By using shock waves, chemical preservatives in the
form of solutions could be pushed into the interior of the wood samples such as
bamboo. This is a very fast and efficient method of introducing preservatives
into wood. Wood can withstand the microbial attacks in the presence of
preservatives and hence it increases the lifetime of wood such as bamboo.
4. Kidney stone treatment: Shock wave is used in a therapy called ‘extra-
corporal lithiotripsy’ to smash the kidney stones into smaller fragments, after
which they are passed out of the body smoothly through the urinary tracts.
5. Needless drug delivery: By using shock waves, drugs can be injected into the
body without using needles. In this method, drug is filled into a cartridge which
is kept pressed on the skin. Then shock wave is sent into the cartridge, which
makes drug to enter the body directly through the porosity of the skin. The
typical depth of penetration is about 100 microns.
6. Gas dynamic studies: The extreme conditions of pressure and temperature that
can be generated in the shock wave, enables the study of high temperature gas
dynamics. The high temperature gas dynamics are important in the study of
supersonic motion of bodies and hypersonic re-entry of space vehicles into the
atmosphere.
7. Blast protection materials: Shock waves can be used to study the effect of
sudden impact of pressure on materials. This study could help develop blast
protection materials.