Ray Analytic Geometry
Ray Analytic Geometry
Ray Analytic Geometry
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A TREATISE
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
ESPECIALLY AS APPLIED TO
Bt
GEORGE H. HOWISON, M.A.,
PROFESSOR IN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY.
CINCINNATI:
WILSON, HINKLE & CO.
PHIL'A: CLAXTON, EEMSEN & HAFFELFINGER.
NEW YORK : CLABK & MAYNARD.
. .• MJntereti, accordtog'-jo Act of Cougress, in the year 1869. by
'•.■*:*•••" •.:..*•"-. *• • .
;•• '.-..Wlt^ON, HINKLE & CO.,
I \ * * * ••*•••*•
In the Clerks ftffieo'Tpf.Jlie "District Court of the United States, for the
•# I *.."•_ !■*•• Southern District of Ohio.
ELECTROTYPED AT THE
FRANKLIN TYPE FOUNDRY,
CINCINNATI.
PREFACE.
it has been enriched in the last fifty years. The labors of Pon-
celet, Steinee, Mobius, and Plucker have well-nigh wrought
a revolution in the science ; and though the new properties which
they and their followers have brought to light, have not yet re
ceived any sufficient application, nevertheless, in connection with
the elegant and powerful methods of notation belonging to them,
they constitute the chief beauties of the subject, and have very
much heightened its value as an instrument of liberal culture.
To render the book useful as a work of reference, has also been
an object. In the Table of Contents, a very full synopsis of
properties and constructions will be found, which it is hoped
will meet the wants, not only of the student in reviewing, but
of the practical .w^fliJ&Vp'.as well.
In the ^Smtastqatrdns, convenience and elegance have been
aiare"d •p.t,; riither, tl|ak*- novelty. When it has seemed preferable
td'di sokI h^vte'tfoiiewed tfce lines of proof already indicated by
the leading wri$ersJ*in?tEH<l"0f' striking out upon fresh ones. My
chief indebtedness 5rt this respect, is to the admirable works of
Dr. George- Salmon. The treatise of Mr. Todhunter has fur
nished some important hints; while those of O'Brien and Hymers
have been often referred to. For examples, I have drawn upon
the collections of Walton, Todhunter, and Salmon. Of American
works, those of Peirce and Church have been consulted with
advantage.
To Professor William Chauvenet, Chancellor of Washington
University, formerly Head of the Department of Mathematics
in the United States Naval Academy, I am indebted for many
valuable suggestions.
H.
Washington University, 1
St. Louis, Sept., 1869. )
NOTE TO SECOND EDITION.
At the suggestion of several instructors, I place here an OUTLINE
or the Courses of Study which seem to me most judicious in
using the present treatise.
• MINIMUM COUESE.
Book I, Part I. Arts. 1—6; 13—28; 46—64 ; 74—
85; 95, 96, 98, 99; 101—103; 106; 133—
138; 145—152; 165—172; 179—184.
Book II, Part I. Arts. 293—305; 310—317 ; 351—357;
359—372; 376; 379—385; 389—392; 402—406;
411—413; 416—418; 421, 422; 427—429; 442—
444; 446— 454; 456—469; 473; 476—481; 485—
488; 497-501; 506, 507, 510, 511, 514, 515;
520—522; 535—543 ; 546—550 ; 553—557; 559—
576'; 579—586; 594-609; 622—634.
Book II. Arts. 674—690, including the general doctrine
of Space-coordinates and of the Plane.
To these articles there should be added such a selection from the
Examples as the Course implies. The Course will thus include
about 210 pages.
INTEEMEDIATE COUESE.
This Course is what I suppose the leading Colleges will be most
likely to pursue, and should therefore include
i
The Introduction. Arts. 1 — 6; 13—45.
Book First, Part I. Chapter I.
Part II, Chapter I to Art. 274. Chapter II to
Art. 332, omitting, however, Arts. 307, 324—
327. Chapters III—V, omitting Articles in fine
type. Chapter VI to Art. 670.
Book Second. Chapter I. Chapter II, Arts. 713, 714;
731—741.
CHAPTER SECOND.
THE MODERN GEOMETRY :-TRILINEAR AND TANGENTIAL
CO-ORDINATES.
Section I. — Trilinear Co-ordinates.
Trilinear Method of representing a Point, ..... 199
Origin of the Method: the Abridged Notation, .... 200
Geometric meaning of the constant k in a + k(3 = 0, . . . . 201
Interpretation of the equations a ± kff = 0, a ± 0= 0, . . . 201
The Notation extended to equations in the form Ax + By + C= 0, . 202
Meaning of the equation la + mfl -f ny = 0 : condition that it repre
sent any Right Line, ........ 203
Examples : Any line of Quadrilateral, in terms of any Three, . 206
CONTENTS. xi
PAGE.
The symbols a, ft, y may be considered as Co-ordinates, . . . 207
Peculiar Nature of Trilinear Co-ordinates : each a Determined Func
tion of the other two, 208
Equation expressing this Condition is aa + hff + cy = M, . . 209
General trilinear symbol for a Constant ; namely, k [a sin A +
IS sin B + y sin C), 210
To render homogeneous any given equation in Trilinears, . . 210
Trilinear Equation to Right Line, 212
" " " " parallel to a given one, . . 212
" " " " situated at infinity, . . .212
Condition, in Trilinears, that two Right Lines shall be at right angles
to each other, . . . . . . . . . .213
Trilinear Equation to Right Line joining Two Fixed Points, . . 214
" " any Conic, referred to Inscribed Triangle, . 215
" " Circle, " " " . . 216
Same for any Concentric Circle, . . 216
" " " Triangle of Reference having any sit
uation, ....... 217
General Equation of Second Degree in Trilinears : i. e., Trilinear
Equation to any Conic, Triangle of Reference having any sit
uation, 218
Trilinear Equations to Chord and Tangent of any Conic, . . . 219
Examples of Trilinear Notation and Conditions, . . . 220
CHAPTER SECOND.
THE CIRCLE.
I. The Axis op X:
Every Ordinate a mean proportional between the correspond
ing segments, ........ 259
Every Right Line meets the Curvo in Two Points, . . 260
Discrimination between Real, Coincident, and Imagi
nary points, 2R0
Chords defined. Equation to any Chord, .... 262
II. Diameters :
Definition : Locus of middle points of Parallel Chords.
Equation, 263
CONTENTS. xiii
Every diameter passes through Center, and is perpendicular
to bisected Chords, ....... 264
Conjugate Diameters defined — each bisects Chords parallel
to the other, ........ 264
Conjugates of the Circle are at right angles, . . . 205
III. Tangent :
Definition : Chord meeting Curve in Two Coincident Points, 265
Equation, 266
Condition that a Right Line shall touch Circle. Auxiliary
Angle, 267
Analytic Construction of Tangent through (x',y'): Two Tan
gents, real, coincident, or imaginary, .... 268
Length of Tangent from (x, y) = V'S, 269
Subtangent — its definition and value, .... 270, 271
IV. Normal:
Definition of Normal. Equation, 270
The Normal to Circle passes through Center. Length con
stant, 271
Subnormal — its definition and value, 271
V. Supplemental Chords :
Definition : Equation of Condition, .... 271, 272
In the Circle, they are always at right angles, . , . 272
VI. Pole and Polar:
Development of the conception of the Polar, .... 273
I. Chord of Contact to Tangents from (x' , y'), . . 273
II. Locus of intersection of Tangents at extremities of
convergent chords, ...... 273
III. Tangent brought under this conception, . . . 274
Construction of Polar from its definition, .... 276
Polar is perpendicular to Diameter through Pole : — its dis
tance from Center, ....... 277
Simplified geometric construction, 277
Distances of any two points from Center are proportional to
distance of each from Polar of the other, . . . 278
Conjugate and Self-conjugate Triangles defined: — they are
homologous, 278, 279
SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES.
I. System with Common Radical Axis:
Radical Axis defined: its Equation, S—S' = 0, . . . 280
It is perpendicular to the line of the centers, . . . 281
Construction : Combine ft — S1 - 0 with y — 0 and observe
the foregoing, 281
The three Radical Axes belonging to any three Ciroles meet
in one point: Radical Center, • . 281
xiv CONTENTS.
PAGE.
To construct the Radical Axis by means of tho Radical
Center, 281
Radical Axis of Point and Circle ; — of Two Points, . . 282
Definition of System of Circles with Common Radical Axis ; —
Their Centers lie on one Right Line. Their Equa
tion: x2 + f-2kx±P = 0, 282
To trace the System from the equation, 283
Locus of Contact of Tangents from any point in the C. R. A.
is Orthogonal Circle, 283
Geometric construction of the System : Limiting Points, 284
Analytic proof of the existence of the Limiting Points, . 285
II. Two Circles with Common Tangent :
To determine the Chords of Contact, 287
The Tangents intersect on Line of Centers, and cut it in ratio
of Radii, 289
Every Right Line through these Points of Section is cut sim
ilarly by the two Circles, ...... 289
The Centers of Similitude, 289
The three homologous Centers of Similitude belonging to any
three Circles, lie on one Right Line. The Axis of
Similitude 290
THE CIRCLE IN THE ABEIDGED NOTATION.
If a Triangle be inscribed in a Circle, and Perpendiculars be dropped
from any point in the Circle upon the three sides, their feet
will lie on one Right Line, 291
Angle between Tangent and Chord = angle inscribed under corre
sponding arc, .......... 292
Trilinear Equation to tho Tangent, referred to Inscribed Triangle, . 292
Tangents at Vertices of Inscribed Triangle cut Opposite Sides
in points lying on one Right Line, ..... 292
Lines joining Vertices of Inscribed Triangle to those of Tri
angle formed by Tangents meet in one Point, . . 292
Radical Axis in Trilinears, 293
Examples on the Circle, 293
CHAPTER THIRD.
THE ELLIPSE.
I. The Curve referred to its Axes.
THE AXES.
Theorem I. Focal Center bisects the Axes. Corresponding inter-
pretation
r of a'
—+^ b2 = 1, ...... ' 297
CONTENTS. XV
PAGE.
Theorem II. Foci fall within the Curve, 298
Theorem III. Vertices of Curve equidistant from Foci, . . 298
Theorem IV. Sum of Focal Radii = length of Transverse Axis. To
construct Curve by Points, 298
Theorem V. Semi-conjugate Axis a geometric mean between
Focal Segments of Transverse, .... 299
Cor. Distance from Focus to Vertex of Conjugate =
Semi-transverse. To construct Foci, . . . 299
Theorem VI. Squares of Ordinates to Axes are proportional to
Rectangles of corresponding Segments, . . 300
Cor. The Labia Rectum, and its value, . . . 300
Theorem VII. Squares of Axes are to each other as Rectangle of
any two segments to Square of Ordinate, . . 301
Theorem VIII. Ordinate of Ellipse : Corresponding Ordinate of
Circumscribed Circle : : Semi-conjugate : Semi-
transverse, 301
Cor. 1. Analogous relation to Inscribed Circle. Con
structions for the Curve, 302
Cor. 2. Interpretation of a2 —-—
V = e2 : e defined as
the Eccentricity, 303
Theorem IX. The Focal Radius of the Curve is a Linear Function
of corresponding Abscissa, 304
Linear Equation to Ellipse : p = a ± ex, . . 304
Verification of the Figure of the Curve by means of its equation, . 304
DIAMETERS.
Diameters : Equation to Locus of middle points of Parallel
Chords, 305
Theorem X. Every Diameter is a Right Line passing through
the Center, 306
Cor. Every Right Line through Center is a Diam
eter, 306
Theorem XI. Every Diameter of an Ellipse cuts Curve in Two
Real Points, .... . 306
Length of Diameter, in the Ellipse, 306
Theorem XII. Transverse Axis the maximum, and Conjugate the
minimum Diameter, ...... 306
Theorem XIII. Diameters making supplemental angles with Axis
Major are equal, ....... 307
Cor. Given the Curve, to construct the Axes, . . 307
Theorem XIV. If a Diameter bisects Chords parallel to a second,
second bisects Chords parallel to first, . . 307
Conjugate Diameters defined: Ordinates to any Diameter, . . 308
To construct a pair of Conjugates, .... 308
XVI CONTEXTS.
PAGE.
Equation of Condition to Conjugates, in the Ellipse, is
tan d. tan 8' = b' a= , 308
Theorem XV. Conjugates in the Ellipse lie on opposite sides of
Axis Minor, 308
Equation to Diameter Conjugate to that through any given point, . 309
Cor. The Axes are a case of Conjugates, . . 309
(liven the co-ordinates to extremity of any Diameter, to find those
to extremity of its Conjugate, ...... 309
Theorem XVI. Abscissa to extremity of Diameter : Ordinate to
extremity of its Conjugate : : Axis Major :
Axis Minor, 310
Theorem XVII. Sum of squares on Ordinates to extremities of
Conjugates, constant and = V, . . 310
Length of any Diameter in terms of Abscissa to extremity of its
Conjugate, .......... 310
Theorem XVIII. Square on any Semi-diameter = Rectangle Focal
Radii to extremity of its Conjugate, . . 311
Theorem XIX. Distance, measured on a Focal Chord, from ex
tremity of any Diameter to its Conjugate, is
constant, and equals the Semi-Major, . . 311
Theorem XX. Sum of squares on any two Conjugates is constant
and = sum squares on Axes, . . . 312
Angle between any two Conjugates, . . . 312
Theorem XXI. Parallelogram under any two Conjugates, constant
and = Rectangular under Axes, . . . 313
Cor. 1. Curve has but one set of Rectangular Con
jugates, ........ 313
Cor. 2. Inclination of Conjugates is maximum
when a' = b', 314
Theorem XXII. Equi-conjugates : they are the Diagonals of Cir
cumscribed Rectangle, ..... 314
Cor. Curve has but one pair of Equi-conju
gates, ........ 314
Anticipation of the Asymptotes in the Hyperbola, .... 315
THE TANGKNT.
Equation to the Tangent, referred to the Axes, .... 315
Condition that a Right Line touch an Ellipse. Eccentric Angle, . 316
Analytic construction of the Tangent through any point : Two,
real, coincident,or imaginary, ...... 317
Theorem XXIII. Tangent at extremity of any Diameter is parallel
to its Conjugate, 318
Cor. Tangents at extremities of any Diameter arc
parallel. Circumscribed Parallelogram, . 318
CONTENTS. xvii
PAGE.
Theorem XXIV. Tangent bisects the External Angle between
Focal Radii of Contact, .... 319
Cor. 1. To construct a Tangent to the Ellipse at
a given point, ...... 319
Cor. 2. Derivation of the term Focue, . . 319
Intercept by Tangent on Axis Major: Constructions for Tangent
by means of it, ......... 320
The Subtangent defined: Distinction between Subtangent of the
Curve and of a Diameter, 320
Theorem XXV. Subtangent of Curve is Fourth Proportional to
Abscissa of Contact and the corresponding
segments of Axis Major, .... 321
Cor. Construction of Tangent by means of Cir-
cumser. Circle : Subtan. not function of b, . 321
Theorem XXVI. Perpendicular from Center on Tangent is Fourth
Proportional to the corresponding Semi-
conjugate and the Semi-axes : p = ~ , . 322
Length of the Central Perp'r in terms of its angles with the Axes, . 322
Theorem XXVII. Locus of Intersection of Tangents cutting at
right angles is Concentric Circle, . . 323
Focal Perpendiculars upon Tangent: their length, .... 323
Theorem XXVIII. Focal Perpendiculars on Tangent are propor
tional to adjacent Focal Radii, . . . 324
Theorem XXIX. Rectangle under Focal Perpendiculars, constant
and = b', 324
Theorem XXX. Locus of foot of Focal Perpendicular is the Cir
cumscribed Circle, 324
Cor. Method of drawing the Tangent, common
to all Conies, 325
Theorem XXXI. If from any Point within a circle a Chord be
drawn, and a perpendicular to it at the
point of section, the Perpendicular is Tan
gent to an Ellipse, 326
Cor. The Ellipse as Envelope, .... 326
Theorem XXXII. Diameters through feet of Focal Perpendiculars,
parallel to Focal Radii of Contact, . . 327
Cor. Diameters parallel to Focal Radii of Con
tact, meet Tangent at the feet of the Focal
Perpendiculars, and are of the constant
length = 2n, 327
THE NORMAL.
Equation to the Normal, referred to the Axes, • 328
Theorem XXXIII. Normal bisects the Internal Angle between Focal
Radii of Contact, 328
An. Ge. 2.
XV111 CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Cor. 1. To construct a Normal at given point
on the Ellipse, 329
Cor. 2. To construct a Normal through any
point on Axis Minor, .... 329
Intercept of Normal on Axis Major : Constructions by means of it, 329
Theorem XXXIV. Normal cuts distance between Foci in segments
proportional to adjacent Focal Radii, . 330
The Subnormal denned : Subnormal of the Curve — its length, . 330
Theorem XXXV. Normal cuts its Abscissa in constant ratio =
—' 330
Length of Normal from Point of Contact to either Axis, . . 330
Theorem XXXVI. Rectangle under Segments of Normal by Axes =
Square on Conjugate Semi-diameter, . 331
Cor. Equal, also, to Rectangle under corre
sponding Focal Radii, .... 331
Theorem XXXVII. Rectangle under Normal and Central Perpen
dicular, constant and = a2, . . . 331
SUPPLEMENTAL, AND FOCAL CHORDS.
Equation of Condition to Supplemental Chords, .... 332
Theorem XXXVIII. Diameters parallel to Supplemental Chords are
Conjugate, 332
Cor. 1. To construct Conjugates at a given in
clination. Caution, ..... 333
Cor. 2. To construct a Tangent parallel to
given Right Line, 333
Cor. 3. To construct the Axes in the empty
Curve, 333
Focal Chords — Special Properties, 334
Theorem XXXIX. Focal Chord parallel to any Diameter, a third
proportional to Axis Major and the Di
ameter, 335
II. The Curve referred to any Two Conjugates.
DIAMETRAL PROPERTIES.
Equation to Ellipse, referred to Conjugates, 336
Theorem XL. Squares on Ordinatcs to any Diameter, proportional
to Rectangles under corresponding Segments, 337
Theorem XLI. Square on Diameter : Square on Conjugate : : Rect
angle under Segments : Square on Ordinate, . 337
Theorem XLII. Ordinate to Ellipse : Corresponding Ordinate to
Circle on Diameter : : b' : o', . . . 338
Cor. 1. Given a pair of Conjugates, to construct
the Curve, 338
CONTENTS. xix
PAGE.
Cor. 2. General interp'n of x2 + y* = an : Ellipse,
referred to Equi-conjugates, ... . 339
Figure of the Ellipse with respect to any two Conjugates, . . 339
CONJUGATE PROPERTIES OF THE TANGENT.
Equation to Tangent, referred to Conjugates, 339
Theorem XLIII. Intercept of Tangent on any Diameter, third
proportional to Abscissa of Contact and the
Semi-diameter : x = a"—, . . . . 340
Theorem XLIV. Rectangle under Intercepts by Variable Tangent
on Two Fixed Parallel Tangents, constant
and = Square on parallel Semi-diameter, . 341
Theorem XLV. Rectangle under Intercepts on Variable Tangent
by Two Fixed Parallel Tangents, variable
and = Square on Semi-diameter parallel to
Variable, 341
Theorem XLVI. Rectangle under Intercepts on Variable Tangent
by any two Conjugates equals Square on
Semi-diameter parallel to Tangent, . . 342
Cor. 1. Diameters through intersections of Va
riable Tangent with Two Fixed Parallel
ones, are Conjugate, ..... 342
Cor. 2. Given two Conjugates in position and
magnitude, construct the Axes, . . . 342
an — x'1
The Subtangent to ant Diameter: its length = x ;— , . . 343
Cor. Construction of Tangent by means of
Auxiliary Circle, 343
Theorem XLVII. Rectangle under Subtangent and Abscissa of
Contact : Square on Ordinate : : an ■ b", . 344
Theorem XLVIII. Tangents at extremities of any Chord meet on
its bisecting Diameter, .... 345
PARAMETERS.
Parameter to any Diameter denned : Third proportional to Diam
eter and Conjugate, - 345
Parameter of the Curve : identical with Latus Rectum, . . . 345
Theorem XLIX. In the Ellipse, no Parameter except the Princi
pal is equal in value to the Focal Double
Ordinate, 346
THE POLE AND THE POLAR.
Development of the Equation to the Polar : Definition, . . 346—349
Cor. Construction of Pole or Polar from its
definition, 349
XX CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Theorem L. Polar of any Point, parallel to Diameter Conjugate
to the Point, 350
Special Properties : Polar of Center ; — of any point on axis of x ; —
on Axis Major, 350
Cor. Second geometric construction for Polar, . 351
Polar op Focus : its distance from center, and its direction, . . 351
Theorem LI. Ratio between Focal and Polar distances of any
point on Ellipse, constant and = e, . . 352
Cor. 1. On the construction of the Ellipse according
to this theorem, 352
Cor. 2. Polar of Focus hence called the Directrix, . 353
Cor. 3. Second basis for the name Ellipse, . . 353
Theorem LII. Line from Focus to Pole of any Chord, bisects focal
angle which the Chord subtends, . . . 354
Cor. Line from Focus to Pole of Focal Chord, per
pendicular to Chord, 354
III. The Curve referred to its Foci.
Interpretation of the Polar Equations to the Ellipse, . . . 355
Development of the Polar Equation to a Tangent, .... 355
Polar proof of Theorem XIX compared with former proof, and with
that by pure Geometry, 356
IV. Area of the Ellipse.
Theorem LIII. Area of Ellipse = ir times the Rectangle under its
Semi-axes, 358
V. Examples on the Ellipse.
Loci, Transformations, and Properties, ...... 358
CHAPTER FOURTH.
THE HYPERBOLA.
I. The Curve referred to its Axes.
THE AXES.
Theorem I. Focal Center bisects the Axes. Corresponding inter-
pretation of — ^ = 1, 363
The Axis Conjugate, conventional: Equation to the Conjugate Hy
perbola, 364
Theorem II. Foci full without the Curve, 365
Theorem III. Vertices of Curve, equidistant from Foci, . . 365
Theorem IV. Difference Focal Radii = Transverse. The Curve by
Points, 365
\
CONTENTS. xxi
PACK.
Theorem V. Conventional Semi-conjugate, geometric mean be
tween Focal Segments of Transverse, . . 366
Cor. Dist. from Center to Focus = dist. between ex
tremities of Axes. To construct Foei, . . 366
Theorem VI. Squares on Ordinates to Axes, proportional to Rect
angles under corresponding Segments, . . 367
Cor. The Latua Rectum, and its value, . . . 367
Theorem VII. Squares on Axes are as Rectangle under any two
Segments to Square on their Ordinate, . . 367
Analogy of Hyperbola to Ellipse, with respect to Circle on Trans
verse, defective. Circle replaced by the Equilateral Hyperbola, 368
Theorem VIII. Ordinate Hyperbola : Corresponding Ordinate of its
Equilateral :: b : a, 368
„Cor. Interpretation of a'+i—b2 = e2. e defined as the
Eccentricity, ....... 369
Theorem IX. Focal Radius of Curve, a Linear Function of corre
sponding Abscissa, 370
Linear Equation to Hyperbola: p=ex±a, . . 371
Verification of Figure of Curve by means of its equation, . . 371
DIAMETERS.
Diameters : Equation to Locus of middle points of Parallel Chords, 371
Theorem X. Every Diameter a Right Line passing through the
Center, 371
Cor. Every Right Line through center is a Diam
eter, 372
Theorem XI. " Every Diameter cuts Curve in Two Real Points "
untrue for Hyperbola, 372
Cor. 1. Limit of those diameters having real intersec
tions: fl=tan-'-,a 372
Cor. 2. All diameters cutting Hyperbola in Imagi
nary Points, cut its Conjugate in Two Real ones, 373
Length of Diameter, in the Hyperbola, ...... 373
Theorem XII. Each Axis the minimum diameter for its own curve, . 373
Theorem XIII. Diameters making supplemental angles with Trans
verse are equal, 374
Cor. Given the Curve, to construct the Axes, . . 374
Theorem XIV. If a Diameter bisects Chords parallel to a second,
second bisects those parallel to first, . . 374
Conjugate Diameters : Ordinates, 374
To construct a pair of Conjugates, .... 374
6! >
Equation of Condition to Conjugates, in Hyperbola ; tan 0. tan 8' = —2 375
XXII CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Theorem XV. Conjugates in the Hyperbola lie on same side of
Conjugate Axis, 375
Equation to Diameter Conjugate to that through any given point, . 375
Cor. The Axes are a case of Conjugates, . . 376
Given co-ordinates to extremity of Diamoter, to find those to ex
tremity of its Conjugate, ........ 376
Theorem XVI. Abscissa ext'y of any Diameter : Ordinate ext'y
of its Conjugate : : Transverse : Conjugate, 376
Theorem XVII. Din", squares on Ordinates to extremities of Con
jugates, constant and = If, 376
Length of any Diameter in terms of Abscissa to extremity of its
Conjugate, .......... 377
Theorem XVIII. Square on any Semi-diameter = Rectangle Focal
Radii to extremity of its Conjugate, 378
Theorem XIX. Distance, measured on Focal Chord, from extrem
ity of any Diameter to its Conjugate, constant
and equal to Semi-Transverse, 378
Theorem XX. Difference of squares on any two Conjugates, con
stant and = difference of squares on Axes, 378
Anglo between any two Conjugates, 379
Theorem XXI. Parallelogram under any two Conjugates, constant
and = Rectangular under Axes, 379
Cor. 1. Curve has but one set of Rectangular
Conjugates, ....... 380
Cor. 2. Inclination of Conjugates diminishes with
out limit : the conception of Equi-conjugates
replaced by that of Self-conjugates, 380
Theorem XXII. The Self-conjugates in the Hyperbola are Diago
nals of the Inscribed Rectangle, . 381
Cor. Curve has two, and but two, Self-conjugates, 381
Analogy of the Self-conjugates to the Equi-conjugates of the Ellipse, 382
THE TANGENT.
Equation to Tangent, referred to the Axes, 382
Condition that a Right Line touch an Hyperbola. Eccentric Angle, . 383
Analytic construction of the Tangent through any point : Two, real,
coincident, or imaginary, 384
Theorem XXIII. Tangent at extremity of any Diameter, parallel
to its Conjugate, ...... 385
Cor. Tangents at extremities of any Diameter are
parallel. To circumscribe Parallelogram, . 385
Theorem XXIV. Tangent bisects the Internal Angle between Focal
Radii of Contact, 386
Cor. 1. To construct Tangent to Hyperbola, at a
given point, ....... 386
Cor. 2. Derivation of the term Focus, . . . 386
V
CONTENTS. xxin
PAGE.
Intercept by Tangent on the Transverse Axis : Constructions by
means of it, 387
The Subtangent to the Hyperbola 387
Theorem XXV. Subtangent of Curve a Fourth Proportional to
Abscissa of Contact and corresponding seg
ments of Transverse, ..... 387
Cor. 1. Defect supplied in the analogy between
Hyperbola and Ellipse, respecting Circle
on 2a, 388
Cor. 2. Construction of Tangent by means of
Inscribed Circle, 388
Theorem XXVI. Central Perpendicular on Tangent, a Fourth Pro
portional to corresponding Semi-conjugate
and the Semi-axes : p = ~ , . . . 389
Length of Central Perpendicular in terms of its angles with Axes, . 389
Theorem XXVII. Locus of Intersection of Tangents cutting at
right angles is Concentric Circle, . . 390
Focal Perpendiculars on Tangent: their length, .... 390
Theorem XXVIII. Focal Perpendiculars proportional to adjacent
Focal Radii, 390
Theorem XXIX. Rectangle under Focal Perpendiculars, constant
and = b2, ... 391
Theorem XXX. Locus of foot of Focal Perpendicular is In
scribed Circle, 391
Cor. To draw Tangent by the method common
to all Conies, 391
Theorem XXXI. If, from any point without a Circle, a Chord be
drawn, and a perpendicular to it at the
point of section, the Perpendicular is Tan
gent to an Hyperbola, .... 392
Cor. The Hyperbola as Envelope, . . . 392
Theorem XXXII. Diameters through feet of Focal Perpendiculars
are parallel to Focal Radii of Contact, . 393
Cor. Diameters parallel to Focal Radii of Con
tact, meet Tangent at the feet of Focal
Perpendiculars, and are of the constant
length = 2a, 393
THE NORMAL.
Equation to the Normal, referred to the Axes, ..... 393
Theorem XXXIII. Normal bisects the External Angle between
Focal Radii of Contact, .... 394
Cor. 1. If Ellipse and Hyperbola are confocal,
Normal to one is Tangent to other at inter
section, 394
xxiv CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Cor. 2. To construct Normal at any point on
Hyperbola, 394
Cor. 3. To construct Normal through any
point on Conjugate Axis, . . . 394
Intercept of Normal on Transverse Axis : Constructions by means
of it, 395
Theorem XXXIV. Normal cuts distance (produced) between Foci
in segments proport'l to Focal Radii, . 395
The Subnormal : Subnormal of the Hyperbola—its length, . . 396
Theorem XXXV. Normal cuts its Abscissa in the constant
ratio = a?——
+ V- , 396
Length of Normal from Point of Contact to either Axis, . . 396
Theorem XXXVI. Rectangle under Segments of Normal by
Axes = Square on Conjugate Semi-diam
eter, 396
Cor. Equal, also, to Rectangle under corre
sponding Focal Radii, .... 396
Theorem XXXVII. Rectangle under Normal and Central Perp'r
on Tangent, constant and = aJ, . . 397
SUPPLEMENTAL AND FOCAL CHORDS.
Equation of Condition to Supplemental Chords, .... 397
Theorem XXXVIII. Diameters parallel to Supplemental Chords are
Conjugate, 397
Cor. 1. To construct Conjugates at a given
inclination, ...... 397
Cor. 2. To construct a Tangent parallel to
given Right Line, 398
Cor. 3. To construct the Axes in the empty
Curve, 398
Focal Chords—Properties analogous to those for the Ellipse, . . 398
Theorem XXXIX. Focal Chord parallel to any Diameter, a third
proportional to the Transverse and the
Diameter, 399
II. The Curve referred to any Two Conjugates.
DIAMETRAL PROPERTIES.
Equation to Hyperbola, referred to Conjugates. Conjugate and
Equilateral Hyperbola, 400
Theorem XL. Squares on Ordinates to any Diameter, proportional
to Rectangles under corresponding Segments, . 401
Theorem XLI. Square on Diameter : Square on its Conjugate : :
Rectangle under Segments : Square on their
Ordinate, . .401
CONTENTS. XXV
PAGE.
Theorem XLII. Ordinate to Hyperbola : Corresponding Ordinate
to Equilateral on Axis of « : : br : a', . 401
Rem. Failure of analogy to Ellipse in respect to
Diametral Circle, 401
Figure of the Hyperbola, with respect to any pair of Conjugates, . 402
CONJUGATE PROPERTIES OF TANGENT.
Equation to Tangent, referred to Conjugates, ..... 402
Theorem XLIII. Intercept of Tangent on any Diameter, third pro
portional to Abscissa of Contact and the
Semi-diameter : x = x'a"
—, . . . . 402
Theorem XLIV. Rectangle under Intercepts by Variable Tangent
on Two Fixed Parallel Tangents, constant
and = Square on parallel Semi-diameter, . 403
Theorem XLV. Rectangle under Intercepts on Variable Tangent
by Two Fixed Parallel Tangents, variable
and = Square on Semi-diameter parallel to
Variable, ■ . 403
Theorem XLVI. Rectangle under Intercepts on Variable Tangent
by any two Conjugates = Square on Semi-
diameter parallel to Tangent, . . . 403
Cor. 1. Diameters through intersection of Vari
able Tangent with Two Fixed Parallel Tan
gents are Conjugate, ..... 403
Cor. 2. Given two Conjugates in position and
magnitude, to construct Axes, 403
The Sdbtangent to any Diameter : its length = 404
Cor. Construction of Tangent by means of Aux
iliary Circle, 404
Theorem XLVII. Rectangle under Subtangent and Abscissa of
Contact : Square on Ordinate : : an : b1' 405
Theorem XLVIII. Tangents at extremities of any Chord meet on its
bisecting Diameter, 405
PARAMETERS.
Definitions. Parameter of Hyperbola identical with its Latus Rectum, 406
Theorem XLIX. In the Hyperbola, no Parameter except the
Principal equal in value to the Focal
Double Ordinate, 406
THE POLE AND THE POLAR.
Development of the Equation to the Polar : Definition, . . 406—408
Cor. Construction of Pole or Polar from its
definition, 409
An. Ge. 3.
xxvi CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Theorem L. Polar of any Puint, parallel to Diameter Conjugate
to the Point, 409
Polar of Center ;—of any point on Axis of x;—on Transverse Axis, 410
Cor. Second geometric construction for Polar, . 410
Polar of Focus : its distance from center, and its direction, . . 410
Theorem LI. Ratio between Focal and Polar distances of any
point on Hyperbola, constant and = e, . . 411
Cor. 1. Curve described by continuous Motion, . 411
Cor. 2. Polar of Focus hence called the Directrix, 412
Cor. 3. Second basis for name Hyperbola, . . 412
Theorem LII. Line from Focus to Pole of any Chord, bisects
focal angle which the Chord subtends, . . 413
Cor. Line from Focus to Pole of Focal Chord, per
pendicular to Chord, 413
III. The Curve referred to its Foci.
Interpretation of the Polar Equations to the Hyperbola, . . . 413
Development of the Polar Equation to a Tangent, .... 414
IV. The Curve referred to its Asymptotes.
Asymptotes defined: Derivation of the name, .... 414
Theorem LIII. Self-conjugates of Hyperbola are Asymptotes, . 416
Angle between the Asymptotes; — its value in the Eq. Hyperb., . 416
Equations to the Asymptotes, ........ 416
Theorem LIV. Asymptotes par. to Diag'ls of Semi-conjugates, . 417
Theorem LV. Asymptotes limits of Tangents, .... 418
Theorem LVI. Perpendicular from Focus on Asymptote = Con
jugate Semi-axis, 419
Theorem LVII. Focal distance of any point on Hyperbola = dis
tance to Directrix on parallel to Asymptote, . 419
Equation to Hyperbola, referred to its Asymptotes, .... 420
Equation to Conjugate Hyperbola, . . . 420
Theorem LVIII. Parallelogram under Asymptotic Co-ordinates,
constant and = -^p ..... 421
Theorem LIX. Right Lines joining two Fixed Points on Curve to
a Variable one, make a constant intercept on
Asymptote, 422
Equation to the Tangent, referred to Asymptotes, .... 422
" Diameter through any given point, .... 422
" " Conjugate to x'y'. Equations to the Axes, . 422
Co-ordinates of extremity of Diameter conjugate to x'y', . . 423
Theorem LX. Segment of Tangent by Asymptotes, bisected at
Contact, 423
Cor. The Segment = Semi-diameter conjugate to
point of contact, 423
CONTENTS. XXVll
PAGE.
Theorem LXI. Rectangle intercepts by Tangent on Asymptotes,
constant and = u? + 4!, 423
Theorem LXII. Triangle included between Tangent and Asymp
totes, constant and — ah, .... 424
Theorem LXIII. Tangents at extremities of Conjugates meet on
Asymptotes, 424
Theorem LXIV. Asymptotes bisect the Ordinates to any Diam
eter, 425
Cor. 1. Intercepts on any Chord between Curve
and Asymptotes are equal, .... 425
Cor. 2. Given Asymptotes and Point, to construct
the Curve, 425
Theorem LXV. Rectangle under Segments of Parallel Chords by
Curve and Asymptote, constant and = bn, . 426
V. Area of the Hyperbola.
Theorem LXVI. Area of Hyperbolic Segment equals log. Abscissa
extreme point, in system whose modulus =
sin 0 : or, A = sin 0. lx', ..... 428
VI. Examples on the Hyperbola.
Loci, Transformations, and Properties, 428
CHAPTER FIFTH.
THE PARABOLA.
I. The Curve referred to its Axis and Vertex.
THE AXIS.
Theorem I. Vertex of Curve bisects distance from Focus to
Directrix, 431
Interp'n of symbol p in if = 4p (x —p), . . . 431
Theorem II. Focus falls within the Curve, ..... 431
Transformation toy2 — 4px, ..... 432
Cor. To construct the Curve by points, . . . 432
Theorem III. Square on any Ordinate = Rectangle under Abscissa
and four times Focal distance of Vertex, . . 432
Cor. Squares on Ordinates vary as the Abscissas, . 432
The Latin Rectum defined. Its value = 4p, 433
Relation between the Parabola and the Ellipse : proof that Ellipse
becomes Parabola when a increases without limit, . . . 433
Cor. 1. Analogue, in Parabola, of Circumscribed
Circle in Ellipse, 434
Cor. 2. Interpretation of ^-— =1 = ca : e de
fined as the Eccentricity, ..... 435
xxviii CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Theorem IV. Focal Radius of Curve, a linear function of corre
sponding Abscissa, ...... 436
Linear Equation to Parabola: p = p + x, . . 436
Verification of Figure of Curve by means of its equation, . . 437
Nature of its iufinitc branch as distinguished from
that of Hyperbola, 437
DIAMETERS.
Diameters: Equation to Locus of middle points Parallel Chords, . 438
Theorem V. Every Diameter is a Right Line parallel to the Axis, 439
Cor. 1. All Diameters are parallel, . . . 439
Cor. 2. Every Right Line parallel to Axis, i. e., per
pendicular to Directrix, is Diameter, . . 439
Theorem VI. Every Diameter meets Curve in Two Points — one
finite, the other at infinity 440
Conjugate Diameters — in case of Parabola, vanish in the paral
lelism of all Diameters, ........ 440
THE TANGENT.
Equation to the Tangent referred to Axis and Vertex, . . . 441
Condition that a Right Line touch Parabola: y = mx + in . . 441
Analytic construction of Tangent through x'y'; Two, real, coinci
dent, or imaginary, ......... 441
Theorem VII. Tangent at extremity of any Diameter is parallel to
its Ordinates, ....... 442
Cor. Vertical Tangent is the Axis of y, . . 443
Theorem VIII. Tangent bisects the Internal Angle of Diameter
and Focal Radius to its Vertex, . . . 443
Cor. 1. To construct Tangent at any point on Curve, 443
Cor. 2. Derivation of Term Focus, .... 443
Intercept by Tangent on Axis: its length — x' , 444
Theorem IX. Foot of Tangent and Point of Contact equally dis
tant from Focus, 444
Cor. To construct Tangent at any point on Curve, or
from any on Axis, 444
Surtaxgent to the Curve : its length = 2x', 445
Theorem X. Subtangent to Curve is bisected in Vertex, . . 445
Cor. 1. To construct Tangent at any point on Curve,
or from any on Axis, 445
Cor. 2. Envelope of lines in Isosceles Triangle, . 446
Focal Perpendicular on Tangent : to determine its length, . . 446
Theorem XI. Focal perpendicular varies in subduplicate ratio to
Focal distance of Contact, .... 447
Length of Focal Perpendicular in terms of its angle with Axis, . 447
CONTENTS. XXIX
PAOK.
Theorem XII. Locus of foot of Focal Perp'r is the Vertical Tangent, 447
Cor. 1. Construction of Tangent by general Conic
Method, 448
Cor. 2. Circle to radius infinity is the Right Line, 448
Theorem XIII. If from any Point a right line be drawn to a fixed
Right Line, and a perpendicular to it through
the point of section, the Perpendicular will
touch a Parabola, 449
Cor. The Parabola as Envelope, .... 449
Theorem XIV. Locus of intersection of Tangent with Focal Chord
at any fixed angle is Tangent of same inclina
tion to Axis, 450
Theorem XV. The angle between any two Tangents to a Para
bola = half the focal angle subtended by their
Chord of Contact, 451
Theorem XVI. Locus of intersection of Tangents cutting at right
angles is the Directrix 451
Cor. New illustration of Right Line as Circle with
infinite radius, 451
the normal.
Hquation to the Normal, referred to Axis and Vertex, . . . 451
Theorem XVII. Normal bisects External Angle of Diameter and
Focal Radius to its Vertex, .... 452
Cor. To construct Normal at any point, . . 452
Intercept by Normal on Axis : its length in terms of the Abscissa
of Contact, 452
Constructions for the Normal by means of its Intercept, . . . 453
Theorem XVIII. Foot of Normal equidistant from Focus with Foot
of Tangent and Point of Contact, . . 453
Cor. Corresp'g constructions for Normal or Tang., 453
Subnormal to the Parabola, 453
Theorem XIX. Subnormal to the Parabola, constant and = 2p, . 453
Length of the Normal determined, 453
Theorem XX. Normal double corresp'g Focal Perpendicular, . 454
II. The Curve in terms of any Diameter.
DIAMETRAL PROPERTIES.
Equation to Parabola, referred to any Diameter and Vert'l Tangent, 454
Theorem XXI. Vertex of any Diameter bisects distance between
Directrix and the point in which the Diam
eter is cut by its Focal Ordinate, . . . 455
Theorem XXII. Focal distance Vertex of any Diameter = Focal
distance Principal Vertex divided by the
square of the Sine of Angle between Diam
eter and its Vertical Tangent, . . . 456
XXX CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Theorem XXIII. Square on Ordinate to any Diameter = Rectangle
under Abscissa and four times Focal distance
of its Vertex, 456
Cor. Squares on Ordinates to any Diameter vary
as the corresponding Abscissas, . . . 456
Theorem XXIV. Focal Bi-ordinatc to any Diameter = four times
Focal distance of its Vertex, . . . 457
Rem. Analogy of this Double Ordinate to the
Latua Rectum peculiar to Parabola, . . 457
Figure of the Curve with reference to any Diameter, . . . 457
GENERAL DIAMETRAL PROPERTIES OF THE TANGENT.
Equation to Tangent, referred to any Diameter and Vert'l Tangent, 457
Intercept by Tangent on any Diameter : its length = x', . . . 458
Theorem XXV. Subtangent to any Diameter is bisected in its
Vertex, 458
Cor. 1. To construct a Tangent to a Parabola
from any point whatever, .... 458
Cor. 2. To construct an Ordinate to any Diameter, 458
Theorem XXVI. Tangents at extremities of any Chord meet on its
bisecting Diameter, ..... 459
THE POLE AND THE POLAR.
Development of the Equation to the Polar, .... 459—461
Cor. Construction of Pole and Polar from their
definitions, 461
Theorem XXVII. Polar of any Point, parallel to Ordinates of corre
sponding Diameter, ..... 462
Polar of any point on Axis of x; — on principal Axis, . . . 462
Polar of Focus : its identity with the Directrix, .... 462
Theorem XXVIII. Ratio between Focal and Polar distances of any
point on Parabola, constant and = e, . . 463
Rem. 1. Vindication of original definition and
construction of Curve, .... 463
Rem. 2. Second basis for the name Parabola, . 464
Theorem XXIX. Line from Focus to Pole of any Chord bisects
focal angle which Chord subtends, . . 464
Cor. Line from Focus to Pole of Focal Chord
perpendicular to Chord, .... 464
Examples : Intercept on Axis between any two Polars = that be
tween perp'rs from their Poles, .... 465
Circle about Triangle of any three Tangents passes
through Focus, 465
PARAMETERS.
Parameter defined as Third Prop'l to Abscissa and its Ordinate, . 465
CONTENTS. xxxi
PAUK.
Theorem XXX. Parameter of any Diameter =• four times Focal
distance of its Vertex, .... 486
Cor. Parameter of the Curve = four times Focal
distance of the Vertex, .... 466
Rem. New interpretation of various Theorems
and Equations, 466
Theorem XXXI. Parameter of any Diameter = its Focal Bi-
ordinate, 466
Cor. Parameter of Curve = Latus Rectum, . 466
Rem. The Theorem holds in the Parabola alone
of all the Conies, 466
Parameter of any Diameter in terms of Abscissa of its Vertex, . 467
" " " " Principal, .... 467
Theorem XXXII. Parameter inversely proportional to sin' of Ver
tical Tangency, 467
III. The Curve referred to its Focus.
Interpretation of tho Polar Equation to Parabola, .... 467
Development of the Polar Equation to Tangent, .... 468
IV. Area of the Parabola.
Theorem XXXIII. Area of any Parabolic Segment = Two-thirds
the Circumscribing Rectangle, . . . 470
V. Examples on the Parabola.
Loci, Transformations, and Properties, 470
CHAPTER SIXTH.
THE CONIC IN GENERAL.
I. The Thkee Curves as Sections of the Cone.
Definitions, 473
Conditions of the several Sections, and their Geometric order, . 474
II. Various Forms of Equation to the Conic in General.
General Equation in Rectangular Co-ordinates at the Vertex, . . 475
Equation to the Conic, in terms of the Focus and its Polar, . . 478
Linear Equation to the Conic, ........ 479
Equation to the Conic, referred to any two Tangents, . . . 480
The Conic as Locus of the Second Order in General, . . . 482
III. The Curves in System as Successive Phases of One
Formal Law.
Order of the Curves, as given by Analytic Conditions, . . . 483
Classification of the Conies, 485
xxxii CONTENTS.
PAGE.
IV. Discussion of the Properties op the Comic in General.
Tho Polar Relation, 486
Diameters: Development of the Center, ...... 495
Development of the conception of Conjugates and of the Axes, . 498
Development of the Asymptotes in general symbols, . . . 501
Similar Conies defined, ......... 506
V. The Conic in the Abridged Notation.
Fundamental Anharmonic Property of Conies, .... 507
Development of Pascal's and Brianchon's Theorems, . . . 508
CHAPTER SECOND.
LOCUS OF FIRST ORDER IN SPACE.
Equation of First Degree in Three Variables represents a Plane, . 525
General Form of Equation to any Plane, ..... 526
Equation to Plane in terms of its Intercepts on Axes, . . . 527
CONTENTS. xxxin
PAGE.
Equation to Plane in terms of its Perpendicular from Origin and
Direction-cosines, 527
Transformation of Ax + By + Cz + V = 0 to the form last obtained, 528
Tub Plane under Special Conditions, 529
Equation to Plane through Three Fixed Points, . . . 529
Angle between two Planes : conditions that they be par
allel or perpendicular, 529
Equation to Plane parallel to given Plane; — perpendicular to
given Plane, ......... 531
Length of Perp'r from (xyz) on x cos o + y cos 0 + z cos y = 0, 532
" " " " on Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, . . 532
Equation to Plane through Common Section of two given
ones, P+ kP' = 0, 532
Equation to Planar Bisector of angle between any two Planes, 533
Condition that Four Points lie on one Plane, .... 533
" " Three Planes pass through ono Right Line, . 533
" " Four Planes meet in one Point, . . . 534
Quadriplanar Co-ordinates : Abridged Notation in Space, . . 534
la + mff + ny + rb = 0 represents a Plane in Quadriplanars, . 535
Linear Loci in Space: solved as Common Sections of Surfaces, . 535
The Right Line in Space as common Section of Two Planes, . 535
Equation to Right Line in terms of Two Projections, . . 536
Symmetrical Equations to the Right Line in Space, m . 537
To find the Direction-cosines of a Right Line, . . . 537
Angle between Two Right Lines in Space, .... 538
Conditions as to Parallelism and Perpendicularity, . . . 539
Equation to Right Line perpendicular to given Plane, . . 539
Angle between a Right Line and a Plane, .... 540
Condition that a Right Line lie wholly in given Plane, . . 540
Condition that Two Right Lines in Space shall intersect, . . 541
Examples involving Equations of the First Degree, .... 541
CHAPTER THIRD.
LOCUS OF SECOND ORDER IN SPACE.
General Equation of Second Degree in Three Variables: — its gen
eral interpretation, ......... 542
Surfaces of Second Order in General:
Criterion of the Form of any Surface furnished by its Sections
with Plane, 543
Every Plane Section of Second Order Surfaco is a Curve of Sec
ond Order, 543
Properties common to all Quadrics, ..... 544—552
Classification of Quadrics, or Surfaces of Second Order, . . 553
Summary of Analogies between Quadrics and Conies, . . 561
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY:
PRINCIPLES OF NOTATION.
9. These are all derived from the algebraic convention
that a single letter, unaffected with exponent or index,
shall stand for a single dimension ; or, as it is commonly
put, that each of the literal factors in a term is called a
dimension of the term. From this, it follows that the
degree of a term is fixed by the number of its dimen
sions. Our principles therefore are :
1st. Any term of the first degree denotes a line, of de
terminate length. For, by the convention just stated, it
denotes a quantity of one dimension. When applied to
geometry, therefore, it must denote a magnitude of one
dimension. But this is the definition of a line of fixed
length. Accordingly, a, x denote lines whose lengths
have the same ratio to their unit of measure that a and x
respectively have to 1.
2d. Any term of the second degree denotes a surface,
of determinate area. For it denotes a magnitude of two
dimensions, that is, a surface; and since each of its
dimensions denotes a line of fixed length, the term, as
their product, must denote a surface of equal area with
the rectangle under those lines. In fact, it is usually
cited as their rectangle. Thus, ah denotes the rectangle
under the lines whose lengths are a and b. Similarly, x2
denotes the square upon a side whose length is x.
3d. Any term of the third degree denotes a solid, of
determinate volume. For it is the product of the lengths
of three lines, and hence denotes a volume equal to that
of the right parallelopiped between those lines, and is so
cited. Thus, abc is the right parallelopiped whose edges
G ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
r = sin A. ,
0
If the base, instead of the hypotenuse, were taken = b,
we should have
a
r = tan A.
Similarly, for
x — Va,
we may write
x = Va X 1;
and so on.
6th. Terms of higher degrees than the third have no
geometric equivalents. For no magnitude can have more
than three dimensions.
Corollary.—If expressions apparently of such higher
degrees occur, they are to be explained by assuming 1 as a
suppressed divisor, and constructed accordingly. Thus,
a5 a5
a5 = fxl = 1X1X1 ;
and so on.
Remark These six principles enable us to represent by
proper symbols the several parts of any geometric problem, and
to interpret the result of its solution, as indicating a line, a
rectangle, a parallelopiped, etc. We then construct the magni
tude thus indicated, according to the principles to be explained
in the next article.
An. Ge. 4.
8 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
EXAMPLES.
1 . Render homogeneous a2b-\-c — <P.
2. In what different ways may the degree of 2a be reckoned?
Of 5x1/1 Of V 5(xl + y')1 State their geometric meaning for each
way.
3. Interpret geometrically V'Zab; VH; V~a; and V^ia.
4. Adapt ab to represent a line; also, V abc.
5. What does Va' + b! represent ? What V ni1 + ril — l» — r' ?
6. V^A being given as denoting a surface, render its form con
sistent with its meaning.
7. Render " ~t "f homogeneous of the" second degree.
8. Render a^>C ^ e homogeneous of the first degree.
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
lO. In these, we shall confine ourselves to construct
ing the roots of Simple Equations and Quadratics.
I. The Root of the Simple Equation.—This may
assume certain forms, the construction of which can be
generalized. The following are the most important :
1st. Let x = a ± b. Here, (Art. 9, 5) x denotes a
line whose length is the algebraic sum of those denoted
by a and b. Therefore, on any right line, take a point A
as the starting-point, or Origin, and lay off (say to the
right) the unit of measure till
AB = a. Then, if b is pos- E—s 1—£—+
itive, by laying off, in the
same direction and on the same line as before, BO = b,
\
INTRODUCTION. 9
_, T abc . ab ,
3d. Let x — y- . Putting -j — k, this may be
written ,
ke
x = —.
9
ab
Therefore, construct k — y, as in the preceding case,
and, with the line thus found, apply the same construc
tion to x.
abed k'd . abe ke
In like manner, -j-^ = , by putting k' = -j^ = — •
EA = — p — Vf + q2 = x" (2).
2d. The Second Form is written
x" — 2px = q-.
DETERMINATE PROBLEMS.
11. The mode of applying the foregoing principles to
the solution of these problems, may be best exhibited in
a few examples.
EXAMPLES.
1. In a given triangle, to inscribe a square.-—A triangle is given
when its base and altitude are given ; we are therefore here re
quired to find the side of the inscribed square
in terms of the base and altitude of the given C
triangle. If we draw the annexed diagram, /\
representing the problem as if solved, and fjZ.H;..\F
designate the base of the triangle by b, its / j j j\
altitude by h, and the side of the inscribed / \ j i \
square by x: then, since the triangles CAB, A u
CEF are similar, we have (Geom., 310)
* The student should pay strict attention to the geometric meaning
of the signs + and — , as explained above. He should also see that the
given algebraic expressions are put into the most convenient forms, before
constructing.
INTRODUCTION. 17
AB : EF : : CD : CH; or, b : : h : h — x.
bh
shows this ; for the value of x in the present example becomes that
obtained in the former, when r = 1.
Produce, then, the base of the given triangle until BL equals
rh ; and complete the
drawing exactly as in
the case of the inscribed
square : the point N, in
which the diagonal AM
cuts the side of the tri
angle, is a vertex of the
required rectangle. Let the student prove this.
3. To draw a common tangent to two given circles.—Here our data
are the radii of the circles, and the distance between their centers.
Let r denote the radius of the circle on the left, and r' that of the
other. Let d = the distance between the centers.
The problem may be otherwise stated : Required a point, from
which, if a tangent be drawn to one of two given circles, it will also
touch the other. From the method of constructing a tangent, (see
Geom., 230,) it follows
that this point is some
where on the line join
ing the centers. Hence,
drawing the diagram as
annexed, it is evident
that our unknown quan
tity is the intercept made
by the tangent on this line ; that is, we let
x = CT.
Now we have (Geom., 333)
MT2=NTXLT; or, MT2 = (x + r) (x — r) (!)■
In like manner,
M'T2 = N'TXL'T; or, M'T2 = (x — d + r') (x — d -r/) (2).
Expanding, and dividing (1) by (2),
MT2 _ x2 — r2
M'T2 ~ (x~df — r/1 ( >■
But, by similar triangles,
MT : M'T : MT2 r3
M'T2
INTRODUCTION. 19
greater or lees radius than the other. How perfectly all this agrees
with the geometric conditions, is manifest. By merely inspecting
the diagram, we can see that two common tangents can be drawn,
one passing without both circles, and intersecting the line of the
centers beyond the smaller circle ; the other passing between
the two.
Resuming now the general expression,
rd
right linos: the points T and 2f, in which these intersect the line
of the centers, arc the extremities of the required intercepts. For,
drawing K'H and K"(J parallel to C'T, we have, by similar tri
angles,
cr
: CK :: CC : { £y ; or, rir' : r :: rf : | ct'
V/'ionce,
GT—-^—.\ cr =
— S-^-U+^)1
Comparing with the former values, we see that the present less side
is the negative of the former greater ; and the present greater, the
negative of the former less. Hence, in this case,
— AE = the less side.
— AD = the greater.
It is obvious that the expressions less and greater are here
used in their algebraic sense; for AE is still numerically greater
than AD.
Now, by the construction, (Geom., 333) the rectangle of the
parts gives us
AD X AE = — AE X — AD = AS1 = a1.
Hence, in both cases, the rectangle is positive, . and absolutely the
same. The quadratic, therefore, does not here indicate two solu
tions. It merely signifies that the required rectangle may bo
obtained either by representing its sides by x and x + d, or by
— x and — (x + d). That is, it points not to two rectangles an-
swering the given conditions, but merely to two correlated modes
of expressing the conditions of one and the same rectangle.
We learn, then, that the algebraic discussion of a problem not
only possesses the greatest generality — indicating by the equa
tions to which the problem gives rise every possible solution; but
INTRODUCTION. 23
EXAMPLES.
1. To construct a square of equal area with a given rectangle.
2. In a given triangle, to inscribe a rectangle of a given area.
3. In a given semicircle, to inscribe a square.
4. To draw, parallel to the base of a triangle, a line which shall
divide it into two parts equal in area.
5. Through a given point without a circle to draw a secant
whose internal segment shall be equal to a given line.
6. To describe a circle equal in area to two given ones.
7. To draw, from a given line to a given circle, a tangent of a
given length.
8. To draw, from a given line to a given circle, the tangent of the
least length.
'24 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
*Alg., 168.
INTROD UCTION. 25
s
INTROD UCTION. ■27
x = constant.
Similarly, a right line parallel to the axis X'X is rep
resented by the equation
m V — constant.
Second: Let it be required to represent algebraically
a circle wThose center is at the origin 0. The law of
this form is, that the variable
point P shall maintain a con
stant distance from 0. But it
is obvious, upon inspecting the
diagram, that the distance of any
point from the origin is equal
to V x2 + y2. Hence, the con
dition that the point shall be
upon a circle whose center is
at 0, gives us Vx2 -f y2 = constant ; and, squaring, we
represent the circle by the equation
x2 + y2 = constant = r2.
x* + y2 — r2-
INDETERMINATE J OF TWO
DIMENSIONS.
OF THREE
DIMENSIONS.
ALGEBRAIC
f OF TWO
DIMENSIONS.
ELEMENTARY
OF THREE
DIMENSIONS.
NOTE.
As Greek characters are extensively used in all analytic investi
gations, and as we shall very frequently employ them in the following
pages, we subjoin a list for the benefit of readers unacquainted with
Greek.
A a alpha. I i iota. Pp rho.
beta. K k kappa. 2 a sigma.
r y gamma. A X lambda. T T tau.
A 6 delta. M/i mu. r v upsilon.
E e epsilon. N v nu. phi.
z C zeta. S f xi. ehi.
H v eta. 0 o omicron. psi.
e e theta. II 7r pi. omega.
BOOK FIRST:
PLANE CO-ORDINATES.
PLANE CO-ORDINATES.
PART I.
CHAPTER FIRST.
x——a
" " " second "
y = +t>.
x=- a I « U i
■=—bi " " " third "
y
X=
Z^_l} " " " fourth'
y
Corollary 1.—For any point on the axis of x, we shall
evidently have
y=0,
while x, being susceptible of any value whatever, is in
determinate. Hence, the equation just written is the
equation to the axis of x.
Corollary 2.—For any point on the axis of y, we shall
have
x = 0,
while y is indeterminate. Hence, the equation last writ
ten is the equation to the axis of y.
BILINEAR CO-ORDINATES. 51
EXAMPLES.
1. Represent the point (— 5, 3) in rectangular co-ordinates.
2. Represent the point (— 3, — 7), axes oblique and u = 00°.
3. With the same axes as in Ex. 2, represent the points (1, 2),
(-3, 4), (-5, -6), (7,-8).
4. Represent the points corresponding to the co-ordinates given
in Ex. 3, axes being rectangular.
5. Given <■> — 135°, to represent the points ( — 4, — 1), (8, 2)
(2, 8).
6. Given a = 90°, represent the points (3, 4), (3, — 4), (— 3, 4),
(-3,-4).
7. With same axes, represent (6, 8) and (8, 6) ; also (6, — 8) and
(—8,6).
8. With u still = 90°, represent the distance between (2, 3)
and (4, 5).
9. With same axes, represent the distance between (4, 5) and
(-3, 2).
10. Axes rectangular, represent the distance between (0, 6) and
(— 5, — 5) ; the distance between (0, 0) and (6, 0). Does the
latter distance depend on the value of u, or not?
The fixed point 0 is called the pole; the fixed line OX,
the initial line.
The distance OP is termed the radius vector; the angle
XOP, the vectorial angle. It is customary to represent
the former by the letter p, and the latter by 6. In this
system, accordingly, a point is cited as the point p 0,
the point p' 8', etc.
By attributing proper values to p and 0, we may repre
sent any point whatever in the plane PXO. Thus,
p = OP
j- denotes the point P.
0 = XOP
p> — OP
p.
0' =XOP
p" = OP" \
P".
0" = XOP" i
rnm —— Q pin -)I
ujr « " « pin
0"' = XOP" j
The student will observe that all the angles 6, 0', 6",
6"' are estimated from XO toward the left.
Corollary 1.—For the pole, we evidently have
p = 0:
which may therefore be considered as the equation to that
point.
Corollary 2.—For any point on the initial line to the
right of the pole, we have
6 = 2 n ?r *
For any point on the same line to the left of the pole,
we have
0 = (2 » + 1) jr.
EXAMPLES.
1. Represent in polar co-ordinates the point (p = 8; 0 = 7r).
2. Represent (p = — 8 ; 8 = 0) and (p = — 8 ; 8 = ir).
3. Represent (p = 15 ; B =--) and (p — 5 ; 8 = ^ V
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS. 55
4. Represent (p = 6 ; f = ^ = — 6; 0 = — and
Second : let the two points be p' and p" 0". In the
diagram, for this case,
OP = [>', X0P=6';
OP' = p", XOP = 0".
Then, as before,
PP2 = OP» + PO2 — 2 OP. P'O cos POP;
that is,
V = pn + p»i—2 (>'(>" cos (/?"— 0')-
EXAMPLES.
1. Given the point (5, 6) : what are its co-ordinates for parallel
axes through the origin (2, 3)?
2. Transform ( — 3, 0) to parallel axes through ( — 4, — 5); —
to parallel axes through (5, —3); — through (—3, 5); — through
(-3,0).
3. Given in rectangular co-ordinates the points (1, 1), (— 1, 1),
(2, — 1), and ( — 3, — 3). find their polar co-ordinates, the origin
being the pole, and the axis of x the initial line.
4. Transform the points in Ex. 3, supposing the pole to be at
( — 4, 5), and the initial line to make with the axis of x an angle
„ = _ 30°.
5. Solve Ex. 4, on the supposition that a = 45°.
6. Find the rectangular co-ordinates of (p = 3; 8 = 60°) and
(/> = — 3 ; 6 = — 60°), the origin and axis of x coinciding respect
ively with the pole and the initial line. Find the same, supposing
the origin at ( — 2, — 1), and the angle a = 30°.
7. The co-ordinates of a point for a set of axes in which u =
60°, satisfy the equation 'Ax + 4y — 8=0: what will the equation
become when transformed to i/ = 45° a = 15°? What, when in
addition the origin is moved to (—3, 2)?
8. Transform x1 + y1 = r2 to parallel axes through ( — a, — b).
9. It is evident that when we change from one set of rectangular
axes to another having the same origin, x2 + y% must be equal to
a/2 + y'2, since both express the square of the distance of the point
from the origin. Verify this by squaring the expressions for x and
y given in Art 56, Cor. 3, and adding the results.
10. Transform to rectangular co-ordinates the following equations
in polar ; origin same as pole, and axis of x as initial line :
P2sin20 = 2c2; p*cos £0= c*; p2 = c2 cos 2 0.
INTERPRETA TION IN GENERA L. 65
* Equations (1) and (2) are read "y = any function of x" and "y —
any other function of x."
INTERPRETATION IN GENERAL. 69
EXAMPLES.
1. What point is represented by the equations Zx + 5y = 13
and Ax — y — 21
2. Given the two curves x2 -(- y2 = 5 and xy = 2, in how many
points will they intersect? Find the points of intersection.
3. Find the points in which x — y = 1 intersects x1 + y1 = 25
4. Of what order is the curve y* = 4px? Show, by actual trans
formation, that it continues of the same order when passed from its
original rectangular axes to oblique ones through a, 2Vpa : the
new axis of x being parallel to the old, and the inclination of the
new axes being the angle whose tan2 =p : a.
5. Decide whether the following curves pass through the origin :
y = mx + I ; x2 — y2 = 0 ; x2 — y2 = 1 ; y2 — 4px ;
3x3 — r>xy + ~x2 —Sy = 0.
SPECIAL INTERPRETATION. 71
*It is customary to call any plane locus a curve, even though this in
volves the apparent harshness of saying that the right line or an isolated
point is a curve.
72 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
t. — f- =i
a2 b2 '
by solving for y we obtain
y=± -Vx2—a2 :
a
so that y is real for every value of x which lies beyond
the limits x = a and x = — a, but is imaginary for every
value of x lying between them ; and the curve is interrupted
in the latter region.
When the extent of a curve is nowhere interrupted,
and it suffers no abrupt changes in curvature, * it is said
to be continuous. A curve may be either continuous
throughout or composed of continuous parts.
Corollary.— To test for continuity in extent, note whether
the equation to a curve gives rise to limiting values of either
variable, beyond or between which the values of the other
are imaginary.
Remark.—To test for continuity in curvature, we
employ the Differential Calculus.
72. The continuous parts of a curve are called its
branches. A branch should be distinguished from a
portion of a curve : a branch may consist of several
portions; or a portion, of several branches.
EXAMPLES.
1. Represent the curve denoted by y = 2x + 3.
Making, successively, x = 0 and y — 0, we obtain
y — 3 and x = — 3^ •
The curve therefore cuts the axis of y at a distance 3 above the origin,
and the axis of x at a distance 3^ to the left of the origin. Draw the axes
and lay down the corresponding points.
76 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
The equation being of the first degree, the curve consists of but one
portion, y is obviously real for all real values of x: the curve is there
fore of infinite extent. Making x successively —3,-2,-1, 1, 2, 3, the
corresponding values of y are —3, —1, 1, 5, 7, 9. Laying down the
points
(- 3, - 3), (- 2, - 1), (- 1, 1), (1, 5), (2, 7), (3, 9),
we find that they all como upon the right line drawn through (0, 3) and
(~ \' ') ' w''>cn '3 therefore the curve represented by the given equation.
2. Interpret if + J = 1-
Making x = 0, we obtain
y= ± 2:
or the curve cuts the axis of y in two points : one at the distance 2 above
the origin, and tho other at the same distance below it.
Making y = 0, we obtain
x = ± 3:
whenco the curve cuts the axis of x in two points equally distant from
the origin, and on opposite sides of it.
Since the equation is of the second degree, the curve consists of two
portions ; and as the values of y coincide and = 0 when x = ± 3, these
portions arc separated by the axis of x. Solving for y, we find
y = ±32 /A-■ x*:
hence, y will become imaginary when x > 3 or x < — 3. The curve
therefore has no point beyond its intersections with the axis of x. But
for every value of x between the limits — 3 and 3, y is real ; that is, the
curve consists of a single continuous branch.
Making, now, x successively equal to — 3, — 2.5, — 2, — 1, 0, 1, 2, 2.5, 3,
the corresponding values of y are 0, ± 1.2,
± 1.5, ± 1.9, ± 2, + 1.9, ± 1.5, ± 1.2, 0. From
these values, we see that the curve is sym
metrical to both axes ; and, laying down the
sixteen points thus found, we determine the
figure of the curve as annexed. It is an
ellipse.
3. Interpret the equation y
4. Interpret g- — ~ = I . This curve is an hyperbola.
5. Interpret yl = 4x. This curve is a parabola.
THE RIGHT LINE. 77
\
EQUATION TO RIGHT LINE. 79
s" The student will not fail to notice that the angle which a lino makes
with the axis of x is always measured, positively, from that axis toward
the left; an angle measured from the axis toward the right, is negative.
This principle holds true of the angle between any two lines.
An. Ge. 10.
80 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
* The quantities m and b are constants, since they can have bat one
value for any particular right line. But the equation is true for any right
line, because we can assign to wt and b any values we please. They are
hence called arbitrary constants.
EQUATION TO RIGHT LINE. 81
y = mx:
a=_P_ ■ h = V
cos a cos (cu — «)
Substituting these values of a and b in the equation of
Art. 79, we obtain
x cos a y cos (to — «) ^
P P
Clearing of fractions,
x cos a + y cos (to — a) = p :
which is the equation sought.
Remark.—The co-efficients of x and y in the foregoing
equation are called the direction-cosines of the line which
the equation represents. In using this form of the
equation, it is most convenient to suppose that the
angle a may have any value from 0 to 360°, and that
the perpendicular p is always positive — that is, (Art. 50,
Note,) measured from 0 in such a direction as to bound
the angle. This convention can not be too carefully
remembered.
84 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
5+? = \ <2>'
EXAMPLES.
1. Across which of the four angles does the line y — Zx + 5
lie? —the line y = — 6x + 2? — the line y = — 2x — 4? — the
line y = x — 1 ?
2. What is the situation and direction of the line y = x ?
3. Axes being oblique, what angle does the line y = x make
with the axis of x f — the line y = -f 2 ?
V3
4. What is the direction of the line y = 4?
5. What is the direction of the line y — ^ + 6 ? What are the
intercepts made by the preceding lines on the axis of y ?
6. Trace the line y = bx + 3 ; — the line y — a; = 0.
7. Trace the lino % + | = 1 ; — the line § — | = 1.
8. Trace the line \x VZ +i y = 1.
9. What is the value of the angle a in the line of the previous
example? — of the angle u? — of the perpendicular pi [Here
cos a = i Vi ; cos (u — a) = i . ]
y"-y' _ y"'-y"
x" —x'~ x'" — x"
Since the form of the locus we are seeking, whatever
it be, is (Art. 64) independent of the axes, let us for
convenience refer the equation to
rectangular axes, OX and OY.
Draw the indefinite curve AB, to
represent for the time being the
unknown locus. Take P', P", P"
as the three points x'y', x"y", x"'y"';
let fall the corresponding ordinates
PM, P'M", P"M"'; draw the
chords PP", P'P"; and make PR, P"8 parallel to
OX. Then, from (4), we have
P'R P"S .
P R— P" S;
that is, (Trig., 818,)
tan P"PR = tan P"P"S .-. P"PR=P"'P'S.
Ax + By + C=0
being given for geometric interpretation, is of course
referred to some bilinear system of co-ordinates. Sup
pose the original axes to be rectangular, and let us
transform the equation to a new rectangular system
having the origin at the point x'y'.
To effect this, write (Art. 56, Cor. 3, cf. Art. 58) for
x and y in the given equation x' + x cos 6 — y sin 0
and y' + x sin 6 + y cos d. This gives us
(AcozO+ B&mf))x — {A sin0 — Bcos S)y + Ax' + B/ + C=0
as the equation to the unknown locus, referred to the
new axes.
Since x1, y', and d are arbitrary constants, we may
subject them to any conditions we please. Let us then
suppose that a/ and y' satisfy the relation
Ax' + By' + C=0,
and that the value of 0 is such that
A cos d + B sin 0 — 0 i. e. tan 0 = s•
y = o.
Hence (Art. 49, Cor. 1) the locus coincides with the new
axis of x.
And, in general, since the equation Ax + By + C=0
can, upon the suppositions above made, always be reduced
to the form y = 0, we conclude that it represents a right
line, which passes through the arbitrary point x'y', and
makes with the primitive axis of x an angle whose tangent
is found by taking the negative of the ratio between the
co-efficients of x and y. That is to say, since these co
efficients are also arbitrary, Ax + By + C — 0 is the
Equation to any Right Line.
88. We have thus shown, by three independent demon
strations, that we can take the empty form of the General
Equation of the First Degree, and, merely granting that
it is to be interpreted according to the convention of co
ordinates, evoke from it the figure which it represents.
It must not be supposed, however, that we were ignorant
of the figure of the Right Line when we set out upon the
foregoing transformations. On the contrary, each of the
three demonstrations just given presupposes the figure
of the Right Line, and certain of its properties. What
we did not know is, that the equation Ax + By + C= 0
represents, and always represents, that figure.
EQUATION OF THE FIRST DEGREE. 91
If we make x = 0, we obtain
0 / V
MEANING OF THE CONSTANTS. 93
A sin a
Hence,' (see
v Trig.,
6 ' 867,) -n
B = sin
——7(a — <o); = — m (3).
v '
^ Q
Corollary 1.—By (3), m = — -g ; and by (2), b = — -g .
Hence, in the equation to a given right line the ratio
between the co-efficients of x and y, taken with a con
trary sign, denotes the ratio between the sines of the angles
which the line makes with the two axes: or, when the axes
are rectangular, it denotes the tangent of the angle made
with the axis of x ; and the ratio of the absolute term to
the co-efficient of y, taken with a contrary sign, denotes
the intercept of the line on the axis of y.
Corollary 2.—Hence, to reduce an equation in the
form Ax -f- By + C = 0 to the form y = mx + b, we
merely solve the equation for y.
II. Let the data be the intercepts of the line on the two
axes. Here a and b have their usual signification.
Making y = 0 in Ax + By + C = 0, we find as
before
x = -- = 0T=a (1). V,
Making x — 0, we obtain
94 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
C C
From (1), A= — ~; and from (2), B = — -r . Substi
tuting for A and B in the equation, and reducing,
-+£ = 1.
a o
Corollary 1.—From (1) and (2), we see that the ratios
of the absolute term to the co-efficients of x and y re
spectively, taken with contrary signs, denote the intercepts
of the line on the axis of x and the axis of y.
Corollary 2.—To reduce Ax + By + C = 0 to the
x y
form- + ^- = l, we divide it by its absolute term, and,
if necessary, change its signs.
III. Let the data be the perpendicular from the origin
on the line, and the angle of that perpendicular with the axis
of x. We use p and a in the same sense as in Art. 80.
Making y and x successively equal to 0 in the general
equation, we obtain, as before,
„ . 6'cosa
From (1), A= — •
„ „ „ C cos (to—a)
From (2), B = j
. • . tan a = B — A cos co •
——A—=
A sin to
1 A sin co
cos fit
V(l + tan2a) = i/(^2 2 ^LB cos a») '
Bcosa B sin co
cos ("> — «)= ^ = 2 AjBcosw) "
Ccosa (Tsinw
P=~ ^ = — ^/(A'+B2 — 2 AB cos co)
Therefore, to make the required reduction, Multiply the
sin co %
equation throughout by ^j-2 + &_2AB cos co) '
Csin to
~ v {A2 + B*—2AB cos to) '
and that this length becomes
0
EXAMPLES.
1. Transform 3x — by + 6 = 0 to y = 0. What is the angle
made by the new axis of x with the old ?
2. What angle does the line Sx + )2y + 2 = 0 make with the
axis of x t What is the length of its intercept on the axis of y J
In which of the four angles does it lie?
3. Find the intercepts of the line x -\- Sy — 3 = 0.
4. Find the ratio between the direction-cosines of the right line
2x + Zy + 4 = 0, u being = 60°.
5. What is the tangent of the angle made with the axis of x
by the perpendicular from the origin on 3x — 2y — 6 = 0?
6. Reduce all the equations in the previous examples to the
form x cos a + y sin a— py and determine a and p for each line.
7. Reduce 3.r + 4y = 12 to the form x cos a -\- y cos (u — a)~P-
What are the values of a and (u — a), supposing a successively
equal to 30°, 45°, 60°, and sin"1 f ?
8 Find the length of the perpendicular from the origin on
3x + 4y + 12 = 0, under the several values of a last supposed.
9. Find the length of the perpendicular from the origin on
Zx — 4y — 12=0, axes being rectangular.
10. Reduce 2 p cos 6 — 3 p sinfl = 5 to the form p cos (6 — a) = p.
What are the values of a and p ?
m' — m
= rr
1 + mm', (Art.
v 78,' Cor. 1).
>
Corollary 1.—If the equations were given in the form
Ax + By + C=0, A'x + B'y + C = 0, we should have
A A'
(Art. 91, 1, Cor. 1) m = — -g , and m' = — -^7 . Hence,
in that case,
AB' — A'B
tan?- AA> + BB''
. . B'— ,4'cosu
V(4'a + 2i'a-2 4'iJ'cos «) '
-B — ^4. cos u
^r + 5y+ O"=0.
1 + mm' — 0.
y = — — x + b'.
Ay — Bx + Oi = 0.
x" - x'
y — y>= — — (x — xf):
therefore
A' A sin u — (B — A cos a) tan 8
W ~~ B sin u + {A — B cos a) ten 0 '
LENGTH OF A PERPENDICULAR. 107
* The beginner may suppose that this has been done already, in the
preceding article. But we merely proved there, that the equation may
represent an infinite number of lines answering to the given condition.
Now, that an infinite number of lines is not the same as all the lines
passing through the intersection of two others, is evident. For between
two intersecting right lines there are two angles, supplemental to each
other, in each of which there may be an infinite number of lines passing
through the common point.
LINE THROUGH INTERSECTION. Ill
sin d A -f kA'
sin (co — d) ~~B + kB> '
Therefore
(A + kA') sin co
tan 9 ~ (A cos to—B) + k (A' cos'w-^ '
That is, (Art. 91, 1, Cor. 1,) a< the instant when k changes
sign, the line which passes through the intersection of two
given ones coincides with one of them. Hence, of the lines
L -f- kU = 0 and L — kU = 0, one lies in the angle be
tween L = 0 and U — 0 supplemental to that in which
the other lies.
It now remains to determine which of these supple
mental angles corresponds to -f k, and which to — k.
If the two lines are x cos a^-y cos {to — a) —p = 0 and
zcos/? + 2/cos(«> — ^3) — jp'=0, we shall have
x cos a -\- y cos (to — a) — p
x cos ft + y cos (a> — /5) — '
that is, (Art. 105,) one of the geometric meanings of k is,
the negative of the ratio between the perpendiculars let fall
on two given lines from any point of a line passing through
their intersection. Hence, when k is positive, those per
pendiculars have unlike signs ; and when k is negative,
their signs are like. That is, (Art. 105, Cor. 8,) the per
pendiculars corresponding to + k fall one on the side of
CRITERION OF ITS POSITION. 113
* The student may at first think that both members of (1) and (2)
should hare the double sign. But since an equation always implies the
possibility of changing its signs, it is evident that we should write the
expressions as above.
114 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
L ± L' = 0
. A2 + B2=A'2 + B'2.
Corollary 4.—If we denote by r the particular value
which k assumes in the case of a bisector, then
L + rL' = 0
represents the external, and
L — rl! = 0
the internal bisector of the angle between the lines L= 0
and L' = 0.
116 ANA L YTIC G EOMETR Y.
10. Taking for axes the sides a and b of any triangle, form the
equation to the line which cuts off the m" part of each, and show
that it is parallel to the hase. What condition follows from this?
11. Prove that y = constant is the equation to any parallel of the
axis of x, and x = constant the equation to any parallel of the axis
of y, whether the axes are rectangular or oblique.
12. Two lines AB, CD intersect in O; the lines AC, BD join
their extremities and meet in E; the lines AD, BC join their
extremities and meet in F: required the condition that EF may
be parallel to AB.
13. Form the equation to the line which passes through (2, 3)
and makes with the line y = 3x an angle 6 = 60°.
14. Form the equation to the line which passes through (2, — 3)
and makes with the line 3x — 4y = 0 an angle 0 = — 45°.
15. We have shown that, in rectangular axes, — A : J3 = tan a,
but that, in oblique axes, — A : B = sin a : sin (" — a). Prove that,
in all cases, tan a = ^1 sin w : {A cos u — B).
16. Axes being oblique, show that two lines will make with the
axis of x angles equal but estimated in opposite directions (one
above, the other below) upon the condition
-r> = 2 cos u.
31. The three perpendiculars from the vertices on the sides, and
the three that rise from the middle points of the sides, are each
convergent^. [See their equations, Exs. 6 and 7.]
32. The three bisectors of the angles in any triangle are con
vergents: for their equations are
(x cos a -f y sin a — p ) — (x cos /J -f- y sin /3 — p' ) = 0,
(i cos /? + y sin ji — p' ) — (x cos y + y sin 7 — p") = 0,
(x cos y + y sin y — p") — (x cos a -\- y sin a — p ) = 0,
if we suppose the origin to be within the triangle.
33. Through what point do all the lines y = mx, Ax + By = 0,
2x = Zy, x cos a -\- y sin a = 0, p cos 0 = 0 pass ?
34. Decide whether the lines 2a; — 3y + 6 = 0, 4x + 3y — 6 = 0,
5x — 5y + 10 = 0, 7x + 2y — 4 = 0, x — y + 2 = 0 pass through a
fixed point.
35. Given the line 3x — 5y + 6=0: form the equations to five
lines passing through a fixed point, and determine the point.
36. Given three constants 2, 3, 5 : form the equations to five lines
passing through a fixed point, and determine the point
37. Given the vertical angle of a triangle, and the sum or differ
ence of the reciprocals of its sides : the base will move about a fixed
point.
38. If a line be such that the sum of the perpendiculars, each
multiplied by a constant, let fall upon it from n fixed points, is = 0, it
will pass through a fixed point known as the Center of Mean Position
to the given points.
The conditions of the problem (Art. 105, Cor. 1) give us
m' (x' cos a + y' sin a —p) + m" (x" cosa+y" sin a — p)
+ !»"'■ (*"' OOS a + /" %\na-p) + &e.
or, putting X(mm') as an arbitrary abbreviation for the sum of the due's,
I (my) for the sum of the my's, and S(m) for the sum of the m's,
X (iM')eos a + X (my' ) sin a — S(m) p = 0.
Solving for p, and substituting its value in x cos a + y sin a —p= 0, the
equation to the movable line becomes
£(»l)a:— Z(mx') + tana X(my')J = 0 :
which (Art. 116) proves the proposition. [Solution by Salmon.]
RECTILINEAR LOCI. 125
10. Given the fixed point A on the axis of x, and the fixed point
B on the axis of y ; on the axis of x take any point A', and on the
axis of y any point B', such that OA' + OB' = OA + OB : to find
the loeus of the intersection of AB' and A'B.
If OA = a, and OB = b . • . OA' = o + (k indeterminate), and
OB' = b — k. Hence, (Art. 79,) by clearing of fractions and collecting
the terms, the equations to AB1 and A'B may be written
6a: + ay — ab -f- k (a — x) = 0,
bx + ay — ab + k (y — b) = 0.
Subtracting, we eliminate the indeterminate k; and the equation to the
required locus is
x + y = a + b. a
11. In a given triangle, to find the locus of the middle point of the
inscribed rectangle.
12. In a given parallelogram, whose adjacent sides are a and b,
to find the locus of the intersec
tion of AB' and A'B : the lines
A A', BB' being any two paral
lels to the respective sides.
[The statement of this problem
will apparently involve two indeter
minate quantities ; but both can be
eliminated at one operation.]
13. A line is drawn parallel to the base of a triangle, and the
points where it meets the two sides are joined transversely to the
extremities of the base : to find the locus of the intersection of the
joining lines.
14. Through any point in the base of a triangle is drawn a line
of given length in a given direction : supposing it to be cut by the
base in a given ratio, find the locus of the intersection of the lines
joining its extremities to those of the base.
15. Given a point and two fixed right lines; through the point
draw any two right lines, and join transversely the points where
they meet the fixed ones : to find the locus of the intersection of the
joining lines.
(«_„)(«_.,)_. (2).
Hence, (Alg., 234, Prop. 2d,) its roots are the tangents of
the angles made with the axis of x by the two lines which
it represents. Now if we solve (1) for y : x, we obtain
y_ H±V/(H2 — AB) .
x~ B '
that is, the roots are real and unequal when H2 > AB ;
real and equal when H2 = AB ; and imaginary when
H2 < AB. Therefore, if H2 — AB> 0, the equation
denotes two real right lines passing through the origin ;
if H2 — AB = 0, two coincident ones ; but in case
H2 — AB<C 0, two imaginary ones.
Corollary.—The reasoning here employed is obviously
applicable to the equation of Art. 126. The meaning
of any homogeneous quadratic may therefore be deter
mined according to the following table of corresponding
analytic and geometric conditions :
ANGLE OF A PAIR OF LINES. 133
H2 — AB > 0 . • . Two real right lines passing through
a fixed point.
H2 — AB = 0 . • . Two coincident right lines passing
through a fixed point.
H2 — AB < 0 . • . Two imaginary right lines passing
through a fixed point.
Note—By thus admitting the conception of coincident and im
aginary lines as well as of real ones, we are enabled to assert that
every quadratic which satisfies certain conditions represents two
right lines. In fact, the result just obtained permits us to say that
every equation between plane co-ordinates denotes a line (or lines),
and to include in this statement such apparently exceptional equa
tions as
(x — af + y* = 0.
Of this equation, we saw (Art. 61, Rem.) that the only geometric
locus is the fixed point (a, 0). But it is evidently homogeneous in
(x — a), (y — 0) and fulfills the condition H* — AB<0. We
may therefore with greater analytic accuracy say that it denotes
two imaginary right lines passing through the point (a, 0) ; or, as we
shall see hereafter, two imaginary right lines whose intersection is the
center (a, 0) of an infinitely small circle.
Such statements may seem to be mere fictions of terminology;
but the farther we advance into our subject, the greater will appear
the advantage of thus making the language of geometry correspond
exactly to that of algebra. If we neglect to do so, we shall overlook
many remarkable analogies among the various loci which we in
vestigate.
128. Angle of a Pair of Right Lines.—From
Art. 96 we have, as the expression for determining this,
m! — m
tan w = *—; 7 •
~ 1 + mm
But we saw (Art. 127) that m and m' are the roots of the
equation Ax2 + 2 Hxy + By2 — 0. Hence,
ty(H2 — AB) , A
w! — m— -g ; mm = -g •
134 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
Therefore tan a
r = ^-r-
^4 +,—i? .
By=-(Hx+F)±y/{(H1-AB)x*+2(HF-BG)x+(F'—BC)\:
and in order that this may assume the form y =mx-\-b,
the expression under the radical must be a perfect square.
But the condition for this (or, in other words, the condi
tion that the general equation of the second degree may
represent two right lines) is
{H2 — AB) (F2 — BC) = (HF— BGf (1).
Expanding and reducing, we may write this in the striking
symmetrical form
ABC+2FGH—AF2 — BG2—CB:2 = 0 (2).
Corollary.—It is evident from (1), that H2 — AB and
F2 — BC will be positive together or negative together,
but will not necessarily vanish together.
133. In the light of these results, it will be interesting
to test the conditions H2 — AB>0, H2 — AB = 0,
H2 — AB < 0 in the general equation to a pair of right
lines.
From (1), it follows that the roots of this equation may
be written
(Hx + F)±V{(H*-AB)x*+ 2xV(H*-AB)(F*-BC) + (F?-BC)\
y— b :
hence (taking account of the preceding corollary) they
will be real and unequal, when H2 > AB; will differ by
a constant, when H2 = AB ; and will be imaginary, when
H2 < AB. But these roots are the ordinates of the two
lines represented by the equation of Art. 125 : hence, in
any equation of the second degree whose co-efficients
satisfy the condition (2), we shall have the following
criteria :
H2—AB > 0 .•. Two real, intersecting right lines.
H2—AB = 0 .•. Two parallel right lines.
H2—AB <0 .-. Two imaginary, intersecting right lines.
\
EXAMPLES ON PAIRS OF LINES. 137
EXAMPLES.
1. Form the equation to the two lines passing through (2, 3),
(4, 5) and (1, 6), (2, 5).
2. What locus is represented by xy = 0 ? By a? — y2 = 0 ?
By ,r2 — bxy + 6/ = 0? By x2 — 2xy tan 0 — y2 = 0?
3. What lines are represented by x3 — 6a:2y + llxy1 — 6y* = 0?
4. Show what loci are represented by the equations x2 -f- y2 = 0,
x2 + xy = 0, x2 + y2 + a2 = 0, a;y — or = 0.
5. Interpret (a; — a) (y — A) = 0, (a; — a)2+ (y — i)2 = 0, and
(s-y + a^ + Oe + y-a^O.
6. Show that (y — 3a; + 3) (3y + x — 9) = 0 represents two
right lines cutting each other at right angles.
7. Find the angles between the lines in Ex. 2.
8. What is the angle between the lines x2 -f- xy — 6y2 = 0?
9. Write the equation to the bisectors of the angles between
the pair x2 — bxy + 6y2 = 0.
10. Write the equations to the bisectors of the angles between
the pairs x2 — y2 = 0 and x2 — xy + y2 = 0.
11. Show that the pair (>x2-\-bxy — 6y2 = 0 intersect at right
angles.
12. Show that 6a;2 + bxy — 6y2 = 0 bisect the angles between the
pair 2a;2 + 12.ry + 7y2 = 0.
13. Verify that i2 — bxy + 4y2 + x + 2y — 2 = 0 represents two
right lines, and find the lines.
14. Show that 9a;2 — I2xy + 4y2 — 2x + y — 3 = 0 does not rep
resent right lines, and find what value must be assigned to the co-
eflicient of x in order that it may.
15. Show that 4a;2 — 12a;y + 9y2 — 4a; + 6y — 12 = 0 represents
two parallel right lines, and find the lines.
138 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
EXAMPLES.
1. Form the equation to the circle whose center is (3, 4), and
whose radius = 2.
2. Lay down the center of the circle (x — 2)2 + (y — 6)2 = 25,
and determine the length of its radius.
3. Do the same in the case of the circle (s+ 2)2+ (y — 5)2 = 1;
— in the case of the circle x* + y2 = 3.
4. Form the equation to the circle whose center is (5, — 3) and
whose radius = Yl, when « = 60°.
142 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
(.+!j+(,+;j_z±£=i?.
EXAMPLES.
I. NOTATION AND CONDITIONS.
1. Decide whether the following equations represent circles :
Zx1 + 5xy — 7yt+2x — 4y + &=0;
hx2 — 5y2+3x — 2y + 7 = 0;
bx2 + 5y2 — 10* — 30y + 15 = 0.
2. Determine the center and radius of each of the circles
x2 + y2 + 4y — 4x — 1 = 0,
x2 + y2 + <Sx — 3y — 1 = 0.
3. Form the equation to the circle which passes through the
origin, and makes on the two axes respectively the intercepts + h
and + k.
4. Find the points in which the circle x2 + y1 = 9 intersects
the lines a; + y + 1 = 0, x + y — 1=0, and 2x + y Vb = 9.
5. What must be the inclination of the axes in order that each
of the equations
x1 — xy + y' — hx — hy = 0,
x2 + xy + y1 — hx — hy = 0,
may represent a circle ? Determine the magnitude and position
of each circle.
6. Write the equations to any three circles concentric with
2 {x1 + y1) + 6a: — 4y — 12 = 0.
7. Form the equation to the circle which makes on the axis
of x the intercepts (5, — 12), and on the axis of y the intercepts
(4, — 15). Determine the center and radius of the same.
8. What is the equation to the circle which touches the axes
at distances from the origin, each = a ? — at distances = 5 and 6
respectively ?
9. ABC is an equilateral triangle: taking A as pole, and AB
as initial line, form the polar equation to the circumscribed circle.
Transform it to rectangular axes, origin same as pole, and axis of x
as initial line.
10. If S = 0 and S/ — 0 are the equations to any two circles,
what does the equation S— k'S/=0 represent, k being arbitrary?
EXAMPLES ON THE CIRCLE. 147
11. To find the locus of the middle point of any chord of a circle,
when the chord passea through any fixed point.
12. On any circular radius vector OQ, OP is taken in a constant
ratio to OQ : find the locus of P.
13. Find the locus of P, the square of whose distance from a
fixed point O is proportional to its distance from a given right line.
14. O is a fixed point, and AB a fixed right line; a line is drawn
from O to meet AB in Q, and on OQ a point P is taken so that
OQ. OP = k2 : to find the locus of P.
15. A right line is drawn from a fixed point O to meet a fixed
circle in Q, and on OQ the point P is so taken that OQ.OP= W:
to find the locus of P.
146. The two fixed points, F' and F, are called the
foci; and the distances with a constant sum, F'P and
FP, the focal radii of the curve.
The right line drawn through the
foci to meet the curve in A' and A,
is called the transverse axis. The A,j
point 0, taken midway between F'
and F, we may for the present call
the focal center.
The line B'B, drawn through 0 at right angles to
A'A, and terminated by the curve, is called the conjugate
axis.
147. Equation to the Ellipse, referred to its
Axes.—Let 2c = the constant distance between the foci,
and 2a — the constant sum of the focal radii.
Then, from the diagram above, F'P2 — (x + c)2 -f- y2,
and FP2 = (x — c)2 + y2. Hence, the fundamental prop
erty of the Ellipse, expressed in algebraic symbols,
will be
V { (x + cf + y2} + V { (* - cf + y2} = 2a.
Freeing this expression from radicals, we obtain the
required equation,
(a2 — c2) x2 + a2y2 = a2 (a2 — c2) (1) .
To abbreviate, put a2 — c2 = b2, and this becomes
b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2 (2):
which may be more symmetrically written
■ + —=1
EXAMPLES.
1. Given the two points (— 3, 0) and (3,0); the extremities
of a thread whose length = 10 are fastened in them: form the
equation to the ellipse generated by pushing a pencil along the
thread so as to keep it stretched.
2. In a given ellipse, half the sum of the focal radii = 3, and
half the distance between the foci = 2 : write its equation.
3. Form the equation to the ellipse whose focus is 3 inches
from its center, and whose focal radii have lengths whose constant
sum = 1 foot.
4. In a given ellipse, the sum of the focal radii = 8, and the
difference between the squares of half that sum and half the dis
tance between the foci = 9 : write its equation.
154 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
A'x2 + B'tf + C = 0,
cos 20 = .
V{{A-Bf + (2Hf}
Substituting these values in our last equation, we find
u(A+B)+vwfWTwy}^\
+ \ {(A + B) - V{A- By+ (2H)n f]^
whence, by writing
A' = i {(A + B) + V (A -By + {2Hf} (d),
*By Trig., 836, sinvl = "; cos^ = *. But since c represents the
hypotenuse, and a and b the sides, of a right triangle: c = Va* + i*.
Hence, when the tangent is given, e. g. tan A = y , we at once derive the
sine and cosine by writing
CRITERION OF THE ELLIPSE. 159
* In testing any given equation by these criteria, we must see that its
signs are so arranged that A (the co-efficient of x2) may be positive. The
conditions with respect to A, are derived on this assumption.
POINT AND CIRCLE AS ELLIPSE. 161
two right lines, and take its two roots separately, we see
that the two lines are
(H + VlP—AB) x + By + {F+VF2—BC) = 0,
(H— VH'—AB) x + By + (F—VF*—BC) = 0.
Eliminating between these equations, and recollecting
[Art. 131, (1)] that
F — BO- H*_AB '
we find, as the co-ordinates of intersection for the two lines,
BG — HF AF—HG
x~ W — AB' y~H2—AB
That is, (Art. 155,) the lines intersect in the center of the
locus of the general equation. But we have seen that this
center is real, irrespective of the state of H2 — AB; and
is finite, so long as H2 — AB is not zero. Hence, when
ever the equation of the second degree represents two
intersecting lines, their intersection is a finite real point,
whether they be real or imaginary.
Uniting the two conclusions thus reached, we obtain
the following important theorem : The Point, as the inter
section of two imaginary right lines, is the limiting case
of the Ellipse.
Remark,—This result is corroborated by the equation (Art. 148)
to the Ellipse itself. For if, in the expression
A'x2 + BY + C = 0,
we suppose A = 0, then C = 0 , and the equation becomes
^V + By = 0:
which (Art. 126, Cor. 2 cf. Art. 127) denotes two imaginary lines
passing through the origin ; that is, in this case, through the center.
161. The Point and the Pair of Imaginary Intersecting
Lines have thus been brought within the order of Conies.
We shall now show that the Circle likewise belongs there.
162 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
EXAMPLES.
I. NOTATION AND CONDITIONS.
1. Determine by inspection the locus of each of the equations
2.r2 + 3f = 12,
2.r2 + 3»/2 = 0,
2x2 + 3y2 = — 12.
2. Transform 3x* + 4.ry + y1 — bx — 6y — 3=0 to parallel axes
through (2, 3). Is the curve an ellipse?
166 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
2. Find the locus of the vertex, when the base and the sum
of the sides are given.
3 Find the loeus of the vertex, given the base and the ratio
of the sides.
4. Given the base, and the product of the tangents of the halves
of the base angles : to find the locus of the vertex.
5. Two vertices of a given triangle move along two fixed lines
which are at right angles : to find the locus of the third.
6. A right line of given length moves so that its extremities
always lie one on each of two fixed lines at right angles to each
other: to find the locus of a point which divides it in a given
ratio.
7. In a triangle of constant base, the two lines drawn through
the vertex at right angles to the sides make a constant intercept
on the line of the base : find the locus of the vertex.
8. The ordinate of any circle a? -f- /32 = r2 is moved about its
foot so as to make an oblique angle with the corresponding diam
eter : find the locus of its extremity in its new position.
9. The ordinate of any circle x2 + y2 = rJ is augmented by a
line equal in length to the corresponding abscissa: find the locus
of the point thus reached.
10. To the ordinate of any circle there is drawn a line, from
the vertex of the corresponding diameter, equal in length to the
ordinate: find the locus of the point of meeting.
11. In any ellipse, find the locus of the middle point of a focal
radius.
12. Find the locus of the extremity of an elliptic radius vector
prolonged in a constant ratio.
13. A right line is drawn through a fixed point to meet an ellipse :
find the locus of the middle point of the portion intercepted by the
curve.
14. Through the focus of an ellipse, a line is drawn, bisecting
the vectorial angle, and its length is a geometric mean of the radius
vector and the distance from the focus to the center: find the locus
of its extremity.
15. Through any point Q of an ellipse, a line is drawn parallel
to the transverse axis, and upon it QP is taken equal to the corre
sponding focal radius : find the locus of P.
168 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
166. The two fixed points, F' and F, are called the
foci of th.o curve ; and the variable distances with a con
stant difference, F'P and FP, are termed its focal radii.
The portion A'A of the right
line drawn through the foci, is -v. |Y Re
called the transverse axis. The xi j j, x-
point 0, taken midway between K/A' j
the foci, we shall for the present ~"
call the focal center.
It is apparent from the diagram, that the right line
Y'Y, drawn through the focal center at right angles to
the transverse a.xis, does not meet the curve. We shall
find, however, that a certain portion of it has a very
significant relation to the Hyperbola, and is convention
ally known as the conjugate axis. For the present, we
shall speak of the whole line under that name.
167. Equation to the Hyperbola, referred to its
Axes.—Putting 2c = the distance between the foci,
and 2a = the constant difference of the focal radii, we
shall have from the diagram above, F'P2 — (x-\- cf + y2
and FP2 = (x — cf + y2. The defining property of the
Hyperbola will therefore be expressed by
V{ (x + c)2 + y2} - V{ (* - cf + y2} = 2a.
Clearing of radicals, we obtain
(c2 — a2)x2 — a2y2 = a2 (f — a2) (1);
and, by writing b2 for c2 — a2 in order to abbreviate, the
required equation becomes
b2x2 — a2y2 = a2b2 (2):
which, on the analogy of the equations to the Right Line
and the Ellipse, may be written
x2 y2 v
170 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
a2
POLAR EQUATION TO HYPERBOLA. 173
a2 + b2
c2 — a2 = b2 and -„— = e2,
c — ae.
1 — e2 cos2 6
EXAMPLES.
1. Given the two points (— 3, 0) and (3, 0); on the first is
pivoted a ruler whose length = 20, and in the second is fastened
a thread whoso length = 16 : form the equation to the hyperbola
generated by means of this ruler and thread as in Art. 165.
2. In a given hyperbola, half the difference of the focal radii
= 2, and half the distance between the foci = 3 : write its equa
tion. Why can not this example be derived from Ex. 2, p. 153, by
merely substituting "difference" for "sum"?
3. Form the equation to the hyperbola whose focus is 1 foot from
its center, and whose focal radii have the constant difference of 3
inches.
4. In a given hyperbola, the difference of the focal radii = 8,
and the difference between the squares of half that difference and
half the distslhce between the foci = — 9 : write its equation.
HYPERBOLA AND GENERAL EQUATION. 175
A B — H2 = negative ;
H2 — AB = positive.
H2 -AB> 0.
0,-
v ~ fL_:
H' — AB
EXAMPLES.
I. NOTATION AND CONDITIONS.
1. Determine whether the following equations represent hyper
bolas :
3**— 8xy + by1 — 6a; + 4y — 2 = 0,
a:2 + 2xy- y2 + * - Zy + 7 = 0,
5a;2 — \2xy — 7y2 + 8x — lOy + 3 = 0.
2. Show that 2a;2 — 12a;y + 5y2 — 6x + Sy — 9 = 0 represents an
oblique primary hyperbola.
3. Show that 3a;2 + 8xy — Zy1 + 6a; — 1 Oy + 5 = 0 represents a
rectangular conjugate hyperbola.
4. Show that 3a;2 + 8xy — Zy2 + 6a; + 10y — 5 = 0 represents a
rectangular primary hyperbola.
5. Verify the proposition of Ex. 2 by reducing the equation to
the axes of the curve.
6. Verify the propositions of Ex. 3 and 4 in the same manner.
7. Given the hyperbola 5a;2 — 6y2 = 30 : form the equation to its
conjugate, and find the quantities a, b, c, and e.
8. Show that 2a:2 + xy — 15y2 — x+ 19y — 6 = 0 denotes an
oblique hyperbola in its limiting case, and find the corresponding
center.
HYPERBOLIC LOCI. 179
7. Given a fixed point and a fixed right line : to find the locus
of P, from which if there be drawn a right line to the fixed point
and a perpendicular to the fixed lino, they will make a constant
intercept on the latter.
8. In the annexed diagram, QP is perpen
dicular to OQ, and BP to OR: find the locus
of P, on the supposition that QR is constant.
9. Supposing that QR in the same diagram
passes through a fixed point, find the locus of
the intersection of two lines drawn through Q
and R parallel respectively to OR and OQ.
10. QR is a line of variable length, revolving upon the fixed
point a/3: find the locus of the center of the circle described about
the triangle ORQ.
11. QR moves between OQ and OR so that the area of the
triangle ORQ is constant: find the locus of the center of the
circumscribed circle.
12. A circle cuts a constant chord from each of two intersecting
right lines : find the locus of its center.
13. Find the locus of the middle point of any hyperbolic focal
radius.
14. From the extremity of any hyperbolic focal radius a line is
drawn, parallel to the transverse axis and equal in length to the
radius : find the locus of its extremity.
15. The ordinate of an hyperbola is prolonged so as to equal the
corresponding focal radius : find the locus of the extremity of the
prolongation.
= 2p _
* 1 — ecosd
Corollary.—Adopting the convention last suggested,
we may arrange the abbreviations referred to, according
to their numerical order, thus :
Ellipse . . . . e < 1.
Parabola . . . . e = 1.
Hyperbola . . . . e > 1.
EXAMPLES.
1. Given the points (4, 0), (1, 0), (3, 0): write the rectangular
equations to the three parabolas of which they are the foci.
2. Write the rectangular equation to the parabohv whose focus is
the point ( — 3, 0).
3. Transform the equations just found to parallel axes passing
through the foci of their respective curves.
4. What are the positions of the foci with respect to the direc
trices, in the parabolas y2 = 4(x — 4), 4y' = — 3 (4x + 3), and
5y2 - 6a: + 9 = 0 ?
5. Write the focal polar equation to the parabola whose focus is
2 feet distant from the directrix, and find the length of its radius
vector when 0 = 90°. Also, find the polar equation to any parabola,
the pole being at the intersection of the axis and directrix.
PARABOLA AND GENERAL EQUATION. 185
sin20=—tj-,— Cos2fl =
and y' being thus necessarily finite and real, while x' is
indeterminate, there is an infinite number of points,
lying on one right line, to any of which if we reduce
(2) by parallel transformation, the co-efficient of y will
disappear, and (2) will become
By + 2G'x+C' = 0 (3).
H2 — AB = Q.
EXAMPLES.
I. NOTATION AND CONDITIONS.
1. Show why the following equations represent parabolas:
4a:2 + \2xy + V + 6x — lOy + 5 = 0,
(2x — 5y)2 = 3x + 4y — 5,
5?/2 — 6a; + 2y — 7 = 0.
2. Show that the preceding equations represent true parabolas,
having their centers at infinity; but that
4a:2 — 12xy + V=25
denotes two parallels, whose center is the line
2x = 3y.
3. Show that 4a:2 — 12xy + 9y2 + 8x — 12y+ 5 = 0 denotes two
imaginary parallels, whose center is the real line 2a: — 3y — 2 = 0;
and that 4a;2 — 12a;y + 9y2 — 8a: + \2y + 4 = 0 denotes the limit
of these parallels.
4. Reduce 9a:2 — 24xy + 1 6y2 -f 4a: — &y — 1 = 0 to the form
BY + 2G,x+ C" = 0.
5. Show that when a parabola breaks up into two parallels, the
line Hx + By + F= 0 becomes the axis of the curve.
192 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
£(„* + !),
2. Given the base and altitude of a triangle: to find the locus
of the intersection of perpendiculars drawn from the extremities
of the base to the opposite sides.
3. Given a fixed line parallel to the axis of a;, and a movable
line passing through the origin: to find the locus of a point on
the latter, so taken that its ordinate is always equal to the portion
of the former included between the axis of y and the moving line.
4. Lines are drawn, through the point where the axis of a par
abola meets the directrix, so as to intersect the curve in two points:
to find the locus of the points midway between the intersections.
5. Through any point Q of a circle, OQ is drawn from the
center 0, and Qli made a chord parallel to the diameter EOT and
bisected in S: to find the locus of P, where OQ and ES intersect.
6 Find the locus of the center of a circle, which passes through
a given point and touches a given right line. [Take given line for
axis of y, and its perpendicular through given point for axis of x.]
7. Given a right lino and a circle : to find the locus of the center
of a circle which touches both. [Take perpendicular to given line,
through center of given circle, for axis of z.]
LOCUS OF SECOND ORDER. 193
H* — AB<0, H2 — AB = 0, H2 — AB>0,
and therefore to be actual numbers, since it is only in
actual numbers that the existence of such conditions can
be tested. But, obviously, we can conceive of equation
(1) as not yet subjected to any such conditions, the
constants A,B,C, F,G,H not being actual numbers, but
symbols of possible ones; and, in fact, we must so con
ceive of it, if we would take it up in pure generality.
In the second place, not only does the equation await
this purely general consideration, but when so considered
it still has geometric meaning. For, though its co-efficients
are indeterminate, its exponents are numerical and fixed :
it therefore still holds its variables under a constant law,
not so explicit as before, but certainly as real. It is still
impossible to satisfy it by the co-ordinates of points taken
at random ; it will accept only such as will combine to
form an equation of the second degree.
Since, then, we must consider (1) in its purely general
aspect as well as under special conditions ; since, even in
this aspect, it still expresses a laiv of form; and since
this law, consisting as it does in the mere fact that the
THE LOCUS AS PURE LAW.
H2 — AB<0, H2 — AB = 0, H2-AB>0.
A < 0, A = 0, A > 0.
F2—BC<Q, F2— BC = 0, F2 — BC>0.
/
/
196 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
CHAPTER SECOND.
« + /9 = 0, /3+r = 0, r + «-o.
L + rL' =0 or Iv + mv' = 0,
L — rL' =0 or Iv — mv' = 0,
lu — m»= 0, mv — nw = 0, nw — lu = 0 ;
lu + mv = 0, mv + nw = 0, nw + lu = 0.
Here, too, the six lines are all expressed in terms of the
three sides.
212. Having thus learned how to interpret the equa
tions
a ± /9 = 0, /3±r = 0, r±a = 0
The equation to OC, which joins a/3 to the intersection of (AE, BF),
and lies in the internal angle of a/3, but in the external angle of the
other two lines, must be equal either to the difference of la and m/3
or the sum of m/3 — ny and ny — la. Accordingly, it is
fa-m/3 = 0 (OC).
Finally, the equation to OD, which joins the intersection of (y, EF)
to that of {AE, BF), and lies in the internal angle of both pairs
of lines, must be formed so as to equal the difference of either
la + m/3 — ny and ny, or m/3 — ny and ny — la. Therefore, it is
fa + m/3 — 2ny = 0 ( OD).
We have thus expressed all the lines of the quadrilateral in
terms of the three lines a, /?, and y. We can do more : we can
solve problems involving the properties of the figure, by means
of these equations, and test the relative positions of its lines
without any direct reference to the x and y which the symbols a,
fS, y conceal. Thus, the form of the equations
la — m/3 = 0, m/3 — ny = 0, ny — la = 0
shows (Art. 114) that the three lines OC, AE, BF meet in one
point, and the same relation between OD, AE, BF is shown in
the form of their equations.
220. We see, then, that by introducing this abridged
notation we can replace the Cartesian equations in x and
y by a set of equations in a, /9, y. Moreover, it is notice
able that all these abridged equations to right lines are
of the first degree with respect to «, /9, and y. Since,
therefore, we operate upon these symbols (as the last
example shows) just as if they were variables, and since
they combine in equations which satisfy the condition
that an equation to a right line must be of the first
degree, it appears that we may use a, /?, y as co-ordinates.
Thus, we may say that the equation
la -f- ot/9 + ny = 0
is the equation to any right line, and that a, /?, y are the
co-ordinates of any point in the line.
An. Ge. 21.
208 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
aa + bp + cy = M:
which is the constant relation connecting the trilinear
co-ordinates of any point.
Bemark—When we say that the sum of the areas of APB,
BPC, CPA is equal to the area of ABC, we of course mean their
algebraic sum. For, if we take a point outside of the triangle of
reference, such as P', we shall evidently have
ABC= AP'B + BP'C— CP'A ;
that is, in such a case, one of the three areas becomes negative.
And this is as it should be ; for, as we have agreed to suppose the
Cartesian origin to be within the triangle of reference, the perpen
dicular P'M is negative, according to the third corollary of Art. 105.
210 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
w = m cos .4 + Z cos 5.
214 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
/9 = 0, y = 0; r = 0, « = 0; « = 0, 0 = 0.
Corollary. —Dividing through by afty, we may write
the equation just found in the more symmetrical form
I m n
a ,3 y
216 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
x2 + f + Ax + By + C= 0.
• See his Conic Sections, p. 67, 4th edition ; but compare the principles
of Arts. 221, 222.
TBILINEAB EQUATIONS. 219
2F— —
b -— 1G — —
c —— 2H——
c a a —~
b
a b c
Hence, the required condition is
2Fbe — Be1— CP = 2Gca — Ca' — Ac2 = 2Hab — Ab2 — Ba2.
240. Equations to tbe Chord and the Tangent
of any Conic.—For the sake of simplicity, we shall
suppose the inscribed triangle to be the triangle of
reference.
I. The equation to the chord is the equation to the
right line which joins any two points on the curve, as
a'jS'y', a!'$"y". Now since these points are on the conic,
we shall have (Art. 235, Cor.)
I m n I m n
EXAMPLES.
1. When will the locus of a point be a circle, if the product
of its perpendiculars upon two sides of a triangle is in a constant
ratio to the square of its perpendicular on the third?
Take the triangle mentioned, as the triangle of reference ; and repre
sent the constant ratio spoken of, by k. The conditions then give us
a/3 = ky1 ;
so that the locus is, in general, a conic of some form. In order that it
may be a circle, the equation just found must satisfy the condition of
Art. 239. Applying this, and observing the fact that in the present
equation C= — k, 2H= 1, and A,B,F, G each = 0, we find that the locus
will be a circle if
£62 = fca2 = ab.
From the first of these conditions, we obtain a~b; from the second and
third, k = 1. The required condition then is, that the triangle shall be
isosceles, and the constant ratio unity.
It is interesting to notice how clearly the equation above written
expresses the position of the locus with respect to tho triangle. To find
where the side a cuts tho conic, we simply make (Art. 62, Cor. 1) a = 0
in the equation
aff = kyK
The result is y2 = 0 ; that is, the equation whose roots are the co-ordinates
of the points of intersection is a quadratic with equal roots. Hence,
CONIC BY TWO TANGENTS AND CHORD. 221
(Art. 62, 3d paragraph of Cor. 2,) the line a meets the curve in two coin
cident points ; in other words, it touches the conic. Moreover, since the
quadratic of intersection is y2 = 0, the two points coincide on the line y.
We thus learn that the conic touches the side a of the triangle at the
point ya.
If we make 0 = 0 in the equation, we again obtain y2 = 0. Hence, the
conic touches the side 0 of the triangle at the point 0y. If we make
y = 0, we get either a = 0 or 0 = 0 ; the side y therefore cuts the conic in
two points : one on the side a, the other on 0 ; or, one the point ya, the
other, the point 0y.
We may sum up the Whole result by saying that a0 = ky1 denotes a
conic, to which two of the sides of the triangle of reference are tangents, while
the third is a chord uniting their points of contact.
2. Form the trilinear equations to the right lines joining the
vertices of a triangle to the middle points of the opposite sides.
Take the triangle itself as the triangle of reference, and suppose the
Cartesian origin within it. The required equations (Art. 108, Cor. 2) will
be of the form
a-k0 = O, 0-k'y = O, y-k"a=0:
in which we are to determine k, k', k" so that the lines shall bisect the
sides of the triangle.
We know that k is = the ratio of the perpendiculars dropped from
the middle of y on a and 0 respectively. But this ratio is evidently
= sin B : sin A. Similarly, k' — sin 0 : sin B ; and k" = A : sin C.
Hence, the equations sought are
a sin A — 0 sin B= 0, 0 sin B — y sin C= 0, y sin G — a sin A = 0.
3. Form the trilinear equations to the three perpendiculars
which fall from the vertices of a triangle upon the opposite sides.
We begin, as before, with the forms of the equations, namely,
a — 4/3=0, 0 — k'y=0, y—k"a=0. Now the condition that the first
line shall bo perpendicular to y (Art. 231, Cor.) gives us
cos B — fccos ^4 = 0.
Hence, fc = cos B : cos A; and, similarly, i'= cosC: cos B, k" — cosC: cos A.
The required equations are therefore
ucos A — 0cos B= 0, /Scos B— y cos (7= 0, y cos C— a cos A = 0.
4. Form the trilinear equations to the three perpendiculars
through the middle points of the sides of a triangle.
The middle points of the sides may be regarded as the intersections
of y, a, and 0 with the lines of Ex. 2. Hence, the form of the equations
will be
a sin A—0 sinB+ny=0, 0 sin B—y sinC+ia = 0, y sinC—a sin A+ m0= 0.
222 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
But the condition of Art. 231, Cor., gives us n = sin (A —B), I — sin (B— C),
m~ sin ( C — A). Therefore, the equations sought are
a sin A — 0 sin B + y sin (A — B) — 0,
B sin B - y sin C + a sin ( B - C ) = 0,
y sin C — a sin -A4-/?sin(C— A)— 0.
If the student will now compare the equations of the last three ex
amples with those of Exs. 4, 6, 7 on page 121, he will at once see how
much simpler the trilinear expressions are than the Cartesian.
5. Show that the equation representing a perpendicular to the
base of a triangle at its extremity, is a -\- y cos B — 0.
6. Show that the lines a — £3 = 0, 8 — ka = 0 are equally-
inclined to the bisector of the angle between a and /3.
7. Prove that the equation to the line joining the feet of two
perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle on the opposite sides is
a cos A + /3 cos B — y cos C— 0.
Also, that the equation to a line passing through the middle points
o? two sides is
a sin A + 3 sin B — y sin 0= 0.
8. Show that the equation to a line through the vertex of a
triangle, parallel to the base, is a sin A + f3 sin B = 0.
9. Find the equation to the line which joins the centers of the
inscribed and circumscribed circles belonging to any triangle.
By the principle of Art. 225, we may take for tho co-ordinates of the
first point 1, 1, 1 ; and, of the second, cos A, cos B, cos C. Hence,
(Art. 233,) the equation is
a (cos B — cos C) + 0 (cos C— cos A) + y (cos A — cos B) = 0.
10. What is the locus of a point, the sum of the squares of the
perpendiculars from which on the sides of a triangle is constant?
Show that when the locus is a circle, the triangle is equilateral.
11. Find, by a method similar to that of Art. 231, the tangent
of the angle contained by tho lines
la + m/3 + ny = 0, I'a + m'fi + n'y = 0.
12. Write the equation to the circle circumscribing the triangle
whose sides are 3, 4, 5.
13. A conic section is described about a triangle ABC; lines
bisecting the angles A, B, and C meet the conic in the points A',
B', and C : form the equations to A'B, A'C, A'B'.
INSCRIBED AND ESCRIBED CONICS. 223
14. Find an equation to the conic which touches the three sides
of a triangle.
If the equations to the three sides of the triangle aro n = 0, 0 = 0,
y — 0, the required equation may be written
yu+y^+ v^7=o.
Verify this, by clearing of radicals, and showing that y, a, and 0 are all
tangents to the curve. (See Art. 240.)
Note.—The preceding equation is of great importance in some investi
gations, and it will be found upon expansion to involve four varieties of sign,
in the terms containing 0y, ya, a0. This agrees with the fact that there
are four conies which touch the sides of a triangle, namely, one inscribed,
and three escribed — that is, tangent to one side externally, and to the
prolongations of the other two internally. If we suppose a, (1, y all pos
itive, therefore, the equation will represent the inscribed conic ; thus,
Vu + VroS + Vn7=0.
The equations to the escribed conies will be
V^Ta + Vm~0 + ^ny = 0, yTa + V=m~0 + V,"^T= 0, V/S + !/l^+*'=^y = 0,
since, in each, one set of perpendiculars must fall on the triangle exter
nally.
15 Find the equation to the circle inscribed in any triangle.
We may derive this from Via + Vmli + V/»y = 0, by clearing of radicals
on the assumption that a, 0, y are positive, and then taking I, in, n so as
to satisfy the condition of Art. 239. Or, we may develop the equation
from that of the circumscribed circle, as follows * : — Let the sides of the
triangle formed by joining the points of contact of the inscribed circle be
a', 0' , y'. Its equation (Art. 236) will then be
sin A' sin B' sin ff
a ti y
But, with respect to the triangles AB'C, etc., we have (Ex. 1) an=0y,
0'i = ya, y'2=a/3; and A'= 90° - % A, B' = 90° - % B, C'=90°- %C.
Substituting these values, and multiplying the resulting expression
throughout by V'ally, the required equation is found to be
co**AAVa + ms}4BVJ+ cos%CV7=0.
The student may now investigate the equations to the three
escribed circles. By the principle developed in Ex. 14, Note, these
may be written down at once, from the equation just found.
Xx -f fty -f v = 0, or Xa -\- + vy = 0,
ENVELOPES.
249. We have called the geometric equivalent of a
Cartesian or trilinear equation the locus of a point.
Similarly, the geometric equivalent of a tangential
equation is called the envelope of a rigid line. This
term needs explanation.
Every tangential equation takes the co-efficients of
).a + fifi + vy — 0 as variables. It therefore implies the
228 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
(1),
(2)-
THE CONIC AS ENVELOPE. 229
But a', ft', y' are the co-ordinates of the point of contact,
and must satisfy the equation to the curve. Therefore,
after substituting in (2) the values just found,
*The student mast not confound the class of a curve with its order.
A conic belongs to the Second order, and also to the Second class; but
other curves do not in general show this agreement.
TANGENTIAL EQUATION TO CONIC. 231
+2(HG—AF)fn>+2{HF-BG)vl+2(GF-CH)7i/t)
{hf-gpr-fra+capf={af-2gra+co?) (bf^ffr+cpF) ;
that is, after expanding and dividing through by r2,
(be -/*) a2 + (ae - f)$ 2 + (ab - hF) f ) q
\-2(hg-af)pr+2(hf-bg)ra+2tgf-ch)ap f
or, since the co-efficients are the derived polynomials
of d, supposing the variable to be successively a, b, c,
etc., and may therefore be represented by A, JB, C, etc.,
Ao? +Bp> +Or2+ 2Ffr +2Gya + 2Haj3 = 0 (2) :
which is the trilinear equation to a conic. Our propo
sition is therefore established.
234 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
RECIPROCAL POLARS.
357. Reciprocal relation between Points and
Ijines.—We have already noticed the reciprocity of Car
tesian and tangential equations, as suggested by the fact
that the Point and the Right Line interchange their ofiices
in passing from one system to the other. This remarkable
property, however, does not appear in its full significance
until we apply to tangentials the same system of abridged
notation that converts a Cartesian into a trilinear equa
tion. When this notation is applied, it is found that an
equation in a, /9, y or u, v, w is susceptible of two inter
pretations, according as it is read in trilinears or in tan
gentials ; and gives rise to two distinct theorems (one
relating to points, the other to lines), which in view of
their derivation may not inaptly be styled reciprocal
theorems.
This capability of double interpretation is known
among mathematicians as the Principle of Duality, and
has led to many of the most striking results of the
Modern Geometry. A few illustrations will enable the
student to conceive of the principle clearly.
236 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
common to the first and second, the pair from y is common to the
first and third, while the pair common to the second and third
intersect in the point k(i — k'y. But, on the analogy of Art. 108,
the latter point is on the line /3y. Hence the reciprocal theorem:
II. If three conies have two tangents common to all, the three points
in which the remaining tangents common to each two intersect, lie on
one right line.
By comparing the phraseology of I and II, we see
that either may be derived from the other by simply
interchanging the words point and tangent, and point
and line. In fact, if the reader chooses to push his
inquiries by consulting other authors upon this subject,
he will find that the entire process of reciprocation, as
it is called, may be reduced to the operation of inter
changing the terms point and line, chord and tangent,
circumscribed and inscribed, locus and envelope, etc.
258. Geometric meaning of the Reciprocal Re
lation.—The process of reciprocation being so mechan
ical, the student may very naturally ask how we can be
cei'tain that reciprocal theorems are any thing more
than fanciful trifling with words. As a sufficient
answer to this question, we shall now show that if a
given theorem is proved of a certain curve, we can
always generate a second curve from the first, to which
the reciprocal of the given theorem will surely apply.
In short, we shall show that the reciprocity which we
have illustrated is not merely a property of trilinear and
tangential equations identical in form, but that the curves
to which such equations belong are reciprocal.
The truth of this statement will appear in two steps:
we shall first explain the meaning and establish the
existence of reciprocal curves; and then prove that the
tangential equation to a curve is the trilinear equation
to its reciprocal.
238 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
EXAMPLES.
1. Interpret in tangentials the several equations of the example
in Art. 219.
2. Write the equations to the points (5, 6), (—3, 2), (7, 8, —9).
3. What is the tangential symbol of the right line passing through
(2, 3) and (4, 5)?
4. Form the tangential equation to the circle represented by
sin A sin B sin C
—t~ + + ~y =
5. Interpret the equation a/? = ky1 both in trilinears and tan
gentials.
6. Show that ?n:a — 2mky + kfl — 0 is the tangential equation to
any point on the curve a/3 = ky\
EXAMPLES Itf TANGENTIALS. 243
'+™
A. 1 ji +1 »v = 0,'
and the equation to the envelope of one whoso co-efficients satisfy
YTk + Ymjt + Ynv = 0.
What is the meaning of the results ?
9. Prove that the envelope of the conic represented by
(3 +A~U'
PART II.
CHAPTER FIRST.
THE RIGHT LINE.
267. Under this head, we only purpose developing
a few properties, noticeable either on account of their
usefulness or their relations to the new or to the higher
geometry.
(245)
240 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
HOMOLOGOUS TRIANGLES.
279. Definitions. —Two triangles, the intersections of
whose sides taken two and two lie on one right line, are
said to be homologous.
The line on which the
three intersections lie is
called the axis of homology.
Any two sides that form
one of the three intersec
tions are termed corre
sponding sides ; and the
angles opposite to them,
corresponding angles.
Thus, in the diagram, the triangles ABC, A'B'C are
homologous with respect to the axis LMN. AB, A'B';
BC, B'C ; CA, C'A' are the corresponding sides; and
A, A'; B, B'; C, C, the corresponding angles.
HOMOLOO Y. 251
COMPLETE QUADRILATERALS.
282. Definitions.—A Complete Quadrilateral is
the figure formed by any four right lines intersecting in
six points.
252 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
aa — bp + c-r — dd = 0 (1),
as this obviously passes through the intersection of
(BL, FL), and of (AM, EM). If we now put Q = the
double area of ABEF, we shall have
aa + bj3 + cr + dd= Q,
and thence
aa — bp + cy — dd = 2 (aa + cy) — Q,
aa — bp + cr—dS = —2 (6/9 + dd) + Q.
ANHARMONICS. 253
(ru — ra) (ro — re) : (re — ra) (ru — ro). Now, taking the
lengths of the perpendiculars from a, e, o, u upon a, both
trigonometrically and from the equations to the given
lines, we obtain
ru = — rift cosec Ors, ra= — kft cosec Ors,
ro = —mft cosec Ors, re = — Ift cosec Ors.
B== (n — jO (m — 0 .
(n — m) (I — k)
EXAMPLES.
1. If from the vertices of any triangle any three convergents be
drawn, and the points in which these meet the opposite sides be
joined two and two by three right lines, the points in which the
latter cut the sides again will lie on one right line.
2. Any side of a triangle is divided harmonically by one of the
three convergents mentioned in Ex. 1, and the line joining the feet
of the other two.
3. In the figure drawn for the two preceding examples, deter
mine by tangentials all the points that are harmonic.
4. In any triangle, the two sides, the line drawn from the vertex
to the middle of the base, and the parallel to the base through the
vertex, form an harmonic pencil.
5. The intersection of the three perpendiculars to the sides of a
triangle, the intersection of the three lines drawn from the vertices
to the middle points of the sides, and the center of the circum
scribed circle, lie on one right line.
6. APB, CQD are two parallels, and AP-.PB:: DQ: QC: to
prove that the three right lines AD, PQ, BC are convergent.
7. From three points A, B, D, in a right line ABCD, three con
vergents are drawn to a point P; and through C is drawn a right
line parallel to AP, meeting PB in E and PD in F: to prove that
AD.BC: AB.CD:: EC: CF.
258 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
CHAPTER SECOND.
THE CIRCLE.
293. Before attempting the discussion of the three
Conies strictly so called, it will be advantageous to
illustrate the analytic method by applying it to that
case of the Ellipse with whose properties the reader
is already familiar from his studies in pure geometry :
we mean, of course, the Circle. As we proceed in this
application, we shall be enabled to define those elements
of curves in general, which constitute at once the leading
objects and principal aids of geometric analysis.
THE AXIS OF X.
294. The rectangular equation to the Circle referred
to its center (Art. 136) is
x2 -j- y2 = r2.
If we solve this for y, we obtain
y — V{r+x) (r—x). But, from x'-
the diagram, r + x = AM, and
r — x = MB ; and we have the
well-known property of Geom.,
325,
The ordinate to any diameter of a circle is a mean
proportional between the corresponding segments.
260 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
(1 + m2) x2 + 2mb.x + b2 — r2 = 0.
y — y' _ y"—y' .
x — x' x"—x>'
in which xfy', x"y", since they both lie upon the circle,
are subject to the condition
DIAMETERS.
299. Definition.—A Diameter of any curve is the
locus of the middle points of parallel chords.
300. Equation to a Circular Diameter.—To
find this, we must form the equation to the locus of
the middle points of parallel chords in a circle. Let
x, y be the co-ordinates of any middle point : the
formula for the length of the chord from xy to the
point x'y' of the curve (Art. 102) gives us either
x' =x-j- cl or y' = y + si.
<
CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. TANGENT. 265
y — xtund (1).
y = — xcotd' (2).
THE TANGENT.
304. Definition.—A Tangent of any curve is a chord
which meets it in two coincident
points.
In applying this definition, the
student must keep in mind the
principles of Art. 296, II. The
annexed diagram will aid him in
apprehending the definition cor
rectly. Let P'P" be any chord
passing through the two distinct points P' and P",
and let PT be a tangent parallel to P'P". Suppose
266 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
Solving for x" and y" between (1) and (2), we get the
co-ordinates of the point of contact, namely,
„ r2x'±ry'V/xl2+y'2—r2 _ r'y'^rx'Vx'^y'2—r2
" x'*+y'2 ' & ~~ x'2 + y'2
Corollary.—Hence, through any fixed point there can
be drawn two tangents to a given circle, real, coincident,
or imaginary. Meal, when x'2 + y'2 > r2 ; that is, when
x'y' is outside the circle. Imaginary, when x'2 + !//2<r2;
that is, when x'y' is within the circle. Coincident, when
z?2 + yn — 72 j that is, when x'y' is on the circle.
LENGTH OF TANGENT. 269
THE NORMAL.
313. Definition. —The Normal of a curve is the
right line perpendicular to a tangent at the point of
contact.
* The point in which a line meets the axis of x is termed the foot of the
line. Similarly, the point where a line meets any other is sometimes
called its foot.
NORMAL AND SUBNORMAL. 271
SUPPLEMENTAL CHOEDS.
316. Definition.—By Supplemental Chords of a
circle, we mean two chords passing respectively through
the extremities of a diameter, and intersecting on the curve.
An. Ge. 26.
272 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
\
POLE AND POLAR. 273
Now the equation to the line which joins x'y' to the center
of the same circle (Art. 95, Cor. 2) is
y'x — x'y - 0.
r2
324. The condition that a point x"y" shall lie upon the polar
of x'y' is of course
Now, obviously, this is also the condition that x'y' shall lie upon
the polar of x"y". Therefore, If a point lie upon the polar of a
second, the second will lie upon the polar of the first.
Corollary— Hence, The intersection of two right lines is the pole
of the line which joins their poles.
Bemark. —We shall find hereafter that these properties are com
mon to all conies.
325. The distance of x'y' from the polar of x"y" (Art 105,
Cor. 2) is
x"x'+i/y— r2
Systems of Circles,
i. system with common radical axis.
328. Any two circles lying in the same plane give
rise to a very remarkable line, which is called their
radical axis. Its existence and its fundamental property
will appear from the following analysis:
An. Ge. 27.
280 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
(J'-f)*-{9'-9)y=f'9-9'f-
Therefore, (Art. 99, Cor.,) The radical axis of two circles
is perpendicular to the line which joins their centers.
Corollary.—Hence, To construct, the radical axis of two
circles, find its intercept on the axis of x by making y = 0
in the equation S — S'=0, and through the extremity of the
intercept draw a perpendicular to the line of the centers.
Remark.—This construction is applicable in all cases;
but, when the circles intersect in real points, the axis is
obtained at once by drawing the common chord.
330. If S, S', S" be any three circles, the equations
to the three radical axes to which the group gives rise
will be
S— S'=0, S' — S" = 0, S"—S=0:
which evidently vanish identically when added. Hence,
The three radical axes belonging to any three circles meet
in one point, called the radical center.
Corollary.—We may therefore construct the radical
axis as follows: Find the
radical center of the two
given circles with respect to
any third, and through it
draw a perpendicular to the
line of their centers. The
annexed diagram will illus
trate the details of the pro
cess. In it, c and c' are the
centers of the two given cir
cles, 0 the radical center, and OQC the radical axis.
282 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
Since the center of such a circle is any point on the radical axis,
there is an infinite series of orthogonal circles for every system with
a common axis. But for the special purpose to which we are about
to apply it, any one of these may be selected, of which we shall
speak as the orthogonal circle.
335. Construction of the System.—We can now construct
the system geometrically, in all cases. The only case that needs
illustration, however, is that of the system passing through two
imaginary common points. Since (Art. 334) the tangents of the
orthogonal circle are all radii of the circles forming the system, we
may draw any number of these circles as follows : —Lay down any
right line MN, and any perpendicular to it HQ. On the latter,
take any point C as a center, and, with any radius CQ, describe a
circle cutting MN in the points m and n. At any points a, b, c, d, e
of this circle, draw tangents to meet MN in 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; and from
these points as centers, with radii in each case equal to the corre
sponding tangent, describe circles. It is evident that the radii Ca,
Cb, Ce, etc., of the fundamental circle, will all be tangents to the
respective circles last drawn. Hence RQ is the common radical
axis of all these circles, and the circle C-Qmn is orthogonal to
them.
336. Properties of the System: Limiting Points.—From
the nature of the foregoing construction and the resulting diagram,
we obtain the following properties-
PONCELET'S LIMITING POINTS. 285
in which <52 is constant for the whole system, while k varies for each
different member. Xow — d~* = r2 — & . \ r = V Ul — o' : therefore
r vanishes when k = ± &, and becomes imaginary when k < 6 or
> — S. Hence, the two points (y = 0, x = <J) and (y = 0, a: = — <5)
are the infinitesimal circles which we have called the limiting points
of the system ; for we have just shown that they have the property
of Art. 336, II, and they are represented (Art. 61, Rem.) by the
equation
(x=F<5)' +y* = 0; that is, x> + y' =F2fa = — <J*
which conforms to the type of (1).
To exhibit the singular nature of these limiting points, we will
now develop one more property of the system to which they belong.
The equation to any of its members may be thrown into the form
(x-A)» + y» = r«.
Hence, (Art. 305, Cor.,*) the polar of any point x'y', with respect
to any member of the system, will be represented by
x'x + y'y + <SJ -A (x + aT) = 0 (2).
Now (Art. 108) the line denoted by (2) passes through the inter
section of the two lines i/x + y/y + (52 = 0 and x + x'=0, whatever
be the value of k. Therefore, 1/ the po/ars of a given point be taken
with respect to the whole system of circles having a common radical axis,
they will all meet in one point.
Suppose, then, that x'y' be either of the limiting points. The
polar will then become
x = =F S (3).
Hence, The polar of either limiting point is a line drawn through the
other at right angles to the line of centers, and is therefore absolutely
fixed, for the whole system.
* The student will remember that the equations to the tangent and polar
of the Circle are identical in form.
CIRCLES WITH COMMON TANGENTS. 287
r -t- r r-t-r
r-t-r r -+- r
Now (Art. 95) these values satisfy the equation to the line of centers,
and show (Art. 52) that x'y' divides the distance between gf and
g'f in the ratio of r and r/. Hence, Common tangents of two circles
intersect on the line of their centers, and divide the distance between
those centers in the ratio of the radii.
342. Centers of Similitude.—If the common tangent be made
the initial line, and either O or C be taken for the pole, the polar
equation to the circle S (Art. 138) may be written
ft2, -2_rcos(0
i — a)'- ft -\ r2cos2<z
r-^— =0,.
sin a sin a
by merely substituting for d its value r : sin a. Hence, for the circle S,
ft — r f cos (ft — a) ± l/cos2 ■ (t> — a) — cos'2 a \ ■
sin o
Similarly, for the circle S/, we get
ft —■ T* { COS (ff — a) ± l/cos2
■ (H — a) — cos'2 a \ ■
sin a
Therefore, ft : ft : : r : t/.
Now these vectors of <S' and S/ are the segments formed by the two
circles on any right line drawn through O or C. Hence, All right
lines drawn through the intersection of the common tangents of two circles
are cut similarly by the circles, namely, in the ratio of the radii.
Remark—On account of this property, the points in which the
common tangents intersect are called centers of similitude.
290 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
makes the same angle with either side as the base does with the
other; or we have the well-known theorem: The angle contained by
a tangent and chord of any circle is equal to that inscribed under the
intercepted arc.
347. The equation obtained in the preceding article denotes
the tangent at the vertex C of a triangle inscribed in a circle ; and
analogous equations may at once be written for the tangents at the
other two vertices A and B. The equation to the tangent at any
point of a circle circumscribed about a given triangle (compare
Arts. 236; 240, II) is
a sin A /3 sin B y sin C n
a" 1 /F3 *~ ■/*
348. The equations to the tangents at
the vertices of an inscribed triangle (Art
346) may be written
£b + ^c=» <2>-
of the sides. Hence, (Art. 114,) The lines which join the vertices
of a triangle to those of the triangle form.ed by drawing to its circum
scribed circle tangents at its vertices, meet in one point.
Bemark The theorems of the last two articles, which are illus
trated in the diagram, are evidently a particular case of homology
(Art. 327) due to a pair of conjugate triangles.
350. Radical Axis in Trilinears.—The equations
to any two circles, in the abridged notation, (Arts. 236,
237) are
sin A sin B sin C . a , N n
___ 4- _— -| — -f M (la + mp + nf) = 0,
sin A 1, sin B 1, sin C f-. M (l a +. m'p
,a -f-, n'y)
, ■. = 0.
A
16. If several circles pass through two fixed points, their radical
axes with a fixed circle will pass through a fixed point.
[This example may be best solved by means of the Abridged Notation,
but can be done very neatly without it.]
17. Form the equation to the system of circles which cuts at
right angles any system with a common radical axis, and prove,
by means of it, that every member of the former system passes
through the limiting points of the latter.
18. IfPQbe the diameter of a circle, the polar of P with respect
to any circle that cuts the first at right angles, will pass through Q.
19. The square of the tangent drawn to any circle from any point
on another is in a constant ratio to the perpendicular drawn from
that point to their radical axis.
20. If a movable circle cut two fixed ones at constant angles, it
will cut at constant angles all circles having the same radical axis
as these two.
[First prove that the angle 0 at which two circles cut each other, is
determined by the formula
D2=B2 + r2-2Jtr cos <p,
in which R, r are the radii of the circles, and D the distance between
their centers.]
21. Find the equations to the common tangents of the two
circles
rf+y2 — 4x — 2y + 4 = 0, x* + f + 4x + 2y — 4 = 0.
What is the equation to their radical axis?
22. If a movable circle cut three fixed ones, the intersections of
the three radical axes will move along three fixed right lines which
meet in one point.
23. The radical axis of any two circles that do not intersect,
bisects the distances between the two points of contact correspond
ing to each of the four common tangents.
24. If through a center of similitude belonging to any two circles,
we draw any two right lines meeting the first circle in the points
R and R', S and S' respectively, and the second in r and r', s and
s' : then will the chords RS and rs, R'S' and rV, be parallel ; while
RS and rV, R'S' and rs, will each intersect on the radical axis.
An. Ge. 28.
290 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
25. Find the trilinear equation to the circle passing through the
middle points of the sides of any triangle, and prove that this circle
passes through the feet of the three perpendiculars of the triangle,
and bisects the distances from the vertices to the point in which
the three perpendiculars meet. [This circle is celebrated in the
history of geometry, and, on account of passing through the points
just mentioned, is called the Nine Points Circle.]
Find, also, the radical axis of this and the circumscribed circle.
GHAPTER THIRD.
THE ELLIPSE.
I. The Curve referred to its Axes.
351. We may most conveniently begin the discussion
of the Ellipse by means of the equation which we obtained
in Art. 147, namely,
a2 + ¥ - A'
-4-^-1
THE AXES.
352. If in the above equation we make y = 0, we
shall obtain, as the intercept of the curve upon the
transverse axis,
x = ±a (1);
PROPERTIES OF THE ELLIPSE. 297
Comparing (1) and (2), we see that the curve cuts both
axes in two points, and that in each case these two points
are equally distant from the focal center, which (Art. 147)
was taken for the origin. Hence we have
Theorem I.— The focal center of any ellipse bisects the
transverse axis, and also the conjugate.
Corollary.—We must therefore from this time forward
interpret the constants a and b in the equation
*- + t = 1
a2 + b>
b = VJa + c) (a — c).
latus rectum = — = •
a 2a
CIRCUMSCRIBED CIRCLE. 301
i
ECCENTRICITY. LINEAR EQUATION. 303
b (since it is equal to Va.1 — c1) must be less than a; that is, the
conjugate axis must be less than the transverse.
II. It is closed, i. e., limited in the directions of both axes. For,
if we suppose i>aor < — a, the corresponding values of y are
imaginary; and, if we suppose y~>b or < — b, the corresponding
values of x are imaginary.
III. It is continuous in extent. For, between the limits x = — a
and x = a, all the values of y are real.
IV. It is symmetric to both axes. For, corresponding to every
value of x between the limits — a and a, the two values of y are
numerically equal with opposite signs; and the same is true of the
values of x corresponding to any value of y between — b and b.
BISECTORS OF PARALLEL CHORDS. 305
DIAMETERS.
362. Equation to any Diameter.—We are re
quired to find the equation to the locus of the middle
points of any system of parallel chords in an ellipse.
Let xy be the variable point of this locus, 0' the common
inclination of the bisected chords, and x'y' the point in
which any chord of the system cuts the curve. Then
(Art. 101, Cor. 3)
x1 — x — I cos 0', y" — y — I sin 0'.
But x'y' is a point on the curve ; hence (Art. 147)
y— x cot 0'.
9 1 — e2 cos2 1) '
Hence, given the inclination 0, the length of the corre
sponding diameter can at once be found.
az c a2
THE TANGENT.
384. Equation to any Chord.—Let x'y\ x"y" be
the extremities of any chord in an ellipse : then (Art. 147)
6V2 + a2y'2 = b2x"2 + a2y"2.
Hence, after transposing and factoring,
y"—y' _ x'+x"
x"—a/ tf'y'+y" W'
a2 + b1 ~ ' a? i" b2 ~
(i);
a2 + b1
and the equation to the diameter conjugate to that whose
extremity is x'y' (Art. 372) is
x[x -ijy
= 0 (2).
a* ^ V
Now (Art. 98, Cor.) the lines (1) and (2) are parallel.
That is,
Theorem XXIII.— The tangent at the extremity of any
diameter of an ellipse is parallel to the conjugate diameter.
Corollary.—If we replace x' and y' by — x' and — y1,
equations (1) and (2) still satisfy the condition of paral
lelism. Hence, Tangents at the extremities of a diameter
are parallel to each other.
Remark,—If the student will form the equation to the
parallel of (2) passing through
x'y', he will find that it is (1).
In other words, the converse of
our theorem is also true, and we
can always construct a tangent
at any point P, by drawing the
diameter PD and its conjugate,
and making LPM parallel to the
latter. In this way we can form
the circumscribed parallelogram
corresponding to any two diameters PD, QD1; and we
here find the promised justification of the statement
(Art. 381, Rem.), that the parallelogram under two
conjugates is circumscribed, since its sides must be
parallel to the conjugates, and therefore be tangents
to the curve at their extremities.
DIRECTION OF TANGENT. 319
x = CT=-,.
subtan=^^^±4^).
x' ar
_ a?V ab
P~y/{^xn + aiy'2)~^/{a2—e2xn) '
322 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
p : p' : : p : p',
a relation expressed in ordinary terms by
Theorem XXVIII.— The focal perpendiculars upon any
tangent of an ellipse are proportional to the adjacent focal
radii of contact.
398. Multiplying together the values of p and p',
and observing Art. 377, we obtain
PP' = t>\
which is the algebraic expression of
Theorem XXIX.— The rectangle under the focal perpen
diculars upon any tangent is constant, and equal to the
square on the semi-axis minor.
399. The equation to any tangent of an ellipse
(Art. 386, Cor.) being
y — mx = Vni'd2 + b2,
that of the focal perpendicular, which passes through
(vV — b\ 0), may be written (Art. 103, Cor. 2)
my + x = V a2 — b2.
Squaring these equations, and adding them together,
we obtain
x2 + y2 = a2
as the equation to the locus of the point in which the focal
perpendicular meets the tangent. Hence, (Art. 136,)
Theorem XXX.— The locus of the foot of the focal per
pendicular upon any tangent of an ellipse, is the circle
circumscribed about the curve.
Corollary.—From this property, we obtain the follow
ing method of constructing a tangent to any ellipse, —
GENERIC CONSTR UCTION FOR TANGENT. 325
THE NORMAL.
402. Equation to the Normal.—The expression
for the perpendicular drawn through the point of contact
x'y' to the tangent
x'x ,y'y_A
a? + b2 - '
An. Ge. 31.
328 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
f5(*-*o= ^-y)-
a/ ey1
taDy~62(^+c) |~~~lr"
Similarly, for the angle <p' made with the normal by the
right-hand focal radius of contact FT, wo get
a2(s' — e) _ b,
an f — ^ 62 (a/ — c) ~ Vs '
xf + y>
Hence <p' = <p ; or, the normal makes equal angles with
the two focal radii drawn to the point of contact, and
vre have
Theorem XXXIII.— The normal of an ellipse bisects the
internal angle between the focal radii of contact.
Corollary 1.—This property enables us to construct a
normal at a given point on the curve. For let P be the
CONSTRUCTION OF NORMAL. 329
x = CN=-x'=e2x'.
a2
Corollary.—By means of
this value, we can construct
a normal either through a
given point on the axis major or at a given point on the
curve. For, in the former case, we have ON given, to
find x' = CM; and, in the latter, CM is given, to find
x=ON.
subnor = ^ x'.
a'
407. Comparing the results of Arts. 404 and 406,
ON : NM= c2 : V. Hence, as c2 = a2 — b2, we get
Theorem XXXV.— The normal of an ellipse cuts the
abscissa of contact in the constant ratio (a2 — b2) : b2.
408. ^Length of the Normal.—By this is meant
the portion of the normal intercepted between the point
of contact and either axis. We have, then,
PN2 = PM2 + NW=y'2 4- *»= bl (a2 — eV2).
a4 or
Hence, since (Art. 376) a2 — eV2 = b'2,
PN=™.
a
By similar reasoning, the details of which are left for
the student to supply,
SEGMENTS OF NORMAL. 331
41©. It has been shown (Art. 393) that, for the length
of the central perpendicular upon any tangent, we have
CQ = fr
in which xy, x'y' , being both upon the curve, are so con
nected (Art. 147) that
x2 — x'- a2
DIAMETRAL PROPERTIES.
416. We are now ready to consider the Ellipse from
a point of view somewhat higher than the one we have
hitherto occupied, and shall presently discover that many
of the properties we have developed are only particular
cases of theorems more generic. Heretofore, we have
referred the curve to its axes : let us now refer it to any
two conjugate diameters.
(a2 sin2 0 + b2 cos2 0) x2 + (a2 sin2 0' + b2 cos2 0') «/2 = a2b2.
a2sin20 + 62cos20 = ^
a'1 , «2sin20' + 62cos20' = ^
bn .
- + -^=1.
t
ai J_
1- £
j2 —
— 1h
DIAMETRAL PROPERTIES. 337
+ y2 — a'2i
X
TANGENT REFERRED TO CONJUGATES. 341
Hence, after substituting for y'2 from the equation to the curve,
PT. PT' = b'2,
the sign of the second factor being disregarded, as we are only
concerned with the area of the rectangle. We have, then,
Theorem XLV— The rectangle under the intercepts cut off upon
any variable tangent of an ellipse by two fixed parallel tangents is
variable, being equal to the square on the semi-diameter parallel to the
tangent.
342 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
the axes sought. For (Geom., 331) AD.DB = CD DP= Ciy\ and
therefore (Th. xlvi) CA, CB are conjugate diameters. Moreover,
since ACB is inscribed in a semicircle, they are the rectangular
conjugates of the curve; or, in other words, the axes.
y'2=b^(a'2 -*'*)>
a'2 n
PARAMETERS.
4137* Definitions.—The Parameter of an ellipse,
with respect to any diameter, is a third proportional to
the diameter and its conjugate. Thus, if a', V denote
the lengths of any two conjugate semi-diameters, we
shall have, for the value of the corresponding parameter,
(26')2 _ 2b'2
parameter
2a'
2b2
4» =
a
Hence, (Art. 357, Cor.,) the principal parameter is iden
tical with the line which we named the latus rectum;
that is, it is the double ordinate drawn through the
focus to the axis major.
346 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
^4_M_
an -T b,2 — 1 an A-VA
"I" hn —
~ 1A>
£!?
a'2 -4-
"•" tl— 1 "•
&'2
shows (Art. 98, Cor.) that the polar and the diameter
are parallel. We have, then, the following extension
of the property reached in Art. 389 :
Theorem L.— The polar of any point, with respect to
an ellipse, is parallel to the diameter conjugate to that
which passes through the point.
437. Polars of Special Points.—It is easy to see,
by comparing the equations to the polar in the Ellipse
and in the Circle (Arts. 434, 323), that the general
properties of polars proved in Art. 324 are true in the
case of the Ellipse. We leave the student to convince
himself of this, and will here present certain special
properties of polars, which depend on taking the pole
at particular points.
If we substitute for x'y', in the equation of Art. 434,
the co-ordinates of the center, we shall get 1 = 0: an
expression conforming to the type (Art. 110)
C=0.
Hence, The polar of the center is a right line at infinity.
If in the same equation we make y'— 0, we shall get
1 ± e cos # '
the upper or lower sign being used according as the
right-hand or left-hand focus is taken for the pole.
444. Polar Equation to the Tangent.—We shall
obtain this most readily by transforming the equation
^1 m tl — i
a? + V
from rectangular to polar co-ordinates, at the same time
removing the pole to the left-hand focus, whose co-ordi
nates are — ae, 0. We have (Art. 58) x' — (>' cos 0' — ae,
x — p cos 6 — ae, y' — p' sin 8', y —p sin 6. Hence, the
transformed equation is
(ft' cos 6' — ae) (p cos 6 — ae) p'p cos t) cos 0' _ 1
a2 + V ~ '
But p'0' is on the curve : therefore, (Art. 443,)
a (1 — e2) b2
1 — e cos 6' a (1 —• e cos 0')
356 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
_ a (1 — e2)
P~ cos (0 — 0') — ecosd '
ae (cos 0' — e)
P = cos (0 — 0') — e cos 0 '
p = F'M= -pi
1 — e cos tr
Now, from the polar equation to the curve, as given in Art 152,
1 — ccosfr
Hence,
DM= F'D — F'M= a.
AREA OF THE ELLIPSE. 357
A — Ttab.
That is,
Theorem LIII. — The area of an ellipse is equal to it times
the rectangle under ils semi-axes.
Corollary. —Since rrab = VTia2. >-6", we have the addi
tional property : The area of an ellipse is a geometric
mean between the areas of its circumscribed and inscribed
circles.
EXAMPLES ON THE ELLIPSE.
1. Find the equations to the tangent and normal at the extremity
of the latus rectum, and determine the eccentricity of the ellipse in
which the normal mentioned passes through the extremity of the
axis minor.
2. Find the equations to the diameter passing through the ex
tremity of the latus rectum, and the chord joining the extremities
of the axes ; and determine the eccentricity of the ellipse in which
these lines are parallel.
3. A point P is so taken on the normal of an ellipse, that its
distance from the foot of the normal is in a constant ratio to the
length of the normal: find the locus of P, and prove that when P
is the middle point of the normal, its locus is an ellipse whose eccen
tricity e' is connected with that of the given one by the condition
(1— erl){\ + elf=\ — e\
4. Prove that two ellipses of equal eccentricity and parallel axes
can have only two points in common. Also, show that if three such
ellipses intersect, their three common chords will meet in one point.
EXAMPLES ON THE ELLIPSE. 359
16. The locus of the foot of the central perpendicular upon any
tangent to an ellipse, is the curve
p2 = a' cos," 8 -f h2 sin2 d.
17. The locus of the variable intersection of two circles described
on two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse, is the curve
2p2 = a2 cos2 0 + 42sin20.
18. If lines drawn through any point of an ellipse to the extrem
ities of any diameter meet the conjugate CD in M and N, prove
that CM.CN= CD2.
19. In an ellipse, the rectangle under the central perpendicular
upon any tangent and the part of the corresponding normal inter
cepted between the axes, is constant, and equal to a2 — 6s.
20. The condition that two diameters of an ellipse may be conju
gate, referred to a pair of conj ugates as axes of co-ordinates, is
bn
tan 8 tan & = — -p. ■
a1
21. Normals at P and D, the extremities of conjugate diameters,
meet in Q: prove that the diameter CQ is perpendicular to PD,
and find the locus of its intersection with the latter.
22. Given any two semi-diameters, if from the extremity of each
an ordinate be drawn to the other, the triangles so formed will be
equal in area. Also, if tangents be drawn at the extremity of each,
the triangles so formed will be equal in area.
23. Find the locus of the intersection of the focal perpendicular
upon any tangent with the radius vector from the center to the point
of contact. Also, the locus of the intersection of the central perpen
dicular with the radius vector from the focus to the point of contact.
24. The equi-conjugates being taken for axes, find the equation
to the normal at P, and prove that the normal bisects the line
joining the feet of the perpendiculars dropped from P upon the
equi-conjugates.
25. Find the locus of the intei-section of tangents drawn through
the extremities of conjugate diameters.
26. Putting p, p' to denote the focal radii of any point on an
ellipse, and <j> for its eccentric angle, prove that
p = a(l — «cos0), p' = a(l + ecos0).
EXAMPLES ON THE ELLIPSE. 361
area = ——;4ab — ,
sin (0 — '
where 0, are the eccentric angles corresponding to the points of
contact of the adjacent sides. Show that this area is least when
the points of contact are the extremities of conjugates.
31. Upon the axis major of an ellipse, two supplemental chords
are erected, and perpendiculars are drawn to them from the vertices :
show that the locus of the intersection of these perpendiculars is
another ellipse, and find its axes.
32. Let CP, CD be any two conjugate semi-diameters: the
supplemental chords from P to the extremities of any diameter are
parallel to those from D to the extremities of the conjugate.
33. The rectangle under the segments of any focal chord is to
the whole chord in a constant ratio.
34. The sum of two focal chords drawn parallel to two conjugate
diameters is constant.
35. The sum of the reciprocals of two focal chords at right angles
to each other is constant.
36. To a series of confocal ellipses, tangents are drawn from a
fixed point on the axis major : find the locus of the points of contact.
362 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
37. Tangents to two confocal ellipses are drawn to cut each other
at right angles: the locus of their intersection is a circle concentric
with the ellipses.
38. Find the sum of the focal perpendiculars upon the polar
of xy.
39. The intercept formed on any variable tangent by two fixed
tangents, subtends a constant angle at the focus. Also, the line
which joins the focus to the point in which any chord cuts the
directrix, is the external bisector of the focal angle subtended by
the chord.
40. One vertex of a circumscribed parallelogram moves along
one directrix of an ellipse : prove that the opposite vertex moves
along the other, and that the two remaining vertices move upon the
circumscribed circle.
CHAPTER FOURTH.
THE HYPERBOLA.
i. The Curve referred to its Axes.
44% In discussing the Hyperbola by means of its
equation (Art. 167)
ar y2 1
a% ~~ ¥ = '
we shall avoid the repetition of much that has already
been said in connection with the Ellipse, by considering
that the similarity of the equations to these two curves
makes most of the arguments used in the foregoing pages
at once applicable to the Hyperbola. We shall therefore
avail ourselves of the principle developed in the corollary
to Art. 167, and, for details, shall refer the student to
the proper article in the preceding Chapter.
For the sake of bringing out the antithesis between
the Ellipse and Hyperbola, alluded to in the Remark
PROPERTIES OF THE HYPERBOLA. 363
THE AXES.
448. Making y and x successively equal to zero in
the equation of Art. 167, we get, for the intercepts of
the Hyperbola upon the lines termed its axes,
x—±a, y=±b V— 1.
Hence, the curve cuts the transverse axis in two real
points equally distant from the focal center, and the
conjugate axis in two imaginary points situated on
opposite sides of that center at the distance b j/— 1.
Assuming, then, the conjugate axis to be measured by
the imaginary unit V— 1, we may infer
Theorem I.— The focal center of any hyperbola bisects
the transverse axis, and also the conjugate.
Corollary.—In the light of the analysis leading to this
theorem, we should therefore interpret the constants a
and b in the equation
a2 b2~
as respectively denoting half the transverse axis and
half the modulus of the imaginary conjugate axis.
440. At the outset (see Art. 166.), we arbitrarily
used the phrase conjugate axis to
denote the whole line drawn through
the center 0 at right angles to the
transverse axis A'A. We now see
that the phrase in strictness means
an imaginary portion of that line,
of the length — 2b V^—i.
But, as was promised in Art. 166, we shall now show
364 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
t. _ t.— -4-1
a2 b*
CONSTRUCTION OF CURVE AND FOCI. 365
DIAMETERS.
459. Equation to any Diameter.—To obtain an
expression for the locus of the middle points of chords
in an hyperbola which have a common inclination d' to
the transverse axis, we write (Art. 167, Cor.) — b2 for b2
in the final equation of Art. 362. Hence, the required
equation is
b2
y = — x cot 0'.
a~
Corollary.—Putting 6 = the inclination of the diameter
itself, we obtain (Art. 78, Cor. 1), as the condition con
necting the inclination of any diameter with that of the
chords which it bisects,
b2
tan d tan d'= — •
a2
46©. Since the equation to a diameter conforms to
the type y = mx, we at once infer
Theorem X.—-Every diameter of an hyperbola is a right
line passing through the center.
372 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
b2
tan 6 tan 6' = —.-
a2
— _ tl — n
a2 ¥ ~
An. Ge. 35.
376 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
They are
- , ay' , bx1
xc = ±-%-, yc=± — .
o a
Remark.—By comparing these expressions with those
of Art. 373, we notice that the abscissa and ordinate of
the conjugate diameter in the Ellipse have opposite signs,
but in the Hyperbola like signs. This agrees with the
properties developed in Arts. 371, 468.
471. The equations of Art. 470, like those of Art. 373, give
rise to
Theorem XVI.— The abscissa of the extremity of any diameter is
to the ordinate of the extremity of its conjugate, as the transverse axis
is to the conjugate axis.
473. By following, with respect to the second ex
pression of Art. 470, the steps indicated in Art. 375,
excepting that we subtract the yn, we arrive at
Theorem XVII.— The difference of the squares on the
ordinates of the extremities of conjugate diameters is con
stant, and equal to the square on the conjugate semi-axis.
LENGTH OF CONJUGATES. 377
«'2 - ai V? + ^ W + a*) + %
(a — ex')'
in which x'y' is the extremity D of
any diameter Z/D. But x'1 + y'2 =
an= (Art. 473) Ace* + a1= (Art.
472, Rem.) e\3/1— dl) + a\ Hence,
after substituting and reducing,
6=DM=a;
or, in the Hyperbola as well as in the Ellipse, we have
Theorem XIX.— The distance from the extremity of any diameter
to its conjugate, measured upon the corresponding focal radius, is
constant, and equal to the transverse semi-axis.
476. Let a', b' denote the lengths of any two conju
gate semi-diameters in an hyperbola. Then (Art. 473)
an = e2x? + a? (1).
Also, b'2 — xc2-\- y? = %?Jc {b2 (x2 + a2) : a2}, since £rand
ye satisfy the equation to the conjugate hyperbola.
Hence, (Art. 171,)
6'J = eV + b2 (2).
x'yc — y%
sin f --
a'b'
Substituting for xc and yc from Art. 470, reducing, and
remembering that b2x'2 — dry'2 = a2b2, we get
ab
Solving these equations for a' and b', we find, as the only
real values,
a' — a, b' = b.
0=^tan_1 — , 0=tan-1 — — ,
a a
tan 0 = ± - .
a
By drawing the rectangle of the
axes, LMNR, it becomes evi
dent that the first of the values
here expressed corresponds to the angle ACL; and the
second, to the angle ACM. Hence,
Theorem XXII.— The self-conjugates of an hyperbola
are the diagonals of the rectangle contained under its axes.
Corollary.—Hence, further, An hyperbola has two, and
only two, self-conjugates. Their mutual inclination LCM,
or LCR, as we readily find, is determined by
2ab
7>x y'y _ 1
a2 62 — '
483. Condition that a Right Line shall touch
an Hyperbola.—Making the characteristic change of
sign in the condition of Art. 386, we have
11 = Vm2d2 — b2
as the condition that the line y — mx + n may touch
the curve
x2 y2
ECCENTRIC ANGLE. 383
Substituting for x' and y' in Art. 481, we may write the equation
to the tangent, in this notation,
x j. V i. a. i
—
a sec <t> — t
b tan 0=1.
y"<h-x".
a
Hence, as y — (b : a) x is the equation to the diagonal
of the rectangle formed upon the axes (Art. 461, Cor. 1),
POSITION OF POINT OF CONTACT. 385
y'(x-c)-(x'-c)y=Q (FP),
y'(x+c)-(x>+c)y=0 (F'P),
— a2&2 _ ah
P ~ i/(b4x'2 + «y2) ~~ ^/(eV2— a2) '
ah
P=V->
491. Making the same change in the final equation of Art. 395,
we obtain, as the equation to the locus of the intersection of tangents
to an hyperbola which cut at right angles,
x1 + y1 = a2 — &2.
From this (Art. 136) we at once get
Theorem XXVII,— The locus of the intersection of tangents to an
hyperbola which cut each other at right angles, is the circle described
from the center of the hyperbola, with a radius = j/a2 — b2.
492. Perpendiculars from the Foci to any
Tangent.—For the length of the perpendicular from
the right-hand focus (ae, 0) upon bVa; — a2y'y — a2b2,
we have (Art. 105, Cor. 2)
b2x'ae — a2b2 b(ex' — a)
P = i/(Vx'2 + ay*) = y(e2x12 — a2) '
THE NORMAL.
497. Equation to the Normal.—From the equa
tion of Art. 402, by changing the sign of b2, we have
a2x b2u
394 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
We can therefore, as
in the case of the Ellipse
(Art. 404), construct a
normal at any point P of the curve, or one from any
point iV of the transverse axis.
subnor
a
aV
, b2
tan <p tan w'
1 1 a1
diametral properties.
510. Equation to the Hyperbola, referred to
any two Conjugate Diameters.—The equation to
the primary curve, transformed to two conjugates whose
respective inclinations are 6 and 8', is found hy simply
changing the sign of b2 in the equation at the middle
of p. 336. It is
*L. _ t..— 1
a'2 6'2 "
Corollary 1.—The transformed equation to the conju
gate curve is therefore
i
a'2 V2
Moreover (since a'2 — b'2 = a2 — b2), in the Equilateral
Hyperbola we have b' = a' : hence, the equations to
that curve and its conjugate, referred to any two conju
gate diameters, are
x2—y2=±a'2.
Corollary 2.—The new equation to the Hyperbola
differs from the analogous equation to the Ellipse (Art.
417), only in the sign of V2. Hence, Any function ofb'
that expresses a property of the Ellipse, will be converted
into one expressing a corresponding property of the Hyper
bola by merely replacing its b' by b' V—1.
£—t — +1 +i
a2 b2 ' a'2 b'2
Hence, we have the following extensions of Theorems
VI, VII:
DIAMETRAL PROPERTIES. 401
2/2 = ^(*2-«'2),
x'x tfy _
a'2 b'2 '
PARAMETERS.
parameter = (2b')2
L_ = ^ 2b'2 .
406 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
1 a
ip= 262
—
c a .
^1
a'2 _ tl — 1
bn ~
x'x y'y 1
~o7l ~~ ~V2 = '
the point x'y' upon the curve or within it. Moreover, the
formal law which connects the locus with the fixed point
is the law of polar reciprocity. For, by its equation, the
locus is a right line ; and, if we suppose the point x'y' to
be any point on a given right line, the co-efficients of the
equation in Art. 524 will be connected by the relation
Ax1 + By' + C= 0; whence (Art. 117) we have the
twofold theorem:
I. If from a fixed point chords be drawn to any
hyperbola, and tangents to the curve be formed at the
extremities of each chord, the intersections of the several
pairs of tangents will lie on one right line.
II. If from different points lying on one right line
pairs of tangents be drawn to any hyperbola, their several
chords of contact will meet in one point.
The Hyperbola, then, imparts to every point in its
plane the power of determining a right line ; and recip
rocally.
527. Equation to the Polar with respect to an
Hyperbola.—From the conclusions now reached, this
equation, referred to any two conjugate diameters, must
be
5:5
a'2 _ t}L
bn~— \.'
be drawn from a given point to the curve subtend the same focal
angle. It is found, however, as in the case presented in the dia
gram, that when the given point P is taken under such conditions
(Art. 484, Cor. 2) as fix the two
points of contact T and T' on \ ^
opposite branches of the curve, N>i' 7^
the angles PFT, PFT' are not y^^7—^-.^/^
equal, but supplemental. But, J\
whether they be the one or the / \ /\.
other, the line FP must bisect j> \
the whole angle T'FT subtended
by the chord of contact, either internally or externally. Hence,
Theorem LII.— The right line that joins the focus io the pole of any
chord, bisects the focal angle which the chord subtends.
Corollary.—The angle subtended by a focal chord being 180°,
we have, as a special case of the preceding: The line that joins
the focus to the pole of any focal chord is perpendicular to the chord.
ae (cos 6' — e)
'" = cos (V — 0') — ecos ~d
is the polar equation to the diameter conjugate to that
which passes through p'O'.
■ \/x- -
y =-x, y-
PQ=h- (x-V/^=^)= f-
^ = 2sec-'l/2=90°:
which agrees with the property by which (Art. 177, Cor.)
we originally distinguished this curve.
a b a b
\
ASYMPTOTES OF THE HYPERBOLA. 417
± - t- = 0.
a' ¥
542. Let CD, CD' be any two conjugate semi-diam
eters. Then, from the fact that
the equation to the Hyperbola,
when referred to these, is identical
in form with its equation as referred
to the axes, we may at once infer
that
„i ^ V '
»k* _ 3L
y'1 = 0 (l).
y '
^ + y-,= 0 (2).
x> y'
The transverse axis bisects the angle between the
asymptotes, and therefore, at its extremity, x1 = y'.
Hence, the equations to the axes, referred to the
asymptotes, are
x — y = 0, x+y=0 (3).
ASYMPTOTES OF THE HYPERBOLA. 423
= 2c.
x1 + y>
Now this, when combined with the equation to VD,
x1 y'~V>
= 2C,
\
AREA OF THE HYPERBOLA. 427
CL = 1, CR = x, CS = x*, . . . , C3f=x".
Thus x? = x" ; or, x = 2/" : so that, as n increases, x
diminishes, and converges toward 1 as n converges to
infinity. Now, at R, S, . . . , M, erect n ordinates, and
form n corresponding parallelograms RA, Sa, . . . , Mb,
situated as in the figure. Then
area RA = RL . LA sin <f> = ( CR — CL) LA sin p = (x — 1 ) sin <j>,
" Sa = SR . Ra sin <j> = (x1 — x) — sin <p = (a: — 1 ) sin
x
" Te=TS.Se sin (x3 — r1) ^ sin <S> = (x — 1 ) sin 0,
Now [Alg., 373, (5)] the series in the braces denotes the
Naperian logarithm of x'. Therefore, calling this loga
rithm lx', and the hyperbolic area A, we obtain
A — sin <p . lx'.
But (Alg., 376) sin <p . I x' = the logarithm of x' in a
system whose modulus = sin f. Hence,
Theorem LXVI.— The area of any hyperbolic segment
is equal to the logarithm of the abscissa of its extreme point,
taken in a system whose modulus is equal to the sine of the
angle between the asymptotes.
Corollary.—In an equilateral hyperbola, since <p = 90°,
sin <p — 1 ; and we get A = lx'. That is, The area of an
equilateral hyperbola is equal to the Naperian logarithm
of the abscissa of the extreme point.
For this reason, Naperian logarithms are called hyper
bolic. But, as we have just seen, the title belongs with
equal propriety to logarithms with any modulus.
14. The locus of a point such that the rectangle under the focal
perpendiculars upon its polar with respect to a given ellipse shall
be constant, is an ellipse or an hyperbola according as the foci are
on the same side or on opposite sides of the polar.
15. A line is drawn at right angles to the transverse axis of aii
hyperbola, meeting the curve and its conjugate in P and Q: show
that the normals at P and Q intersect upon the transverse axis.
Also, that the tangents at P and Q intersect on the curve
CHAPTER FIFTH.
THE PARABOLA.
i. Tiie Curve referred to its Axis and Vertex.
560. In discussing the Parabola, we shall find it
most convenient to transform its equation, as found in
PROPERTIES OF THE PARABOLA. 431
THE AXIS.
561. Making y — 0 in the equation
mentioned, namely, in
y2=--4p(x- p),
we obtain x = OA = p. Now (Art. 181)
2p = 0F: hence, OA = & OF; or, we
have
Theorem I.—In any parabola, the vertex of the curve
bisects the distance between the focus and the directrix.
Corollary.—Whenever, therefore, the constant p pre
sents itself in a parabolic formula, we may interpret it
as denoting the distance from the focus to the vertex of
the curve.
Remark—Wc might also infer the theorem of this article directly
from the definition of the curve in Art. 179.
562. Since AF is thus equal to p, the distance of
the focus from the vertex will converge to 0 whenever
2p = OF converges to that limit, but will remain finite
as long as 2p remains so. In other words (since we may
take the focus F as close to the directrix D'D as we
please), the focus may approach infinitely near to the
vertex, but can not pass beyond it. Hence,
Theorem II.— The focus of a parabola falls within the
curve.
*563. Let us now transform the equation y*—4p (x—p),
by moving the axis of y parallel to itself along OF to
432 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
y2 — 4px.
b2
y* = -t (Zaxyx*).
/
434 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
b2 2p p2
a2 a a2
y2 = 4px,
\
ECCENTRICITY. 435
, a2 — b2 , P
<? — — =1 , ;
a2 a2
p =p -f x.
That is,
Theorem IV.— The focal radius of any point on a par
abola is a linear function of the corresponding abscissa.
Remark.—This expression for p is similar to those
found in the case of the Ellipse and of the Hyperbola
(Arts. 360, 457), and is called the Linear Equation to
the Parabola.
DIAMETERS.
571. Equation to any Diameter.—In a system of
parallel chords in a parabola, let 6 be the common in
clination to the axis, xy the middle point of any member
of the system, and x'y' the point in which the chord cuts
the curve. We have (Art. 101, Cor. 3)
x' = x — I cos d, y' =y — I sin 0.
Hence, as x'y' is on the parabola mentioned,
(y — I sin d)2 = \p (x — I cos 0).
That is, for determining I, we get the quadratic
Psin2 0 — 2 (y sin 0 — 2p cos 6) I = 4px — y2.
DIAMETERS OF THE PARABOLA. 439
y sin 0 — 2p cos 0 — 0.
y — 2p cot d.
b2
4p
whence, observing the form of these roots, we have
Theorem VI,—Every diameter of a parabola meets the
curve in two points, one finite, the other at infinity.
Remark.—The meaning of this theorem, in ordinary geometric
language, is, of course, that a diameter only meets the curve in the
one finite point whose abscissa = V: 4p. The argument and the
phraseology adopted here are only used for the purpose of com
pleting analogies, and will seem less forced when we approach the
subject from a more generic point of view.
THE TANGENT.
575. Equation to any Chord.—If x'y', x"y" be the
extremities of any chord in a parabola, we shall have
y'2 = 4px' and y"2 — 4px". Hence, y"2 — y'2 = 4p (x"— a/),
and we get
y"—y' _ 4p
x"— z> ~ y' + y"'
TANGENT OF THE PARABOLA. 441
y'y = 2p (x + x1).
tan 0 — .
y
Now the equation to the tangent at x'y' (Art. 576) may
be written
y = y (* + aO-
tyy — yip— A y
FT=p-+ x'.
X
SUBTANGENT OF THE PARABOLA. 445
Now divide AE and its equal EB into the same number of equal
parts, and the equals AF, FO in the
same manner: the whole lines A B, A C
will thus be subdivided into equal parts Jrr^
at the points 1, 2, 3, E, 4, 5, 6 and 6, 5, 'i^Cf
4, F, 3, 2, 1. Having numbered these \^\X/>
points in reverse order upon the two A<~~><j")><9(y-
lines, as in the diagram, join those which ^^\)\ \
have the same numeral : the resulting ^SwV
lines will envelope a parabola, which s^V
we can approximate as closely as we r
please, by continually diminishing the
distances Al, 1.. .2, etc. For, by the construction, V is the middle
point of AX; and the curve touches all the lines AB, AC, 1 ... 1 ,
6 ... 6, etc. : hence, with respect to the lines AB, A C, which may
be regarded as limiting cases of all the others, it is a curve that
bisects Its subtangent in the vertex ; that is, a parabola.
From another point of view, the curve here formed is the envel
ope of a line EF, which moves within the fixed lines AB, AC in
such a manner that the sum of the remaining sides of the triangle
EAF is constant, being equal to AB. It is therefore a parabola,
by the result of the Example solved in Art. 251.
585. Perpendicular from the Focus to any Tan
gent.—For the length of the perpendicular from the focus
(p, 0) upon the line y'y — 2p [x + a/), we have (Art. 105,
Cor. 2)
2p(p + a/) _ 2p(p + x') ,/^T—rV)
\/(ip2 + yn) i/{4p(p + z')} ^P ;"
P= fP + P P-VT+^.
V (m -f- m ) m
Put 6 = the inclination of P, measured from the axis toward the
right : then m = cot 0, and we get
P—p sec
588. The equation to the tangent being written (Art.
577, Cor.)
my — m2x =p,
that of its focal perpendicular, which passes through
O, 0), will be
my + x = p.
Combining these so as fo eliminate m, we get
x=0
we obtain, for the equation to the intersecting line from the focus
(Art. 103),
m + tanff . . .
3 1 — mtantf v ^' v '
4p(y//-y,)(y,y// + ¥!)
NORMAL OF THE PARABOLA. 451
y = mx +i P— i y— x mp.
m m
Subtracting the second of these from the first, we obtain
x— —p
as the equation to the locus of the intersection. But this equation
denotes a right line perpendicular to the axis at the distance p on
the left of the vertex; in other words, the line called the directrix
in our primary definitions. Hence,
Theorem XVI.— The locus of the intersection of tangents which cut
each other at right angles, is the directrix of the curve.
Corollary.—Since this locus, in the case of the Ellipse, is a circle
concentric with the curve (Art. 395), this theorem again shows us
that the Circle converges to the form of the Right Line as its radius
tends to infinity, and that we may therefore correctly regard the
Right Line as a circle with an infinite radius.
THE NORMAL.
594. Equation to the Normal.—The equation to
the perpendicular drawn through the point of contact
x'y' to the tangent
y'y = 2p(x + x'),
x = AN— 2p + x'.
y2 = \p'x (2).
This at once shows that yl = 4px is the form which (1)
assumes when the diameter chosen for the axis of x is
that whose vertical tangent is perpendicular to it, so
that sin2 0=1.
sin e- 2p - Vp ■
We have, then,
-JLj = p + x'.
sm-a
y2 = 4 (p + x') x,
y — ± 2Vfx,
and show by means of it, that, with reference to any
diameter, the Parabola consists of a single infinite
branch, tending to two parallel right lines as its limiting
form, and symmetric to the diameter.
x = — x'.
y= 0
as the equation to the locus of the intersection. Hence,
Theorem XXVI. — Tangents at the extremities of any
chord of a parabola meet on the diameter which bisects
that chord.
POLE AND POLAR.
610. We shall now prove that the polar relation is a
property of the Parabola, following the same steps as in
the Ellipse and the Hyperbola.
611. Chord of Contact in the Parabola.—Let x'y'
denote the point from which the two tangents that deter
mine the chord are drawn, and xjyt the extremities
of the chord. Since x'y' is upon both tangents, we have
And this being true, however xlyl may change its position
as the chord of contact revolves about x'y', the co-ordi
nates of intersection must always satisfy the equation
y'y = 2p' (x + x').
This, therefore, is the equation to the locus sought.
613. Tangent and Chord of Contact taken np
into the wider conception of the Polar.—Here, too,
as well as in the Ellipse and the Hyperbola, the two
equations just found are identical in form with that of
the tangent. By the same reasoning, then, as in Arts.
433, 526, we learn that the tangent and chord of contact
in the Parabola are particular cases of the locus just dis
cussed. Now, too, by its equation, this locus is a right
line ; and, if we suppose x'y' to be any point on a given
right line, the co-efficients of the equation in Art. 611
will fulfill the condition Ax' + By' + C— 0, and thus
(Art. 117) the chord of contact will pass through a fixed
point. In the curve now before us, therefore, we have
the twofold theorem :
I. If from a fixed point chords be drawn to any para
bola, and tangents to the curve be formed at the extremities
of each chord, the intersections of the several pairs of tan
gents will lie on one right line.
II. Iffrom different points lying on one right line pairs
of tangents be drawn to any parabola, their several chords
of contact will meet in one point.
Thus the law that renders the locus of Art. 612 the
generic form of which the tangent and chord of contact
are special phases, is the law of polar reciprocity : whence
the Parabola, in common with the other two Conies, im
parts to every point in its plane the power of determining
a right line ; and reciprocally.
POLAR IN THE PARABOLA. 461
y'y = 2p' (x + x%
x = — x'.
PD=p + x.
FP _
PD~e-
cos ? = p + x ■
I'
620. This expression, like those of Arts. 440, 533, is inde
pendent of the point of contact. Hence, the angle PFT = the
angle PFT'; and, with respect to the whole angle TFT', we get
Theorem XXIX— The right line that joins the focus to the pole of
any chord, bisects the focal angle which the chord subtends.
Corollary.—In particular, The line that joins the focus to the pole
of any focal chord is perpendicular to the chord.
Remark.—By comparing this corollary with the theorem of Art.
593, and bearing in mind that the directrix, as the polar of the
focus, is the line in which the pair of tangents drawn at the ex
tremities of any focal chord will intersect, we may state the follow
ing noticeable group of related properties :
If tangents be drawn at the extremities of any focal chord of a
parabola,
1. The tangents will intersect on the directrix.
2. The tangents will meet each other at right angles.
3. The line that joins their intersection to the focus will be perpen
dicular to the focal chord.
PARAMETER OF THE PARABOLA. 465
PARAMETERS.
622. Definition.—The Parameter of a parabola,
with respect to any diameter, is a third proportional to
any abscissa formed on the diameter, and the corre
sponding ordinate. Thus,
parameter = ~- .
f - P*,
2p
P = cos (p — 0') — e cos 0
x = Wx77, y- ■
16. A right angle moves in such a manner that its sides are
respectively tangent to two confocal parabolas whose axes are
coincident: to find the locus of its vertex.
17. Prove that the pole of the normal which passes through one
extremity of the latus rectum of a parabola, is situated on tiie diam
eter which passes through the other extremity, and find its exact
position on that line.
18. The triangle included by two parabolic tangents and their
chord of contact being of a given area = a2, prove that the locus
of the pole is a parabola whose equation is
CHAPTER SIXTH.
THE CONIC IN GENERAL.
630. Having in the previous Chapters become familiar
with the properties of the several conies considered as
THE CONIC IN GENERAL. 473
f=~^~a2) (2)
y2 = Px + Rx2,
in which P is the parameter of the curve, and R the ratio
between the squares of the semi-axes; and we have the
specific conditions
R < 0 . • . Ellipse,
R = 0 . • . Parabola,
R > 0 . • . Hyperbola.
p = e.d:
[(*-^+(y-^'='(f;+*y a*.
e
and the equation p — e.d will become
p — 2p + ex.
Bemark—The so-called Linear Equations to the Ellipse, thg
Parabola, and the Hyperbola, namely (Arts. 360, 457, 568),
p = a-{-ex, p = ex — a, p=p-\-x,
will all assume the form just found, if we shift their respective
origins to the focus, by putting x — ae for x in the first, x + ae for
x in the second, and x +p for a; in the third. We leave the actual
transformation to the student, only reminding him, that, in the first
two curves, ± a (1 — «2) = 2p ; and that, in the third, e = 1.
638. A form of the preceding equation with which
the reader may sometimes meet, is
r — mx + n,
and any equation of this form, in which m and n are any
two constants whatever, will denote a conic, whose eccen
tricity will — m, while its semi-latus rectum will = n.
©3D. Equation referred to Two Tangents.—A useful ex
pression for the Conic may be developed as follows :
Let the equation to the curve, referred to any axes whatever, be
Ax1 + 2Hxy + Bf + 2Gx + 2Fy + C = 0 (1).
To determine the intercepts of the curve on the axes, we get, by
making y and x successively = 0,
Ax1 + 2 Gx + C= 0, By1 + 2Fy + C= 0.
But if the axes are tangents, the two intercepts on each will be
equal, these quadratics will have equal roots, and we shall have
Gi = AC, F2 = BC.
CONIC REFERRED TO TWO TANGENTS. 481
(3).
1 — e cos tr
In this, as the reader will see by referring to the original
investigations (Arts. 152, 172, 183), the pole is at the
focus, and the vectorial angle d is reckoned from the
remote vertex.
A more useful expression, however, and the only one
universally applicable in Astronomy, is
P = 1 + ecosd . ^'
Finally, let the given line advance from its last posi
tion, and approach the fixed point indefinitely. Then, d
being less than 2p, we shall have, from (2), e > 1 ; and,
from (3), (>'<^p: so that there will arise a continuous
series of hyperbolas, with a constant latus rectum, but
with an ever-increasing eccentricity; with their vertices
all lying within a segment of the axis -- p, measured from
the fixed point, and with their branches tending to coin
cide with the given line as that line tends toward the fixed
point. When the given line attains the particular distance
= p v2 from the fixed point, we shall have e — V2\ or,
the hyperbola (Art. 456, Cor.) will be rectangular.
Thus, the order of the curves, as foreshadowed by
their analytic criteria, is verified by a systematic gen
eration.
644. The results of the preceding article may be
tabulated as follows:
/ e = 0 .'. Circle.
Semi-latus rectum < Distance of Focal Polar J
.-. Ellipse. (_«<1.\ Eccentric.
THE Semi-latus rectum = Distance of Focal Polar } c __ j
CONIC .•. Pahabola. J
I„ _ ( e > 1 ■•• Oblique.
I Semi-latus rectum > Distance of Focal Polar J
.-.Hyperbola. ( e = »'2".-. Kect'r.
that is, we must take the new origin x'y' at the inter
section of the curve with the right line By + F = 0.
Making this change of origin, our equation becomes
y2 = Fx + Rx2.
X = -WTWe (6)-
2(l+e)ex + P
2(l+e)e KJ
f— - <9)-
That is, The distance of any point on the Conic from the
focus, is in a constant ratio to its distance from the polar
of the focus.
The ratio e, we will call the eccentricity of the Conic.
y 2
* = fi »•
That is, when e — 0, the curve is such that all its points
are equally distant from the focus, or its figure is that
of the Circle. Hence, as e increases from 0 toward oo,
the figure of the curve may be supposed to deviate more
and more from the circular form, and we see the pro
priety of calling e the eccentricity.
y2 = Px + Bx2,
we get the co-ordinates of the center, referred to the prin-
(3),
tan d = =- (4),
y = Q, 2Rx + P = 0 (2).
2Gx+C=Q (2)
Ox2 + 2Hx + B = 0,
The condition, then, that the radius vector may meet the
Conic at infinity is
\
ASYMPTOTES OF THE CONIC. 503
663 with (3), (d), and (e) of Art. 156, and taking the
radicals in (d) and (e) as negative, we get
1 A' A + B—Q 1 _B' _A + B + Q
tf—Qi— 2C ' b2~ G'~ 2L"
a2 = —
{H2-AB) (A + B-Q)
2A (3)-
J2:
(H2 — AB) (A + B + Q)
. . b2 a2 — b2
<?-. 2Q
A+B+ Q
i
THEOREMS OF PASCAL AND BRIANCHON. 509
ks + sr? = con8tant'
where S, s are the segments of one chord, and iS", s' the segments
of the other. '
2. If through a fixed point O there be drawn two chords to any
conic, and if their extremities be joined both directly and trans
versely, to prove that the line PQ which joins the intersection of
the direct lines of union to the intersection of the transverse ones
is the polar of O.
3. Prove that any right line drawn through a given point to
meet a conic, is cut harmonically by the pojnt, the curve, and the
polar of the point; also, that the chord through any given point,
and the line which joins that point to the pole of the chord, are
harmonically conjugate to the two tangents drawn from the point.
4. A conic touches two given right lines : to prove that the locus
of its center is the right line which joins the intersection of the
tangents with the middle point of their chord of contact.
5. Prove that in any quadrilateral inscribed in a conic, as
ABCD, either of the three points E, F, O
is the pole of the line which .joins the
other two. By means of this property,
show how to draw a tangent to any conic
from a given point outside, with the help
of the ruler only.
[This graphic problem is only one of a
series resulting from the method of transversals and anharmonics, all of
which are solvable with the ruler alone : for which reason, the doctrine
of the solutions is sometimes called Lineal Geometry.']
6. Prove that in any quadrilateral circumscribed about a conic,
each diagonal is the polar of the intersection of the other two.
BOOK SECOND:
CO ORDINATES IN SPACE.
CHAPTER FIRST.
THE POINT.
675. About a century after the publication of Des
cartes' method of representing and discussing plane
curves, Clairaut extended the method to lines and
surfaces in space, by the following contrivance for
representing the position of any conceivable point in
space.
(513)
514 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
y = 0) 2=0) X = 0)
z =0/' z=0j y = 0j'
x — y = z = 0,
and these three equations are the symbol of the origin.
<p = d = 0 (2)
p=0 (3)
as the equation to the pole.
IL = PQ cos QPF:
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
684. To transform to parallel reference-planes passing
through a new origin.
Let x', y', z' be the co-or
dinates of the new origin, x,
y, z the primitive co-ordinates
of any point P, and X, Y, Z
its co-ordinates in the new
system. Then, as is evident
upon inspecting the diagram,
the formulae of transformation
will be
X = x' + X, y = y' + Y, z=z> + Z.
685. To transform from a given rectangular system to
a system having its planes
at any inclination.
Let the direction-angles
of the new axis of x be a, ft,
y, those of the new axis of
y, a', ft', f ; and those of the
new axis of z, a", ft", y".
Then, if we suppose each of
the new co-ordinates N'P,
M'P, Q'P to be projected
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES. 523
x — p cos (f cos 0,
y = p cos <p sin 0,
z — p sin ip.
\
THE PLANE. 525
CHAPTER SECOND.
LOCUS OF THE FIRST ORDER IN SPACE.
688. Form of the IiOcus.—The general equation of
the first degree in three variables, may be written
Ax +By + Cz + D = 0 (1),
where A, B, C, D are any four constants whatever.
Transforming (1) to parallel axes passing through a
new origin x'y', we get (Art. 684)
Ax + By+Cz + (Ax' + By' + Cz' + D) =0.
Hence, if we suppose the new origin to be any fixed
point in the locus of (1), the new absolute term will
vanish, and our equation will take the form
Ax + By + Cz = 0 (2).
If we now change the directions of the reference-
planes (Art. 685), we shall get, after expanding and
collecting terms,
(A cos a + B cos /? -f G cos y ) x \
+ (A cos a' + B cos ji' + Ccos f ) y > = 0.
+ (A cos a" + B cos ft" + Ccos /') z J
Hence, if Ave can take the new reference-planes so as to
give the new axis of x and the new axis of y such
directions that
A cos a + B cos /9 + 0 cos y = 0
= A cos a' + B cos /?' + C cos y' (q),
we shall reduce our equation to the simple form
z = 0 (3).
526 ANA L YTW GEOMETR Y.
c:
B sin yr -f C cos f = 0 i. e. tan y' = — ^-
B
x=a= — (1),
D D
B=. (2) ,
B b
D
z=c= — 0=- (3) .
G
a o c
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
cos a ---
V(A2 + B*+ C2)'
a- B
coa^-y{Ar+B^TO^y
0
cos y = V(Al + Bi + o2) '
to the angles which the two planes make with the hori
zontal reference-plane ; that a and a' are respectively
equal to those made with the first vertical plane ; and
that /? and ;5' are respectively equal to those made with
the second vertical plane. Calling these new angles
£ and f', u and u', £ and we have, then, as the ex
pression for the angle between two planes in terms of their
inclinations to the reference-planes,
cos tp = cos ? cos f' -f- cos y cos u' + cos £ cos £' (1).
_ AA'+BB'+GC m
Ax + By+Cz + B
^(A' + B' + C2) '
\
INTERSECTIONS OF PLANES. 533
IP + mP' + nP" = 0,
Q'P±QP' = 0 (1),
«±/? = 0 (2),
— nP" = lP + mP'.
IP+mP' + nP"=0.
QUADRIPLANAR CO-ORDINATES.
703. The condition of the preceding article subjects
its constants I, m, n, r to certain restrictions, consistent
with the identical vanishing of the function
la + mfl + ny + rd.
But if we now free these constants from this condition
for the converging of four planes, making them abso-
X
RIGHT LINE IN SPACE. 535
By + Cz + D = 0, Nz + Mx + L = 0.
An. Ge. 48.
536 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
lp mp
X = y {F + m2 + n2) ' V = i/(P + m2 + n2) '
np
Z ~ VW + + n2) '
I a m
003 a = /in i T1 Y\ ' cos P — 77m i 2~i 2\ »
x — x' y — y' _ z — / .
I m n
cos 0 = cos a cos a' + cos /3 cos /?' + cos y cos y' (1) :
x — a/ y — y' z — z'
I m n '
• ff— Al + Bm+ On
8m ~~ y {A1 + B2 + G'2) (I2 + m2+ n2) "
Al + Bm +On = 0.
__Aa + Bb + B
2~ Am + Bn+ C"
OHAPTEE THIRD.
LOCUS OF THE SECOND ORDER IN SPACE.
713. The general equation of the second degree in
three variables, which is the symbol of the space-locus
of the Second order, may be written
Ax2 + 2Hxy + By2 + 2Kyz + Ez2 + 2Lzx
+ 2Gx + 2Fy + 2Dz + C=0 (1),
SPACE-LOCUS OF THE SECOXD ORDER. 543
\
DISCRIMINANT OF THE QUADRIC. 545
*= y' = t, z> = *,
c c c
C'= G-c' ± H + Dd ± Cc = - ,
Ax+G = 0, By + F=Q, Ez + D = 0.
¥ — (A + B + E)k-
+ (AB + BE+EA — H2 — K2 — L2)k — c=0,
where c has the same value as in Art. 717. Having
thus a cubic for determining the ratio k, we learn that
a quadric has in general three, and only three, principal
planes.
In the non-central quadrics however, since in them
(Art. 721) we have c = 0, one of the roots of this cubic
must be 0, and the equation to one of the principal planes
will therefore assume the form •
Ox -f- Oy + Oz + constant = 0.
m3 — (A + B + E) u2
+ (AB +BE +EA —H2 —K'—L2) w — e = 0.
B'f + F'z2+2G"x = Q;
f+ Qz2 = Px (5).
CLASSIFICATION OF QUADRICS.
t . t + ?! - 1
z2 + y2 + z2 — r2,
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0,
, y1 , z"- _ i
a2 + ¥ + ? '
t. 4_ t. _fi= 1
a1 ^ b2 c2
which are real for all values of I and m, but whose branches
cease to lie on the right and left of the center, and are
found above and below it, when I > a and m > b. The
section by any plane z = k is an ellipse
x2 f k2
"i
a2 I Ti
ol — I c'2" »
z2 x2 y2 ^
c2 _ a2" ~~ ¥ ~~
The plane z = k now evidently cuts the surface in imag
inary ellipses so long as k < c, but in real ones when k
passes the limit c whether positively or negatively. The
surface therefore consists of two portions, separated by
a distance = 2c, and extending to infinity in opposite
directions. The sections by the planes x = l, y — m,
are hyperbolas. The surface is therefore called the
Hyperboloid of Two Nappes.
By making x = y = 0, we find that the intercept of
this surface on the axis of z is = c ; while the intercepts
upon the axes of x and y, found by putting y — z— 0 and
z — x = 0, are the imaginary quantities aV— 1, by — 1.
Moreover, the sections by the planes a; = 0, y — 0, being
z2 y2 \ z* ^ \
c2 b2 ' c2 a2
are hyperbolas conjugate to those in which the same
planes cut the Hyperboloid of One Nappe. We there
fore perceive that the present hyperboloid is conjugate
to the former, and that the real meaning of c in the
equation to the former is, the semi-axis of its conjugate
surface.
When a — b, this hyperboloid also becomes one of
revolution, and is called an hyperboloid of revolution of
two nappes.
558 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
III. Let A' be positive, and B' and E' both negative.
The general equation may then be written
— _ t. _ zl — 1
a- 62 — '
f z2 x2 _
62 + c2 ~~ ^ _ '
when C is equal to zero ; or
y2 z2 x2
¥ + c1 ~ a* = '
when C" is positive. The present hypothesis therefore
presents no ne^v forms, but merely puts those of the pre
ceding supposition into a different order. It is usual,
however, to write the equation to the Hyperboloid of Two
Nappes in the form
x2 y2 z2 ^
b2 c-,2
f+ Qz> = Px.
f + Q* = R.
y2 = Px + N.
f +Qz2 = Px
ANALOGIES OF QUADRICS TO CONICS. 561
/(2) = ta^5
and, substituting in the equation of revolution, we get
9<f.
566 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
0 = <p.
That is, If the secant plane be parallel to the side of the
cone, the section will be a parabola.
1. If we suppose 6 — <p — 90°, and c = oo, the equa
tion to the section can readily be put into the form
y2 — constant ; and we learn that when the vertex of the
cone recedes to infinity, the Parabola breaks up into two
parallels.
2. If 0 = <p, and c = 0, the equation to the section
becomes y2 = 0, showing that the limiting case of the
Parabola is a right line.
III. Let A be negative. The function H2 — AB will
then also be negative, and (Art. 174) the section will be
an hyperbola. But if A is negative, tan2 0 > tan2 <p ; or,
6><p.
THE CYLINDER AND THE SPHERE. 567
/(ijW-z*,
which substituted in the equation of Art. 732 gives
x* + V2 + 22 == f*2-
as the equation now required.
An. Ge. 51.
568 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
7® =
- -l y2 + 22 — i
/(z) = J(c2-s2)-
x2 _ y2 + z2 _ 1
a2 b2 ~ '
z2+ y2 z2 _ 1
~~a~2 ?~ '
£
a2 +
r £
b2 - 1
^1 _i_ tl _ — — 1
a2 + b2 c2 '
which represents the tangent plane to any hyperboloid of
one nappe;
x'x y'y z'z 1
~aF ~ ~W ~~ !? ~ '
are the general equations to the normal at any point x' y' z'.
By deriving UJ, UJ, UJ in the equations of Art. 728,
we obtain the equations to the normals of the central
quadrics, namely,
\\
EXAMPLES. 573