Geo Factsheet

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www.curriculum-press.co.uk # 437

Loss of Rainforest in the Amazon:

An Ongoing Issue
Introduction Why should we be concerned?
• The rainforest, which is the dominant ecosystem in the The tropical broadleaf rainforest ecosystem which dominates
Amazon river basin, covers nine countries. the Amazon basin (see map Figure 2) can vary subtly within the
• It plays a crucial role in the global environmental equilibrium region depending on micro environmental characteristics, but
as it helps to maintain the world’s climate, although it covers in general is hot, humid and has 1500-3000 mm precipitation
less than 10% of the world’s surface. pa. It  shows clear structural ecological characteristics (as
shown in the diagram Figure 3) and has extremely high rates
• Most of the forest is contained within Brazil at 63%, with Peru of biodiversity. WWF states that one in ten of all known species
having the second largest area at 13%. inhabit the Amazon rainforest. 14,000 tree species alone have
• Deforestation jumped 55% in the first four months of 2020 been identified so far and it can be estimated that there are
compared with the same period in 2019. potentially another 2,000 not yet classified (The Amazon ‘What
everyone needs to know’ M. Plotkin OUP 2020). BBC reports
• Global Forest watch also reported that total tree cover loss
that 3 million species live in the Amazon but it also houses
extended to 2.4 million hectares in 2019. In the Amazon
approximately 1 million indigenous people. (Brazil’s Amazon:
there was a 9.5% increase 2019-20 compared to 2018-
Deforestation ‘surges to 12-year high’ – BBC News).
19. Deforestation is not new to the Brazilian Amazon as it
appeared to take off when farms were developed within the
forest during the 1960s and has continued ever since (see Figure 2 Extent of Amazon
Figure 1).

Amazon biome
Figure 1 Annual forest loss
Amazon Basin

A
N
IA
E
A

35,000
AM

U
N

N
YA

VENEZUELA
N

H
U

RI

C
G

30,000
SU

EN

COLOMBIA
FR

25,000
Area in km2

20,000
15,000 ECUADOR

10,000 PE R U
5,000
0
BRAZIL
19 7
19 9
19 1
19 3
19 5
19 7
20 9
20 1
20 3
20 5
20 7
20 9
20 1
20 3
20 5
20 7
20 9
21
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1

B OL IV IA
19

Date

Ecosystem: A living system in which there is interaction Pacific Ocean

between its various components and the environment. A RG E N TI N A Pacific Ocean

Deforestation: The clearing of primary forest permanently

for another use or extensive loss of tree canopy.
Degradation: Changes within the forest which materially
alter its function e.g. recycling of nutrients as well as the
ecosystem structure and biodiversity.
Biodiversity: Range of species within an ecosystem.
Dynamic equilibrium: A balanced state between inputs
and outputs in a system despite fluctuations.

© Curriculum Press 2022 Geo Factsheets, 2021/22 Series, Issue 2 of 3, January 2022. ISSN: 1351-5136 1
Geo Factsheet 437 - Loss of Rainforest in the Amazon: An Ongoing Issue

Figure 3 Rainforest ecosystem structure It becomes immediately apparent that the dominant nutrient
store is the biomass itself and its removal would therefore lead to
a massive loss of nutrients.
40 emergents
The cycling of these elements is essential – the carbon cycle
has inextricable links with neighbouring environments and indeed
global recycling. Tropical forests are seen as important sinks
30 of carbon within the biomass and dead or decaying material.
main canopy The decomposing matter breaks down very quickly in the high
temperatures. Any carbon released in the processes is reused
Height in metres

very rapidly as the pattern in Figure 5 would suggest. Once

20
deforestation takes place there are several effects.

under canopy • The carbon store is lost and returns to the atmosphere.
According to NASA, tropical forests absorb 1.4 billion metric
10 lianas tons of carbon dioxide out of a total global forest absorption
of 2.5 billion – more than is absorbed by forests in Canada,
buttress Siberia and other northern regions, called boreal forests.
shrub layer roots
Without the rainforests as a sink, the atmosphere would hold
0
ground layer much more carbon dioxide (with all that implies for climate
change).
• With the loss of rainforest, ecosystem decomposition also
Operation of the Ecosystem stops as no litter – this too reduces carbon circulation.

The complexity of its ecosystem operation is such that its • More carbon could be in the soil as ash from burning enters,
processes sustain a balance in nutrient cycling, food webs, being washed in by precipitation. However, it is not a long-
climatic features, and soil stability and fertility – it operates in a lasting store as the soil is more easily eroded. Currently
state of dynamic equilibrium. It had been assumed that as the deforestation is seen as a main driver in the rise of atmospheric
vegetation is so dense and productive the soils must be inherently carbon quantities (alongside burning fossil fuels).
fertile. Subsequent efforts at utilising the land agriculturally have
proven that this is not true, as constant leaching removes key Figure 5 The carbon cycle
nutrients, e.g. phosphorus and potassium. The forest is adapted
to its environment, trapping and recycling necessary nutrients
in both living and decaying biomass with great rapidity. This is CO2 Atmosphere
aided by the high average temperatures (27°C) and heavy rainfall
(more than 2,000 mm pa). Tree roots are shallow – hence the
evolution of supportive structures such as buttress roots. There
are numerous parasitic and saprophytic species. Gersmehl’s
diagram (Figure 4) demonstrates the nutrient balance in the Respiration Photosynthesis
various elements of the ecosystem.
Volcanoes

Figure 4 Gersmehl’s diagram of nutrient flows

Animals Plants Combustion

Precipitation
Biomass Death

Interception

Decay
Water
Litter
Absorption
Fossil fuels
Decomposition
Soil
Limestone
Earth
Runoff

Leaching Weathering

The drainage basin water cycle in tropical environments is very

finely balanced. A change in the amounts transferred or stored at
The circles represent the relative amounts of nutrients in the any point in the system can lead to a perilous imbalance and the
3 key structures (labelled in red) of the ecosystem, whilst the dynamics of this can impact the global hydrological cycle.
proportional arrows show the amounts transferring between
each store.

© Curriculum Press 2022 Geo Factsheets, 2021/22 Series, Issue 2 of 3, January 2022. ISSN: 1351-5136 2
Geo Factsheet 437 - Loss of Rainforest in the Amazon: An Ongoing Issue

Removing the forest will alter the rates of all processes, for Figure 6 Amazon rainforest
example:
• Reduced interception and stemflow because of canopy loss
will lead to increased surface runoff as more rainfall reaches
the ground.
• Intense rainfall reaching the surface means less infiltration
and potential flooding.
• Soil eroded as it is edaphically poor and vulnerable.
• Reduced evapotranspiration means lower relative humidity
and less precipitation in longer term.
All these processes happen at a regional scale. A study by
Spraclen et al 2015 The impact of Amazonian deforestation on
Amazon basin rainfall (whiterose.ac.uk) stated, “We estimate
that business-as-usual deforestation (based on deforestation
rates prior to 2004) would lead to an 8.1 ± 1.4% reduction in
annual mean Amazon basin rainfall by 2050, greater than natural
variability”. The main caveat they make, that this is founded on
historic rates, now implies that matters will be a lot worse, since
deforestation rates have accelerated massively in recent years
with a change in political and economic strategy in Brazil. Figure 7 Cattle illegally grazing in the Amazon
Losing the forest therefore means a loss of environmental /
ecosystem services (those parts of ecosystems connected with
physical operations: climate and soil development formation in
addition to contribution to food supplies and /or recreation).

Water
recycling Maintenance
of biodiversity Sustainable production
of material goods,
Carbon e.g. timber and nuts
storage

The forest came under initial pressure from three main sources.
These were reported across the media and in contemporary
The drivers of deforestation textbooks, so it was immediately recognised that the process of
deforestation posed a major threat:
Before the 1970s the dense primary forest rendered accessibility
problematic – there were no roads and journeys were generally via 1) Consumption of hardwoods causing logging – at the time it
the river system. Some clearing took place along the waterways, was predicted to increase exponentially by the year 2000.
but it was limited.  The introduction of the Trans-Amazonian
highway in 1972 proved a major game changer, allowing many 2) Demand by the poor in rural areas for farmland both for
potential stakeholders to move into the interior. The commercial subsistence and economic production.
possibilities of the vast, apparently fertile area seemed limitless. 3) Land for commercial arable and pastoral use for export,
Urban inhabitants were moved into the Amazon in increasing notably cattle ranching.
numbers.
Plotkin comments that post 1960s “the construction of roads
facilitated access to markets” and attracted people from
elsewhere in Brazil who had prior experience of raising cattle.
These pressures have been sustained and others have been
added causing sustained levels of forest removal as was evident
in Figure 1. These drivers of deforestation have been leveraged
by various other factors which have exacerbated the situation.
Some are Direct and others Indirect according to the WWF.

© Curriculum Press 2022 Geo Factsheets, 2021/22 Series, Issue 2 of 3, January 2022. ISSN: 1351-5136 3
Geo Factsheet 437 - Loss of Rainforest in the Amazon: An Ongoing Issue

Direct Drivers

Figure 8 Amazon deforestation hotspots

Cattle Ranching: This has been seen as the main driving Soy: The 1990s saw a huge drive in soy production. The
force (in 2019 Brazil provided 14% global beef supplies) in soy is the main source of animal feed, so its growth is
seven of the Amazonian countries. As approximately 40% directly linked to cattle farming. Further spread of this crop
Brazilian cattle are in the Amazon region, a change to is only limited by lack of road access especially to the west
extensive cattle farming methods is reported as leading to of the basin in Rondonia and Acre and that issue is being
70-80% forest destruction The rate of conversion has been addressed by expanding infrastructure programmes. Soy
partially attributed to speculation in land whereby use for production from Brazil represents 37% global total in 2019.
pasture allows government to permit claims. In 2009 an New agricultural techniques, e.g. specialist grass species
agreement was created ‘Cattle Brazil, ‘which depended on and use of chemical fertilizers have made cultivation more
public/private agreements. This was moderately successful physically viable, although only to those with the money to
especially as a Beef Moratorium Protocol also meant invest. As with beef production, pressure from NGOs such
participants did not buy beef from recently deforested areas. as Greenpeace led to a Moratorium when trades agreed not
to buy crops from deforested land and further change to soy
growth was banned within the forest. This too has been a
qualified success and has not totally stopped soy growth.
Logging: Commercial logging
activities are apparently
diminishing but illegal removal
of timber continues. In 2019
timber sales were managed
by government environmental
agencies, but logging is a big
contributor to degradation,
if not deforestation itself.
This causes massive loss of
biomass and enhances carbon
emissions.

HEP: Hydroelectric power is proven to have a significant

effect – not only on forest land inundated behind the dam,
but also settlements and associated industries are attracted,
Transport: It should not be surprising that almost 95% of e.g. Belo Monte Dam complex on the Xingu river in the
forest clearance is near to transport networks. Roads act eastern Amazon (Nov 2019) is said to be the 4th largest in
as a pull to migrants and cause an increase in land values. the world and is part of a programme of expansion by the
This attracts wealthier investors and can catalyse the rate of current government.
deforestation. Much of the development is a consequence,
as well as a driver of, economic activity. For example, The
Ferrograo, a 1000km railroad, is essentially an infrastructure
project for the soy industry. The wider impacts are Mining: This can entail large scale projects usually open
environmental. 80% of the Brazilian clearing is taking place cast in technique or illegal gold mining which poses a threat
in the arc of deforestation, an area to the south and east of to the lands of local peoples because of its very mode of
the Amazon where a major route, the Manaus – Potro Velho operation. According to sentientmedia.org illegal mining
Highway is intended to lead into the central area. increased by 25% from 2018-19. Of course, not only is
mineral extraction a direct cause of deforestation, but water
and land pollution further degrade the ecosystem and the
disposal of waste material leads to collateral damage.
Other associated impacts include linked industries, e.g. iron
smelting and HEP for aluminium production from bauxite.
All these activities cause deforestation. Studies show the
problem extends well beyond Brazil.

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Geo Factsheet 437 - Loss of Rainforest in the Amazon: An Ongoing Issue

Indirect Drivers

Climate change – the Amazon basin has been identfied Politics and Government – the upward tick in the trend
as one of 9 tipping points in the process of current climate of last 2 years in deforestation area has been linked to
change. Almost 1 ½ million sq km of forest are at risk of government policies (just as previous trends have been
permanent change to a savannah ecosystem. The effect of correlated, e.g. Cattle and Soy moratoria). A series of
forest removal on precipitation pattern is sufficient to alter environmental policies which began in 2012 with changes
the biomass balance within present forest areas as well as in the Brazilian forest code has not allowed the process to
surrounding zones for which it acts as a buffer. A 60% fall be kept in check. In 2018 Jair Bolsonaro became president
in rain totals over 3 years is likely to lead to 450% increase of Brazil. His policies are founded on pro-business, patriotic
in tree death. Later research shows that 25% loss would principles, often apparently in direct conflict with the rationale
cause radical ecosystem imbalance in much of east central of environmental protection. As a result as the Observer
and south Amazonia. It is not simply a loss of rainfall which reported in January 2021 ‘Deforestation has soared nearly
will be damaging – variations in seasonal patterns, more 50% in two years and has reached its highest level since
frequent droughts and higher average temperatures will all 2008. Invasions of indigenous territories increased 135% in
exacerbate the situation. Desertification and the increased 2019,’ He had encouraged mining and logging in indigenous
fire risk are major concerns. Fewer trees will mean less rain reserve areas and cut the funding of the organisations
due to reduction in total evapotranspiration – the effects will enforcing environmental laws. Intense international pressure
be as widespread as SE Brazil and parts of Paraguay and caused some relaxation in the fires which had been raging
Uruguay. Beyond this there is also the feedback effect of due to the aggressive economic policies.
increased carbon emissions as fewer trees are present to
act as a carbon sink.

Demography The distribution of population within the Economics and Marketing – As is clear from the direct
Amazon basin and its surrounding regions has had an drivers of deforestation, commercial pressures play
impact upon opening up the forest. Rural population growth a huge role in the process. Consequently, any policy,
leads to expansion into available free land (especially if technological advance, natural hazard (a pandemic for
government controls are relaxed) for agriculture. This puts example!), international agreement (be it social, economic
pressure on forestlands in some Amazon ‘frontier’ regions, in or environmental in type) is going to influence the chain
Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, and Brazil. This is reinforced by the of supply and demand for the products gained from
success of speculative land grabbing. (see page 34 of WWF deforestation. The predominance of extensive cattle
Deforestation Fronts report of 2021) Although some land was ranching is a response to the relatively low cost of land allied
granted to small farmers linked to specific programmes, e.g. with improved access facilitated by a roads programme.
Trans Amazon highway, land is usually seized illegally – to As WWF identify in Brazil ‘the expansion of logistics for
claim legitimate title they only need to show improvement, supporting agribusiness development has prompted …
i.e. deforest and farm! It was believed that a high rate of growing pressure on forestlands’
rural – urban migration would change this pattern, but as
As early as the 1970–80s the area was routinely linked to tax
deforestation persists it seems that large-scale ranchers
avoidance schemes whilst to the present day speculative
may be to blame. On the other side of the coin as Amnesty
land grabbing continues to support the full range of
International reports; “…is a very real crisis for some of the
economic activities in the wider Amazon region.
most vulnerable people in Brazil’s Amazon”. Traditional
residents and Indigenous people who live sustainably in
protected areas are losing the precious forests that provide
them with food, sources of livelihood and medicines.

© Curriculum Press 2022 Geo Factsheets, 2021/22 Series, Issue 2 of 3, January 2022. ISSN: 1351-5136 5
Geo Factsheet 437 - Loss of Rainforest in the Amazon: An Ongoing Issue

What can be done? d) Land use zoning – clearly constructed regulations and
codes are set out to govern any attempt to deforest. This
The recent surge in fires in the Amazon and the evident increase could also be interpreted as including efforts to make logging
in the rate of clearance and degradation has acted as a catalyst illegal, despite difficulties referred to earlier under the current
in gaining both a national and international response This may Bolsonaro regime in Brazil.
not have been the case had the impacts not been felt on a global
scale through climate change. There have been warnings of e) REDD+ projects according to the FAO of the UN ‘Reducing
damaging effects extending beyond the boundaries of the forest emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, plus the
area since deforestation of the Amazon was first brought to sustainable management of forests, and the conservation and
scientific/media and governmental attention. However, according enhancement of forest carbon stocks (REDD+), is an essential
to World Animal protection (report August 2020) the deforestation part of the global efforts to mitigate climate change.’ The plan
of the Amazon is one of 9 tipping points for climate change. states that governments, companies, or forest owners should
be rewarded for keeping their forests instead of cutting them
As outlined earlier the rainforest hydrological cycle is inexorably down.  This is seen as a global framework alongside the
linked to the ecosystem so its removal will reduce precipitation Convention on Biological diversity.
and increase the likelihood of a change to a savannah type. This
is a negative feedback loop, as a loss of rainfall leads to further f) Use of Human Rights Laws – Using human rights laws may
tree loss. The most recent IPCC report August 2021 for the UN be most effective way of harnessing international legislation
states “Human influence has warmed the climate at a rate that to protect the way of life of the many indigenous peoples who
is unprecedented in at least the last 2000 years” IPCC_AR6_ live in the rainforest.
WGI_Full_Report.pdf. Anthropogenic factors play a clear role
in climate change and deforestation is considered as one of the Conclusion
key influences in the report (in addition to direct additions to
There is no doubt that this is a situation which does not have one
emissions from economic activity). The authors point out – ‘With
clear solution. Any global decisions should bear in mind similar
every increment of global warming, changes get larger in regional
ecosystems in other continents. The current pandemic has also
mean temperature, precipitation and soil moisture’.
posed particular problems for the entire Amazonian region, which
As the consequences clearly begin to be felt with greater may have allowed some exploitation of the area to go relatively
frequency and intensity, global allies such as the G7 are taking unchallenged given the priorities of the socio-economic situation
note. Amongst other responses they demand action of Amazonian An e-petition to the British Government in September 2019 prior
countries and in particular Brazil. This is directly linked not only to the pandemic pointed out that the indigenous peoples have
to the increased commercial pressure on the lands, but also called on the EU to impose trade sanctions on Brazil to halt
to the change of strategy brought about by the election of Jair the deforestation, to which the government replied (amongst
Bolsonaro. many other comments) that it was heavily invested in several
International Climate Finance programmes and it is a member of
Responses to deforestation: the Tropical Forest Alliance 2020.

a) Moratoria on commercial agricultural practices – as with

Latest news – November 2021
Soy moratorium 920060 and cattle agreement of 2009.
It is important to recognise that the ongoing solutions lie not
b) Enhanced monitoring – The IPCC reports that ‘The ability to
just with public bodies and governments. Private commercial
estimate changes in global land biomass has improved due to
deals must also be thrashed out, e.g. 30 of the world’s largest
the use of different microwave satellite data (Liu et al., 2015)
finance companies have promised to end investment in any
and in situ forest census data… combined with the MODerate
activities linked to deforestation. As pointed out in discussing
resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS; Baccini et al,
indirect drivers, links with supply chains must also be examined.
2017). This has allowed for improved quantification of land
Several UK supermarkets are experiencing scrutiny, as they have
temperature (Duan et al, 2019), carbon stocks and human-
marketed meat fed on soy from deforested areas.
induced changes due to deforestation. Brazil has a respected
system called INPE in addition to a method of alerts.
c) Protected areas - establishing conservation areas which
can be regarded as inviolate to agricultural activity thus
preserving biodiversity. The WWF reported on the Amazon
Region Protected Areas (ARPA) set up in 2002 by the Brazilian
government allied with NGOs and global economic groups
such as the World Bank. Six years later it had led to 25.3
million hectares of new parks and reserves in the Brazilian
Amazon including the Tumucumaque Mountains National
Park. The WWF also were involved with Chiribiquete National
Park in the  Colombian Amazon (now a UNESCO World
Heritage site). The success stories in Brazil however have
recently been eclipsed in the light of the changed politico
Given that a recent report from INPE of November 2021 post
economic approach.
COP26 shows that in 2020-21 the Amazon experienced the
highest rate of deforestation since 2006 losing 13,235 km2, it
became obvious that discussions at COP26 in November would
need to add further tools to the armoury combatting deforestation.

© Curriculum Press 2022 Geo Factsheets, 2021/22 Series, Issue 2 of 3, January 2022. ISSN: 1351-5136 6
Geo Factsheet 437 - Loss of Rainforest in the Amazon: An Ongoing Issue

The agreement reached at the summit was the first major deal at Further Reading and Research
COP26 and meant that there was a promise to end and reverse
deforestation by 2030. In addition, £14bn funds, both private • Plotkin, M., 2020. The Amazon: What Everyone Needs to
and public, have been pledged to assist the end of deforestation Know. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press (OUP).
going towards the support of indigenous communities (who are • Amazon Report 2020: https://www.worldanimalprotec-
identified as being crucial in maintaining a balanced ecosystem) tion.org.uk/cdn/ff/YuV6bb28tNTdIIqCABuzhxAKxCKilCX-
the restoration of damaged land and the fight against wildfires. bLodXyaZ5qZI/1612262206/public/media/Amazon-Re-
Brazil was one of 100 nations to sign up to this deal – countries port-UK-02-02-2021.pdf
which cover 85% of the world’s forest. It was deemed vital that
Brazil was included • Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon – Oxford
Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science:
However, there was some criticism, as the implementation of the https://oxfordre.com/environmentalscience/view/10.1093/
pledges lacked any legislative pressure and a similar declaration acrefore/9780199389414.001.0001/acrefore-
in New York in 2014 had done nothing whatsoever to slow the 9780199389414-e-102
process of deforestation.
• The Brazilian Amazon Deforestation rate in 2020 is the
greatest of the decade: https://www.nature.com/articles/
Further Activities
s41559-020-01368-x#:~:text=In%202020%2C%20the%20
Create a sketch map of the Amazonian region and annotate it Brazilian%20Amazon%20Deforestation%20Monitoring%20
according to the zones at risk, the specific economic and social Program,is%20the%20highest%20rate%20in%20the%20-
drivers and protected areas. decade%201
Make a list of the stakeholders involved in forest development - • Deforestation Fronts: Drivers and Responses in a Chang-
for each one give 2 reasons justifying their use of the forest. Sort ing World – WWF: https://www.worldwildlife.org/publi-
them into sustainable and unsustainable users. cations/deforestation-fronts-drivers-and-responses-in-a-
changing-world-full-report
Draw an annotated cross section of the rainforest ecosystem to
demonstrate the physical effects of deforestation • Debate: Deforestation in the Amazon – UK Parlia-
ment: https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/326/
Sort the solutions/responses according to whether they are
petitions-committee/news/99253/debate-deforesta-
regional, national, or international/global. How important is global
tion-in-the-amazon/
governance in tackling this issue?
• Amazon under threat: Fires, loggers and now virus –
BBC News: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environ-
ment-51300515
• Brazil: Accelerating deforestation of Amazon a direct
result of Bolsonaro’s policies: https://www.amnesty.org/
en/latest/news/2020/12/brazil-accelerating-deforesta-
tion-of-amazon-a-direct-result-of-bolsonaros/
• NASA Finds Good News on Forests and Carbon Dioxide:
https://www.nasa.gov/jpl/nasa-finds-good-news-on-forests-
and-carbon-dioxide
• Brazilian Amazon protected areas ‘in flames’ as land-grab-
bers invade: https://news.mongabay.com/2020/08/brazil-
ian-amazon-protected-areas-in-flames-as-land-grabbers-in-
vade/#:~:text=%20Brazilian%20Amazon%20protected%20
areas%20%E2%80%98in%20flames%E2%80%99%20
as,mining%2C%20amid%20a%20surge%20in%20invad-
ers...%20More%20

Acknowledgements: This Geography Factsheet was researched and written by Sue Chamberlain, a researcher
and former geography teacher from Hampshire and published in January 2022 by Curriculum Press. Geo Factsheets
may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No
part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any
other means, without the prior permission of the publisher.

© Curriculum Press 2022 Geo Factsheets, 2021/22 Series, Issue 2 of 3, January 2022. ISSN: 1351-5136 7