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The Moon: Key to the Universe

By Ian Beardsley

Copyright © 2023

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Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………..3

Foreward…………………………………………………………………4

1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………5

2.0 The Mystery of the Moon and the Proton……………………..7

3.0 The Moon……………………………………………………………10

4.0 The Moon and the Livable Age of the Universe………………13

5.0 Sexagesimal………………………………………………………..21

6.0 Inertia As Proton-seconds………………………………………24

7.0 The Proton Radius………………………………………………..28

8.0 The Proton Charge……………………………………………….39

9.0 Conclusion…………………………………………………………41

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Abstract

We see the moon is not just connected to the protons that make elements but to the elements
gold and silver that are the metals for ceremonial jewelries and we see it is connected to when
the universe would die in the standard cosmological model, as well as it de nes the unit of a
second as mysteriously natural. We develop the idea of inertia as proton-seconds which is
matter as a consequence of space and time and from it determine the radius of a proton. As
well the idea determines the charge of a proton. We see it arises from six-fold symmetries
which we suggest makes for a good basis of Nature.


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 4 of 44

Foreward

One of things I wanted to go into in this paper but didn’t is that you can speak of the structure of
the solar system even though it changes with time.

The whole object of developing a theory for the way planetary systems form is that they meet the
following criterion: They predict the Titius-Bode rule for the distribution of the planets; the
distribution gives the planetary orbital periods from Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation. The
distribution of the planets is chiefly predicted by three factors: The inward forces of gravity from
the parent star, the outward pressure gradient from the stellar production of radiation, and the
outward inertial forces as a cloud collapses into a flat disc around the central star. These forces
separate the flat disc into rings, agglomerations of material, each ring from which a different
planet forms at its central distance from the star (it has a thickness). In a theory of planetary
formation from a primordial disc, it should predict the Titius-Bode rule for the distribution of
planets. When I speak of the state of the solar system I speak of this point toward which the
solar system has formed and not the small changes that happen over millions of years due to
mutual interference between the bodies. In fact, mutual interference has torn apart possible
forming planets resulting in the current distribution we have today, because the current
distribution is more or less stable. The asteroid belt is a good example of this — it is a location
where a planet cannot form due to harmonic (repetitive) action on the orbital period at its
distance by orbital periods of planets beyond it. In short we take the state of the solar system as
an inflection point between what it became, and what it might minutely be going away from in
billions of years after it dies and can no longer support life.



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1.0 Introduction

Our Natural satellite, the Moon, is surrounded by mystery, and after discovering something I
nd intriguing, not that there is not already a lot that is intriguing, it has compelled me to outline
not just what I found, but what is already known, in hopes of answering some of the big
questions surrounding the mystery of life on Earth. I suspect the Moon may hold the key to
answering questions of why we are here, mainly because as seen from here on Earth, the Moon
perfectly eclipses the Sun, meaning that as seen from here it is about the same size as the
Sun, and since her path in the sky allows her to cover the Sun every so often that when we
witness a solar eclipse, we may be witnessing an intended display; but, from who or what we
obviously don’t know, but, the spectacle would have been witnessed as much by our early
ancestors sitting around a re chipping stones into spearpoints 100,000 years ago as much as
by us today walking down the street in a town or city, or when hiking in the desert.

The ecliptic is is the plane traced out by the Earth’s orbit to the Sun, and many of the planets in
our solar system are not too far out of this plane in their orbits, it is the line in the sky that the
Sun traces out over the course of a year, one orbit of the Earth around the Sun. The Earth
rotates on its axis at an angle of 23.44 degrees to the ecliptic. The equator of the Earth is
therefore tilted by this angle to its orbit, and the projection of the Earth’s equator onto the sky is
the celestial equator, parallel to which we see the stars rise and set because their apparent
motions are really due to the rotation of the Earth.

The Moon is inclined to the ecliptic 5.15 degrees meaning since its ascending node to the
ecliptic rotates, its inclination to the Earth equator goes from

18.3 deg = 23.44-5.15 to 28.6 deg= 23.44+5.15

Where the ascending node is where the moon moves into the northern hemisphere of the
ecliptic and the descending node is where it moves into the southern hemisphere of the
ecliptic.

The Moon orbits the earth with respect to the stars in 27.3 days, but with respect to the Sun in
29.5 days, because as it orbits the Earth, the Earth orbits the Sun, so with respect to the Sun it
chases the Earth’s rotation thus the period from New Moon to New moon (It’s period in the
Earth sky) is a little longer than the sidereal month.

It is believed the Moon makes life on Earth possible because it stabilizes the Earth’s angle of
rotation to the Sun. Without the Moon stabilizing the Earth’s orbital axis astronomers believe
the Earth’s tilt could vary as much as 85 degrees. Like this the sun would pass through the sky
nearly North to South and and change back to nearly East to West every few million years. Just
with the change the Earth has today of little more than a degree over thousands of years
causes the periodic ice ages we have. Astronomers are now beginning to think most terrestrial
planets around other stars do not have a Moon like ours stabilizing its rotation and hence life
sustaining seasons.

The Moon is unique in that of the terrestrial planets it is the only one so closely spherical.
Which is because its mass is enough to pull all of its matter towards its center equally.

When the solar system was rst forming from the protoplanetary disk it was a chaotic place
with frequent bombardments upon the forming protoplanets. It is believed in this chaos, the
primordial Earth, not yet hardened but a soft blob, was hit by a Mars sized object ejecting
some of the mass of the Earth into orbit around the Earth from which the Moon formed. It is
calculated it had to be a Mars sized body that hit the Earth because only 10% of the matter
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ejected from Earth would have gone into the formation of the Moon. It is believed the moon’s of
the other planets did not actually form this way but were rather captured by the planets they
orbit.

Now on to what I found regarding the Moon, which is actually part of another work that is a
theory of reality, but we won’t go into that in this paper (See Beardsley, The Mystery Of The
Moon And The Proton, 2023). But in order to proceed we need to compute the Kinetic energies
of the Moon and Earth in their orbits.

1
K Emoon = (7.347673E 22kg)(966m /s)2 = 3.428E 28J

2
1
K Eearth = (5.972E 24kg)(30,290m /s)2 = 2.7396E 33J

2
Using the Moon’s orbital velocity at aphelion, and Earth’s orbital velocity at perihelion. We also
want to list the values of the constants we will be using:

mP : 1.67262 × 10−27kg (Proton Mass)

h : 6.62607 × 10−34 J ⋅ s (Planck Constant)

rp : 0.833 × 10−15m (Proton Radius)

m2
G: 6.67408 × 10−11N 2 (Gravitational Constant)

kg
c : 299,792, 459m /s (light speed)

α : 1/137 (Fine Structure Constant)

qp = qe = 1.6022E − 19coulom bs

Nm 2
ke = 8.988E 9 2

C
RH = 1.2E − 10m (VanDerWaals Radius of Hydrogen)

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2.0 The Mystery of the Moon and the Proton

We have the following two equations, one for the macrocosmos (Moon, Earth, Sun) and the
other for the microcosmos (proton):

1 rp h 4π
Eq 2.1. ⋅ = 1secon d

6α 2 mp Gc
K Emoon
Eq. 2.2 (Ear th Day) = 1secon d

K Eearth
Because equation 2.1 equals 1 second in the SI system of units (which is the mystery we want
to explore} it is a great basis for working with Nature, because it is composed of the
fundamental Natural Constants. We want to understand this equation that predicts the radius
of a proton within experimental errors, by using my equation for 1 second:

RH 2 1 h
Eq 2.3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s

πα 2 mp2 6 NA g

Where

2 1 e
≈ ≈

6 Φ(1 + Φ) Φ

5+1
Where Φ = is the golden ratio, and e is Euler’s number equals 2.718…And RH is the
2
radius of a hydrogen atom, we get for the radius of a proton

1 hc RH
Eq. 2.4. rp = ⋅

mp 2π 3G NA

Where

Z ⋅ 6E 23proton s Z ⋅ gra m s
NA = , = , NA ⋅ = 6E 23

Z ⋅ gra m s Z ⋅ proton s

Where NA is a variable, the number of protons in multiplied by Avogadro’s number over Z

grams making these three equations, equations of state for the periodic table of the elements
in that for example if , the element, is set at the element carbon ℂ then

6gra m s 6(6E 23proton s)

ℂ= , NA = , NAℂ = 6E 23

6proton s 6gra m s
Because there are six grams of protons in carbon which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and a
molar mass of 12. We have 12-6=6 grams of protons in the 12 grams of protons and neutrons.

𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
 8 of 44

In this sense Avogadro’s number is seen to be a natural constant not just a convenient number
used to describe a large number of atoms or compounds. But we wish to show that the
second has coincidentally come out to be a Natural Unit given we got it from dividing the Earth
day into 24 units we called hours, that into 60 units we called minutes, and that into 60 units
we called seconds. It is Natural I am saying because we have equation 2.1 and 2.2:

1 rp h 4π
⋅ = 1secon d

6α 2 mp Gc
K Emoon
(Ear th Day) = 1secon d

K Eearth
We want to factor 2.1 into a ratio between kinetic energies times a time, as we have in 2.2 for
the moon and earth, so we can unravel the mystery of the moon and the proton. We nd the
second is Natural to the biological as well and that everything here involves a mystery of six-
fold symmetry. We have that

1 h 4π rp2
Eq 2.5. = 6proton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )

α 2 mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
Eq 2.6. = 1proton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydrogen(H )

α 2 mp Gc

From which instead of saying the left sides of these equations are seconds, we say they are
proton-seconds by not letting mp cancel with the bodies of these equations on the left, but
rather divide into them, which are in units of mass, giving us a number of protons. I say this is
the biological because as we shall see our equations are based on one second is 6 protons is
carbon, and 6 seconds is one proton is hydrogen, these making the hydrocarbons which are
the skeletons of biological life. We see this is a mystery of six-fold symmetry based around
biological life in the following computer program I wrote and its output:

1 h 4π rp2
α 2 mp Gc

Is proton-seconds. Divide by time we have a number of protons because it is a mass divided by

the mass of a proton. But these masses can be considered to cancel and leave pure number.
We make a program that looks for close to whole number solutions so we can create a table of
values for problem solving.
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By what value would you like to increment?: 0.25

How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?): 100
24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart
12.0600 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059952 decpart
8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039968 decpart
6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029976 decpart
4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019984 decpart
3.0150 protons 2.000000 seconds 0.014988 decpart
2.1927 protons 2.750000 seconds 0.192718 decpart
2.0100 protons 3.000000 seconds 0.009992 decpart
1.2060 protons 5.000000 seconds 0.205995 decpart
1.1486 protons 5.250000 seconds 0.148567 decpart
1.0964 protons 5.500000 seconds 0.096359 decpart
1.0487 protons 5.750000 seconds 0.048691 decpart
1.0050 protons 6.000000 seconds 0.004996 decpart
0.2487 protons 24.250000 seconds 0.248659 decpart
0.2461 protons 24.500000 seconds 0.246121 decpart
0.2436 protons 24.750000 seconds 0.243635 decpart

A very interesting thing here is looking at the values generated by the program, the smallest
integer value 1 second produces 6 protons (carbon) and the largest integer value 6 seconds
produces one proton (hydrogen). Beyond six seconds you have fractional protons, and the rest
of the elements heavier than carbon are formed by fractional seconds. These are the
hydrocarbons the backbones of biological chemistry. Here is the code for the program:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {

int n;
oat value=0, increment,t=0, p=1.67262E-27, h=6.62607E-34,G=6.67408E-11,
c=299792459,protons[100],r=0.833E-15;

do
{
printf("By what value would you like to increment?: ");
scanf("%f", &increment);
printf("How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?): ");
scanf("%i", &n);
}
while (n>=101);
{

for (int i=0; i<n;i++)

{
protons[i]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/(G*c));

int intpart=(int)protons[i];
oat decpart=protons[i]-intpart;
t=t+increment;
if (decpart<0.25)
{ printf("%.4f protons %f seconds %f decpart \n", protons[i], t-increment, decpart);
}}}}

fl
fl
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3.0 The Moon

Essentially that the Moon perfectly eclipses the Sun as seen from the Earth means while it is
400 times smaller than the Sun it is 400 times further from the Sun than it is from the Earth.
This determines its orbital velocity and mass, as well as that of the Earth and the mass of the
Sun. The orbital velocities of the Moon and the Earth are given by:

GM⊙ GMe
Equation 3.1. ve = and vm =

re rm

ve M⊙ rm
Equation 3.2. = ⋅

vm Me re

M⊙ rm 1.989E 30kg 1.74E6m

⋅ = ⋅ = 28.86

Me re 5.972E 24 6.957E8m

The Moon perfectly eclipses the Sun because

re R⊙
Equation 3.3. ≈

rm Rm

Where re is the Earth orbital radius, rm is the lunar orbital radius, R⊙ is the solar radius, and Rm
is the lunar radius. This gives:

ve M⊙ Rm
Equation 3.4. = ⋅ = 28.6

vm Me R⊙

We have more explicitly:

ve R M⊙ re
Equation 3.5. = m ⋅

vm R⊙ Me rm

Rm M⊙ re 1.74E6m 1.989E 30kg 1.496E11m

⋅ = ⋅ = 28.46

R⊙ Me rm 6.957E8 5.972E 24kg 3.84748E8m

The rotational period of the moon is Tm

= 27.3d ays = 2,358, 720secon d s and the orbital
period of the Earth is Γe = 24h ours = 86,400secon d s is 27.3 which gives

Tm R M⊙ re
Equation 3.6. = m ⋅

Γe R⊙ Me rm
 11 of 44

Thus while second is given by:

K Emoon
(Ear th Day) = 1.08secon d s

K Eearth
The Lunar month is given by

Rm M⊙ re
Equation 3.7. Tm = ⋅ ⋅ Γe

R⊙ Me rm

We also found in terms of the proton, the second is given by

1 h 4π rp2
= 1.004996352secon d s

6α 2 mp Gc

Which gives the radius of the proton as

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp t1 = 8.288587 × 10−16 = 0.829f m

3 4πh

Where t1 is one second approximated by

RH 3 2 h
⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s

16πα 2 mp2 NA G

Which gives the radius of a proton is

9 1 hc RH
rp = 2⋅ ⋅

8 mp 4π 3G NA

The lunar month with respect to the stars (sidereal month) is 27.3 days. And with respect to the
Sun (synodic month) is 29.53059 days. So we are in the right area. We have suggested the
second is a Natural unit, but we might say the month is as well. In a sense we already knew
this because we have always known the Moon perfectly eclipses the Sun, and here we have
shown that is determined by the mass of the Earth, the radius of the Sun, its mass, and these
determine the Moon’s orbital distance, size, and mass, as well the Earth’s mass. The Moon
also has a function; it allows for life on Earth because its orbit holds the Earth’s inclination to its
orbit which allows for the seasons.

The Sun’s radius to the lunar orbital radius is the ratio of the molar mass of gold to that of silver
which is about 1.8, or nine-fifths. The Sun is gold in color and the Moon is gold in color. We
have:

Sol arRa diu s 6.957E 8m Au 196.97

= = = = 1.8
Lu n ar Orbit 3.844E 8m Ag 107.87
𝔼
𝔼



 12 of 44

Considering equation 3.7 and this fact, we have:

Rm M⊙ re
Tm = ⋅ ⋅ Γe
R⊙ Me rm

R⊙ 6.957E 8m Au 196.97
= = = = 1.8
rm 3.844E 8m Ag 107.87
Putting the values into 3.7 we have:

1.74E6m 1.989E 30kg 1.496E11m

Tm = ⋅ 86400s = 2459099s
6.957E 8m 5.972E 24kg 3.84748E 8m

Converting this to days: 2459099/60/60/24=28.46 days

Remember the sidereal month is 27.3 days, and the synodic month is 29.53059 days. We can
write 3.7 in terms of the mass of a gold atom to the mass of a silver atom:

Rm M⊙ re
Tm = ⋅ ⋅ Γe
Au
rm Ag Me rm

Ag M⊙ re
Equation 3.8. Tm = Rm ⋅ ⋅ Γe
Au Me rm3

107.87 1.989E 30kg 1.496E11m

Tm = 1.74E6m ⋅ 86400s = 2435130.93s
196.97 5.972E 24kg (3.84748E 8m)3

2435130.93/60/60/24=28.184s

This is interesting, because Au/Ag is not exactly 9/5 but is 1.82599 it adjusts the Lunar month in
such a way that it is nearly 28 days even which gives 12.95848 which would be an almost exactly
13 month year that works better than our 12 month year. January has 31 days, February 29,
March 31, April 30 May 31, June 30, July 31, August 31, September 30, October 31, November
30, December 31. The average of the 29, 30, 31 day month is

31 + 29 + 30 90
= = 30
3 3
Which is probably why we have 29, 31, 30 day months even though the synodic month (period
from new moon to new moon) is 29.53049 days, because 30 is evenly divisible into the 360
degrees of a circle and into the 60 of the sexagesimal counting system of the Sumerians,
Babylonians, and Ancient Greeks from which our calendar emerged and from which we get 60
seconds in a minute, and 60 minutes in an hour.

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4.0 The Moon and the Livable Age of the Universe

Warren Giordano wrote in his paper The Fine Structure Constant And The Gravitational
Constant: Keys To The Substance Of The Fabric Of Space, March 21, 2019:

In 1980, the author had compiled a series of notes analyzing Einstein’s geometric to kinematic
equations, along with an observation that multiplying Planck’s constant ‘h’ by ‘1 + α’, where
‘α’ is the Fine Structure Constant, and multiplying by 10 23 yielded Newton’s gravitational
constant numerically, but neglecting any units.

I found I could eliminate the 10 23 and at the same time get the six of the six-fold symmetry with
which I was working by considering Avogadro’s number 6.02E 23atom s.

I suggested there exists some k that serves as a constant that describes both the microcosmos
and macrocosmos from the proton, to the atoms, to planetary orbits. It is such that the square
root of it times the earth orbital velocity is 6, because we are guessing we are dealing with six-
fold symmetry as the basis of Nature. That is

Eq. 4.1 k ve = 6

We have that k is

4 8π 3G
Eq. 4.2 k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

This follows from what Warren Giordano noticed that

Eq. 4.3 h(1 + α) ⋅ 10 23 = G

Without the right units. I noticed since Avogadro’s number is 6.02 × 10 23 ≈ 6 × 10 23 that I
could introduce an equation of state for the periodic table of the elements:
gr a m
Eq. 4.4 ℍ=1
atom
(1 + α) kg 2 ⋅ s
Eq 4.5 h NA H = 6.0003
G m
Let us say we were to consider Any Element say carbon ℂ. Then in general

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NA = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅
G m
We have

6gr a m s 6(6E 23pr oton s)

ℂ= and NA =
6pr oton s 6gr a m s
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

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Because there are six grams of protons in carbon which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and a
molar mass of 12. We have

12-6=6 grams of protons in the 12 grams of protons and neutrons. Thus

NAℂ = 6E 23
And it follows that

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NAℂ = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅
G m
We see in general since the atomic number Z is the number of protons in an atom that in general
this holds for all elements because

Z ⋅ 6E 23pr oton s
NA =
Z ⋅ gr a m s
And

Z ⋅ gr a m s
=
Z ⋅ pr oton s
Therefore we always have:

NA ⋅ = 6E 23

NA is a variable, the number of protons in multiplied by Avogadro’s number.

Put in the Earth mean orbital velocity which is 29.79km/s (Zombeck, Martin V. 1982). We get:

(1 + α)
Equation. 4.6 h ⋅ NA ⋅ ve = 422.787kg
G
While we have masses characteristic of the microcosmos like protons, and masses characteristic
of the macrocosmos, like the upper limit for a star to become a white dwarf after she novas (The
Chandrasekhar limit) which is 1.44 solar masses — More mass than that and she will collapse —
we do not have a characteristic mass of the intermediary world where we exist, a truck weighs
several tons and tennis ball maybe around a hundred grams. To find that mass let us take the
geometric mean between the mass of a proton and the mass of 1.44 solar masses. We could take
the average, or the harmonic mean, but the geometric mean is the squaring of the proportions, it
is the side of a square with the area equal to the area of the rectangle with these proportions as
its sides. We have:

Equation. 4.7 M⊙ = 1.98847E 30kg

We multiply this by 1.44 to get 2.8634E30kg. The mass of a proton is mp = 1.67262E − 27kg.
We have the intermediary mass is:

Equation 4.8 mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg

𝔼
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 15 of 44

All we really need to do now is divide equation 4.6 by equation 4.8 and we get an even number
that is the six of our six-fold symmetry.

1 (1 + α)
Equation. 4.9 h ⋅ NA ⋅ ve = 6.1092 ≈ 6
mi G
The six of our six-fold symmetry.

We have something very interesting here. We have

1 s
6kg 2 ve = 6
69.205kg m

This is:

Eq. 4.10 k ve = 6

Where k is a constant, given

1 s
Eq. 4.11 k =
773.5 m
It was the Indian physicist Chandrasekhar who found the limit in mass for which a white dwarf
will not have its gravity overcome the electron degeneracy pressure and collapse. The non-
relativistic equation is:

c 3ℏ3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4

Let us approximate 0.77 with 3/4. Since we have our constant

1 1+α
Eq 4.12 k = h ⋅ NA
mi2 G

Eq. 4.13 mi = Mmp

Then
1/2
3 c 3 ℏ3
Eq. 4.14 mi =
2 G 3mp2

Since ℏ = h /2π our constant k in terms the Chandrasekhar limit is

4 8π 3G
Eq. 4.15 k = m (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 p c 3h
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 16 of 44

The fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the potential energy of an electron in the first
circular orbit to the energy given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr model times the speed of
light squared, that is it represents the ground state. It is

Ue
α2 =
mec 2
Since

k ve = 6

We are suggesting the earth orbit is the ground state for our planetary system. We suggest it
holds for any planetary system because k as we will see is a natural constant that solves many
physical problems on many levels, not just planetary systems but atomic systems and the
particles that make them up.

Let us now recall equations 2.5 and 2.6

1 h 4π rp2
= 6pr oton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )
α 2 mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
= 1pr oton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydr ogen(H )
α 2 mp Gc

While we have considered them to be proton-seconds because they are a mass divided by the
mass of a proton, we can consider these two masses to cancel and say they are equal to 1 second
and six seconds respectively. We have that carbon, which is to evaluate them at one second, is
the radius of a proton:

Eq. 4.16

1 h 4π rp2
= 6secon d s
α 2 mp Gc

This gives the radius of a proton is:

Eq 4.17.

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp t1 = 8.288587 × 10−16 = 0.829f m
3 4πh

Where t1 = 1secon d. The experimental value of the proton radius is 0.833fm+/-0.014fm!

 17 of 44

We want to hone our constant k best we can. It, and our intermediary mass, which we want to
hone as well, are derived from the Chandrasekhar limit, and, being based on Thermal and
Statistical Physics, uses a lot of approximations. It is actual value will probably be arrived at very
accurately with incoming data in astronomy for White Dwarf Stars. Values are often given from
1.39 solar masses to 1.44 solar masses mostly due to ranges given from varying stellar
compositions which can vary in metallicity and so forth from star to star. The non-relativistic
estimate from Chandrasekhar is

c 3ℏ3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.44 ⊙
GN3 mp4

We made the estimate 0.77 approximately 3/4. But using the exact value above for our
intermediary mass we have

c 3ℏ3
mi = Mmp = 0.77
GN mp2

h
We had estimated and using ℏ =
2π
1/2
3 c 3h 3
mi = = 67.9943kg
2 8π 3G mp2

Thus precisely

3
= 0.8660
2
0.77 = 0.8775

We have

0.8775
= 1.01328
0.8660
We have honing our mi

mi = (67.9943)(1.01328) = 68.897kg ≈ 69kg ≈ 70kg

Thus since we said with our estimate

1 (1 + α) 1 s
k = h ⋅ NA = ⋅
mi2 G 773.5 m
1 (1.007299)
k = (6.62607E − 34) ⋅ ⋅ 6.02E 23 = 0.001268291s /m
(68.897kg) 2 6.67408E − 11
𝔼

 18 of 44

1 m
= 788.4626
k s
Considering equation 4.1 of section 4.0 page 16, we see our value is still close to integer 6:

29790m s /s
k ve = = 6.145748
788.46m /s
And since we have since suggested we should rather be using not the average orbital velocity of
Earth but that at aphelion, we have

29300m s /s
k ve = = 6.095986
788.46m /s
Even closer to integer six. Let us return to equation 2.1 and 2.2:

1 rp h 4π
Eq 2.1. ⋅ = 1secon d
6α 2 mp Gc
K Emoon
Eq. 2.2 (Ear th Da y) = 1secon d
K Eearth
We want to factor 1.1 into a ratio between kinetic energies times a time as we have in 2.2. We
write 1 as

6α 2 mp4 ⋅ G c mp
=
rp 4πh 1secon d

And noticing

Gc
mp3 = KE
h
Which gives

mp ⋅ K E rp2 mp2
36α 2 ⋅ =
4π 1secon d
Is
2
4π rp mp
KE = ⋅ 2
36α 4 t1

And we know

1 h 4π rp2
t1 =
6α 2 mp Gc

 19 of 44

And have

4π (0.833E − 15)2
⋅ ⋅ (1.67262E − 27) = 1.413E − 49J
36α 2 t12
2
Gc 4π rp mp
mp3 = ⋅ 2
h 36α 4 t1

We also notice that obviously

h c3
⋅ = KE
G mp

h c3
G
⋅ mp
= 4.6654
(K Emoon)
Gc
We have the kinetic energy K E = mp3 and we need another kinetic energy to form the ratio:
h
Gc
mp3 ⋅ h
(t im e) = aT im e
KE
We have the intermediary mass mi and the constant k inverted. We can write

(k)
2
1
K E = mi

This is

K E = (68.897kg)(788.4626m /s)2 = 42,831,423.39Joules

K E1
(t im e) = (aT im e)
K E2

mi ( k )
2
1
(42831423.39J )
(1secon d ) = (1secon d )
Gc
mp3 h (1.4130E − 49J )

=3.03124E56 seconds

But we also formulated

h c3
⋅ = 1.599298E 29J
G mp

 20 of 44

So we can write

h c3
⋅
G mp 1.599298E 29J
(1secon d ) = = 3.734E 21secon d s
mi ( k )
1
2 42831423.39J

1 Earth year = (365.25)(24)(60)(60)=31557600 seconds

3.734E 21s
= 1.1832332E14years ≈ 1E14years
31557600s
The universe is theorized by standard models to die in 100 trillion years, which is when the last
stars born will die out. This is exactly 1E14 years

We see the moon is connected to how old the universe is theorized to become.

 21 of 44

5.0 Sexagesimal

It was Buckminster Fuller who said “Nature employs 60 degree coordination”. Sixty degrees
are the degrees of an equilateral triangle. The triangle is the structure that encloses an area
with the least amount of sides. Buckminster Fuller said, systems of triangles are the the only
inherently stable patterns. The regular hexagon, a six-sides polygon tessellates as equilateral,
60 degree, inherently stable equilateral triangles. It was the scientist Shubnikov who said
among the living organisms the pattern with which we most frequently meet is ve-fold
symmetry. It is well known that the physical, like snow akes, are six-fold symmetry. Thus we
should not be surprised that our Abstract Cosmology is founded on six-fold symmetry. Two
and three are the smallest prime numbers and their product is six. Two times six is twelve, the
number most evenly divisible by whole numbers for its size (it is a so-called abundant number:
divisible evenly by 1,2,3,4,6, their sum is 16 which is greater than twelve itself and, three times
six is eighteen, the cyclical Nature of the periodic table (18 groups).

At the dawn of civilization, the Sumerians who settled down from wandering, gathering, and
hunting, to invent agriculture and and build ceramic homes, developed the rst mathematics,
and it was this sexagesimal (base 60) that passed on to the Babylonians, then ended up with
the Ancient Greeks, who divided not just the hour into 60 minutes of time and the minute into
60 seconds of time, but who divided the sky into hours, minutes, and seconds of arc which
was measured in time counted by the rotation of the Earth, and its orbital period around the
Sun, and the orbital period of the Moon around the Earth.

We are suggesting nature is founded on six-fold symmetry, six which is constructed by

multiplying together the rst two prime numbers, 2 and 3. Two factorial is two, three factorial is
6. Two times six is twelve, the number of months in a year, approximated by our moon’s
approximately 12 orbits around the earth in the time it takes the earth to go around the Sun
once. There are four weeks in a lunar month, and

1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 60 2 = 86,400

Is the number of seconds in the 24 hour Earth day. The duration of one second comes from
dividing up time and the sky like this in base 60, that came from the Sumerians, Babylonians,
and Ancient Greeks and it is believed they did this because 60 is evenly divisible by

1,2,3,4,5,6,…10,12,15,20,30,60,…

The moon orbits the Earth in approximately 30 rotations of the Earth, hence the 30 day month.
January has 31 days, February 29, March 31, April 30 May 31, June 30, July 31, August 31,
September 30, October 31, November 30, December 31. This averages out to

31 + 29 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 367
= = 30.58333

12 12
We divide a circle into 360 units called degrees, which is six squared times ten. As such the
equilateral triangle has each angle equal to 60 degrees. There are approximately 360 earth
rotations in the time it orbits the sun once, Hence in one day the Earth moves through
approximately one degree in one day in its 365 day journey around the Sun. The sidereal
month, the time it takes the moon to return to the same position against the background of the
stars is 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes. We see the power of sexagesimal (base 60) in computing
time with the month divided into days, hours, and seconds where there are 60 minutes in an
hour and 60 seconds in a minute because we can convert this easily into seconds with such a
system as here, the duration of this sidereal month in seconds:

fi
fl
fi
fi
 22 of 44

(24 ⋅ 27 + 7) ⋅ 60 2 + 43 ⋅ 601 + 0 ⋅ 600 = 2,358,000 + 2,580 + 0 = 2360580sec /m onth

The length of the synodic month, the completion of the phases of the Moon, or the time it takes
the Moon to return to the same position with respect to the Sun, is 29 days 12 hours 44
minutes 3 seconds. It is a little longer than the sidereal month because the earth has moved
with respect to the sun by the time the moon has come back around to a full orbit. We have:

(24 ⋅ 29 + 12) ⋅ 60 2 + 44 ⋅ 601 + 3 ⋅ 600 = 2,548,800 + 2,640 + 3 = 2551443sec /m onth

We looked at the arithmetic mean of the days in the month over a year, Let us look at the
harmonic mean:

12
=

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
31
+ 29
+ 31
+ 30
+ 31
+ 30
+ 31
+ 31
+ 30
+ 31
+ 30
+ 31
12

0.032258 + 0.034482759 + 0.032258 + 0.033333 + 0.032258 + 0.033333 + 0.032258 + 0.032258 + 0.033333 + 0.032258 + 0.033333 + 0.032258

Gathering like terms in the denominator:

=0.225806+0.034482759+0.133333=0.39362

12
= 30.486

0.39362
Which is the most frequent value for the days in a month. Now let’s look at the geometric mean
which tempers the various values with one another.

12
31 ⋅ 29 ⋅ 31 ⋅ 30 ⋅ 31 ⋅ 30 ⋅ 31 ⋅ 31 ⋅ 30 ⋅ 31 ⋅ 30 ⋅ 31 =30.493

But perhaps it is more telling to take the mean between the individual days of the month that
we use:

31 + 29 + 30 90
= = 30

3 3
3

1 1 1
31
+ 29
+ 30

0.032258+0.034482759+0.033333=0.10007

3
= 29.799 ≈ 30

0.10007
3
31 ⋅ 29 ⋅ 30 = 29.98888 ≈ 30

We see that the arithmetic mean gives us exactly a 30 day month, hence we always speak
loosely saying a month is 30 days.

 23 of 44

Indeed when Buckminster Fuller speaks of Nature employing 60 degree coordination he is

speaking of the equilateral triangle as the fundamental unit of one for area. That is the six-sided
regular hexagon can be divided into six equilateral triangles, giving it an area of six. Indeed he
takes the equilateral triangle as one because not only does it enclose an area with the fewest
sides, it has the smallest area for its perimeter; a regular hexagon with a perimeter the same
size encloses more area. I would like to say the Ancient Sumerians, Babylonians, and Greeks
made this connection, because in their sexagesimal (base 60) system of notation, one is a
straight line with a triangle on top. See g 1. Ancient Mesopotamian Cuneiform for writing. It is
not sexagesimal notation in the strict sense, as they have a unique symbol for a tens column,
but it was this sexagesimal structure that lead to the 60 minute hour and 60 second minute, as
well as the angular division projected onto the sky in 60 minutes of arc in a degree and 60
seconds of arc in a minute as a way of mathematically de ning time dynamically in terms of the
motions of the Earth and moon.

Fig. 1
fi
fi
 24 of 44

6.0 Inertia As Proton-Seconds

We describe reality as being based in the six-fold. I really think Nature employs 6-fold
symmetry because I think it is the most dynamic being the product of the two smallest prime
numbers 2 and 3. Those are the smallest factors down to which anything can be reduced, so that
is why I think 6-fold is the basis of Nature, that the basis has to be reduced to the smallest
factors. As such we have 2x3=6, 3x3=9, 2x9=18 and 3x6=18. The periodic table of elements is
periodic over 18 groups, which means when you count to 18 the elements start over making
groups where they have similar properties falling into the same groups. These groups are
determined by electron configurations, for instance carbon is in group 14 which means since it
wants to have noble gas electron configuration, it gains 4 electrons to be the same as the noble
gas in group 18 of the same period. 18-14=4 meaning it ionizes as C4- so it has 4 electrons to
combine with 4 hydrogen atoms that are each H+ or so we can have two H atoms that can
combine with one oxygen atom which is O2- because oxygen is in group 16 meaning 18-16=2,
and so forth making life possible. We now need to show that the fundamental particles that
build reality are based on sixfold symmetry for their mass, size, and charge and we want to do it
in terms of gravity on the macroscale, thus it has to use G the universal constant of gravitation
and Planck’s constant h, that quantizes energy on the microscale. I find I can do this as such:

The natural constants measure the properties of space and time. We can list some of them here:

mP : 1.67262 × 10−27 kg (Proton Mass)

h : 6.62607 × 10−34 J ⋅ s (Planck Constant)
rp : 0.833 × 10−15m (Proton Radius)
m2
G: 6.67408 × 10−11N 2 (Gravitational Constant)
kg
c : 299,792, 459m /s (light speed)
α : 1/137 (Fine Structure Constant)
qp = qe = 1.6022E − 19coulom bs
Nm 2
ke = 8.988E 9 2
C
Gravity is a property of space measured by the universal constant of gravity, G:

m2 m3
Equation 6.1 G = 6.674E − 11N = 6.674E − 11
s2 s 2 ⋅ kg
Matter, or inertia, which measures matter’s ability to resist a force is for each particle (protons
and neutrons) we will suggest given by:

h kg ⋅ s
Equation 6.2 =
Gc m
Which describes mass per meter over time, which is:

kg ⋅ s
Equation 6.3 1.82E − 16
m

 25 of 44

1
It must be adjusted by the fine structure constant α. It is my guess the factor should be which
α2
is 18,769.:

Equation 6.4

(1.82E − 16kg ⋅ s /m)(18,769) = 3.416E − 12kg ⋅ s /m

Because the fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the potential energy of an electron in
the first circular orbit to the energy given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr model times the
speed of light squared, that is it represents the ground state. It is

Ue
Equation 6.5 α2 =
mec 2
Here we are suggesting that the proton and neutron are the 3-dimensional cross-sections of a
hypersphere. Thus we consider the surface area of a proton, Sp:

Equation 6.6 Sp = 4π rp2 = 8.72E − 30m 2

We take the square root to get meters:

Equation 6.7 Sp = 2.953E − 15m

We multiply that with the value we have in equation 6.4:

kg ⋅ s
Equation 6.8 (2.953E − 15m)(3.416E − 12 ) = 1.009E − 26kg ⋅ s
m
We find that the mass of a proton mp realizes if we divide this by six seconds:

1E − 26
Equation 6.9 mh = = 1.67E − 27kg
6secon d s
That is hydrogen. We see that the element carbon manifests if we divide instead by 1 second:

1E − 26kg ⋅ s
Equation 6.10 mc = = 1E − 26kg = 6pr oton s = 6mp
1secon d
Carbon (C) is the core element of life chemistry and it combines with hydrogen (H) to make the
skeletons of organic matter, the so-called hydrocarbons:

1E − 26kg ⋅ s
Equation 6.11 mp =
6secon d s
1E − 26kg ⋅ s
Equation 6.12 mc =
1secon d

 26 of 44

Fig. 1
It seems the duration of a second is natural. If it is, since it was formed by a
calendar based on reconciling the periods of the moon and the sun in the earth
sky, it should be in the Earth-moon orbital mechanics. I find it is, that (See Appendix 1):

K Emoon
Equation 6.13 (Ear th Da y) ≈ 1secon d
K Eearth
That is, the earth day (86,400 seconds) times the kinetic energy of the moon to the kinetic
energy of the earth is about 1 second (about 1.2 seconds). The earth day changes very little, by
very small amounts over millions of years. The solar system has evolved towards this since the
explosion of life called the Cambrian, and will slowly decay away from it. But we need to derive
the second in terms of something else. For now we have the mass of a proton as:

3rp 4πh
Equation 6.14 mp =
18α 2 Gc
This way of looking at things is to say matter is that which has inertia. This means it resists
change in position with a force applied to it. The more of it, the more it resists a force. We
understand this from experience, but what is matter that it has inertia? In this analogy we are
suggesting a proton is a three dimensional bubble embedded in a two dimensional plane. As
such there has to be a normal vector holding the higher dimensional sphere in a lower
dimensional space. (See Fig. 1) Thus if we apply a force to to the cross-section of the sphere in
the plane there should be a force countering it proportional to the normal holding it in a lower
dimensional universe. It is actually a 4-dimensional hypersphere whose cross-section is a
sphere. This counter force would be experienced as inertia. We are defining inertia as proton-
seconds, the action of subatomic particles over time. Our reasoning above in one equation is:

 27 of 44

Equation 6.15

1 h 4π rp2
= 6pr oton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )
α mp
2 Gc

That is 1 second gives carbon. We find six seconds gives 1 proton is hydrogen:

Equation 6.16

1 h 4π rp2
= 1pr oton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydr ogen(H )
α mp
2 Gc

 28 of 44

7.0 The Proton Radius

Thus we have the radius of a proton is given by carbon by evaluating at one second:

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh
But to get that we have to multiply by one second and we need one second in terms of the atom
for a theory of the proton. I find we can do that…

1 h 4π rp2
t6 = 2
α mp Gc

rp h 4π
t6 =
α 2 mp Gc

Substitute RH /2 for rp to get

RH h 4π
t =
2α 2 mp Gc

We have now introduced the radius of a hydrogen atom RH = 1.2E − 10m. It seems we have to
divide RH by two which I think is because we are looking at packing of atoms. This radius of the
hydrogen atom is the Van Der Waals radius, which is the closest distance between two hydrogen
atoms noncovalently bound. It is 120 pm. Divide that by ck where 1/k is our constant

1 3 1 c 3h 1 1 1 3 1 c 3h 1
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ≈ = ⋅ ⋅
k 4 mp 8π 3G 1 + α NA k 4 mp 8π 3G NA

And we find

t 3 2 6.626E − 34 18769 1.2E − 10 1

= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
ck 16 6.674E − 11 (1.6726E − 27)2 6.02E 23 π

3 2 h 1 R
⋅ ⋅ 2 2 ⋅ H = 1.12secon d s
16 G π α mp NA

We have our equation for the radius of a proton

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh

We only need to multiply it by t /ck = 1secon d to have the right units, and we get!
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 29 of 44

9 1 hc RH
Equation 7.1. rp = 2⋅ ⋅
8 mp 4π 3G NA

Then suggest we picked up 9/8 in approximations which is close to one anyway so we write

1 hc R
Equation 7.2. rp = ⋅ H
mp 2π G NA
3

rp = 8.26935E − 16m ≈ 0.827f m

( s )( s )( m ) NAℍ
1 m2 m s2 RH 1
rp = kg kg 3 = (kg)m
kg kg

We form constants:

hc
k = = 6.93E − 9kg
2π 3G
RH
= 1.99E − 34m
NA
And we have the Equation:

RH
Equation 7.3 rp mp = k
NA
We can say that Avogadro’s number is not an arbitrary number because it is such that there are
twelve grams of carbon and carbon is 6 neutrons plus 6 protons equals 12. We now want to add
to this section the equation of the mass of a proton.

1 hc R
mp = ⋅ H
rp 2π G NA
3

If our equation is right and we put it into natural units then the product rp mp should be close to
one:

Let us start with the units with which we are working:

m3
G=
kg ⋅ s 2

m2
h = kg ⋅
s
c = m /s
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 30 of 44

And convert these to proton-masses and proton-radii:

m3
G = 6.67408E − 11 ⋅ 1.67262E − 27kg(0.833E − 15m)3 ⋅ s = 193,131, 756
kg ⋅ s 2
m2 s
h = 6.62607E − 34kg ⋅ ⋅ = 5.71E 23
s (0.833E − 15)2(1.67262E − 27kg)
(299,792, 459m /s)(1sec)
c= = 3.6E 23
(0.833E − 15m)
1.2E − 10m
RH = = 144,058
0.833E − 15m
Now we find k in these units:

hc
k = = 6.93E − 9kg
2π 3G

(5.71E 23)(3.6E 23)

k = = 4E18pr oton − m a sses
2π 3(193131756)

Thus we have:

RH
rp mp = k
NA
(4E18)(144058) 5.76E 23
rp mp = = = 0.96 ≈ 1

(6E 23) (6E 23)

We will say our theory is holistic and that we are describing the proton radius in terms of the
whole of which it is a part, namely, the radius of a hydrogen atom, more specifically the Van der
Waals radius, which is determined by hydrogen gas, or H2. It is done like this:

Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1873) described more than just Ideal gases, which are gases
that behave according to kinetic-molecular theory, he described real gases which don’t. His
equation then, The Van der Waals equation, is a modification of the Ideal Gas Law which is:

PV = n RT
Which is quite obvious. If you increase the temperature T, then the volume of the gas is going to
increase, and if it doesn’t then the pressure will, which is inversely proportional to volume.
However for a Real Gas, he assumed the particles are hard spheres, cannot be compressed
beyond a limit, and at close proximity to one another they interact and have a volume around
them that excludes one another, that is they have walls. He said

VR = VI − b
𝔼

 31 of 44

That is the volume of the real gas (VR) is equal to the volume of the ideal gas (VI) minus a
correction factor b. The volume of the particles is the number of particles (n) times the volume
of one particle:

4
n π r3
3
Thus there exists a sphere of radius 2r formed by two particles in contact where no other
particles can enter. It gives the correction factor

4
b = (4) π r 3
3
And the volume correction for n particles is

4 3
n b = 4n × πr
3

 32 of 44

This is the volume correction to the Ideal Gas Law. The pressure correction says real gases
exhibit less pressure because their particles interact which is a net pulling by the bulk of
particles away from the container walls.
n2
The reduction in pressure is proportional to by a factor a. We have for reduction of pressure
v2
that
n2
PI = PR + a
V2
We substitute this into the Ideal Gas Law:

( V2)
n2
P+a (V − n b) = n RT

This can be written as a cubic

( P )
RT a ab
V3 − b + V2 + V − =0
p P

( φ2 )
3 P V T
π+ (3φ − 1) = 8τ : π = , φ = , τ =
Pc Vc Tc
Which allows one to compute the critical conditions of liquefaction and to derive an expression
of the principle corresponding states. In the cubic form we have as the solution three volumes
which can be used for computing the volume at and below critical temperatures.

Thus the Van Der Waals radius is estimated

4 3 b
π rw =
3 NA
3 b
rw3 = ⋅
4π NA
cm 3
For hydrogen b = 26.61 experimentally. Therefore with NA = 6.02E 23
m ol
rw = 1.0967E − 8cm = 1.0967E − 10m

We have described the derivation of radius of a hydrogen atom from the Van Der Waals
equations that we use to get

2 RH h
= 1secon d
6 π α 2 mp2GNA

Where the Van Der Waals equations are

 33 of 44

( V2)
n2
P+a (V − n b) = n RT

( P )
RT a ab
V3 − b + V2 + V − =0
p P
4 3 b
π rw =
3 NA

So we can compute the radius of a proton from

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh
Which needs to be multiplied through by one second to get

1 hc RH
rp = ⋅
mp 2π 3G NA

But in determining the radius of a proton from

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp t1 = 8.288587 × 10−16 = 0.829f m
3 4πh

RH h 4π
t =
2α 2 mp Gc

t 3 2 6.626E − 34 18769 1.2E − 10 1

= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
ck 16 6.674E − 11 (1.6726E − 27) 2 6.02E 23 π

1 3 1 c 3h 1 1 1 3 1 c 3h 1
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ≈ = ⋅ ⋅
k 4 mp 8π 3G 1 + α NA k 4 mp 8π 3G NA

We need to determine k in terms of the Chandrasekhar limit where k is

1 1+α
k = h ⋅ NA
mi2 G

Where

mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg

M⊙ = 1.98847E 30kg
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 34 of 44

Where we multiply M⊙ by 1.44, the Chandrasekhar limit to get 2.8634E30kg giving us our
intermediate mass mi using the Chandrasekhar limit as the upper limit for a mass, and

mp = 1.67262E − 27kg

The mass of a proton for the lower limit. To have our equation k

4 8π 3G
k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

We needed to use the Chandrasekhar limit

c 3ℏ3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4

So we address now how that limit is derived…

The pressure Pgravit y of the outer shell of star balances with the outward pressure in the core of
F
the star (thermal pressure). Pressure is force per unit surface area P = thus…
A
F = m a = PA
ma
P=
A
Mshell Mcore
ma = G
rcore
2

Mcore is the mass of the core pulling in the mass of the shell Mshell and rcore is the radius of the
2
core. The surface area of the star is that of a sphere, A = 4π rcore. We have

Mshell Mcore
Pgravit y = G
4π rcore
4

The thermal pressure countering the gravity is given by the ideal gas law PV=nRT (pressure
times volume of a gas such as hydrogen , which is all protons mp, is proportional to temperature.
Mcore
The number of protons in the core Np is . We have
mp
Mcore 1 3
Pthermal = ⋅ 4 π rcore kBTcore
mp
3

Where kB is the Boltzmann constant (1.380649E − 23J ⋅ K −1). Since we must have
Pgravit y = Pthermal if the star is not to implode or explode
𝔼

 35 of 44

1 GMshell mp
kBTcore =
3 rcore
And we have the estimate for the temperature of the core of a star.

Fusion would not occur at the low temperature of a star like the Sun in that there would not be
enough energy for collisions, unless the potential Coulomb barrier can be overcome by quantum
mechanical tunneling. The collisions are given by the kinetic energy of the particles

1 2
mp v. We have
2
e2 1
= mp v 2
4π ϵ0rmin 2
The velocity v yields the minimum distance between protons as the De Broglie wavelength

h
λ=
mp2 v

Since the velocity is the root mean square velocity of the protons…

3kBT
vrms =
mp
We have the temperature of the star is
2
mp
( 4π ϵ0 ) 3π 2 h 2 kB
e2
Tmin =

This is another estimate. Since the mass of a star is its volume times its density

4 2
m= πr ρ
3
But for a star density varies with radius
r

∫0
4π r 2 ρ(r)dr

If we take the derivative of both sides of the equation we have one of the equations of stellar
structure:

dm(r)
1. = 4π r 2 ρ(r)
dr
The so-called conservation of mass equation. The force on the shell of the star is given by the
mass of the shell

 36 of 44

m(r)4π r 2 ρ(r)
Fg = − G dr
r2
Again for there to be balance gravitation pressure equals thermal pressure:

dρ(r) m(r)ρ(r)
2. =−G
dr r2
Another equation of the equations of stellar structure. The so-called equation of hydrostatic
equilibrium. This can be written

dr ( ρ(r) dr )
d r 2 dP(r)
= − 4π Gr 2 ρr

If the star is an ideal gas the density of the star varies as PV γ = con sta nt where γ = 5/3 for a
monatomic gas and then

1γ
P∝ ∝ ρ 5/3
V
In stellar dynamics we write

N ρ
=
V μmp

So that
ρ
Pgas = kBT
μmp

The abundance of hydrogen and helium in the universe are approximately 75% and 24%,
respectively. Thus for every 4He2+ there are 12H+ and 2+12 free electrons. We have

4 + 12
= 0.59
1 + 12 + 14
Ionized hydrogen and helium have μ = 0.59 and for the Sun μ = 0.62 because of high metal
content. Finally stars can be approximated as blackbody radiators (purely radiate) and as such
pressure is given in terms of temperature (Temperature is proportional to radiation energy):

4 σ 4
Prad = ⋅ T
3 c
There are three kinds of pressures that can be generated by a star: gas pressure, radiation
pressure, or degeneracy pressure.

A type of star that is stable, that is prevented from collapse by degeneracy pressure, is a so-called
white dwarf star. They are the remnant of giant stars that have depleted the their fusion fuel and
thereby collapsed under gravity but are kept from collapsing into black holes by thermal
pressure due to motion of the particles alone. Interestingly, they still shine almost as bright as a

 37 of 44

star on the main sequence even though they are not doing fusion. It was the Indian physicist
Chandrasekhar who found the limit in mass for which a white dwarf will not have its gravity
overcome the degeneracy pressure and collapse. The non-relativistic equation is:

c 3h 3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4

There are many resources available that derive this and you can find it in any textbook on
astrophysics in the chapters dealing with stellar physics, and I will leave the treatment of the
derivation to those works.

Returning to our equation for one second in terms of the Earth and Moon orbital kinetic
energies:

K Emoon
(Ear th Da y) = 1.08secon d s
K Eearth
We notice it would be exactly one second if the Earth day were shorter. And, indeed it was a long
time ago.

For our equation Earth day needs to be shorter. A long time ago it was; the Earth loses energy to
the moon. The days become longer by 0.0067 hours per million years. Our Equation

K Emoon
(Ear th Da y) ≈ 1secon d
K Eearth
Is actually 1.2 seconds for KE of moon and KE or earth calculated with their average orbital
velocities. We will compute how long ago the Earth day was what it was needed to turn that 1.2
seconds into one second, and then how long ago the Earth day was what it was needed to turn
the 1.08 seconds into one second.

We have

24h ours
= 20h ours
1.2
24-20=0.0067t

t=597 million years

This was when the earth went through a dramatic change and there was a big explosion of life
(The Cambrian). This is when the Moon predicted the second as exactly 1. The dinosaurs went
extinct 65 million years ago giving small mammals a chance to evolve paving the way for
humans.

24-x=0.0067t

x=23.5645 hours

We say 20 hours + 3 hours is 0 hours + 3 hours since 20 hours is the zero of our cosmic
calendar:

 38 of 44

2
3cos(0∘) + cos(30∘) = din osaur − ex t in ct ion =
3
What is the next term?

3 2
20hrs + 3hrs + hrs + =
3 3
20+3+0.57735+0.4714=24hours

Which bring us to today. Now the calculation for the 1.08 seconds that works with KE of moon
and KE earth calculated using aphelions and perihelions.

24h ours
= 22.222h ours
1.08
24-22.222=0.0067t

t=265.373 million years

This is the Permian period which was from 299 to 251 million years ago, it was at the end of the
Paleozoic Era which was followed by the Mesozoic Era. The distinction between the Paleozoic
and the Mesozoic is made at the end of the Permian to mark the largest mass extinction
recorded in Earth’s history.

Thus, to conclude, we write

2 RH h
= 1secon d
6 π α 2 mp2GNA

2
And focus for a bit on . It takes the square which has diagonal to side is 2 and divides that
6
up with regular hexagon which is six radii and six sides equal one another reconciling Euler’s
number e with golden ratio Φ characteristic of five-fold symmetry, the regular pentagon. That is

2 1 e
Equation 8.6. = =
6 Φ(1 + Φ) Φ
Now we show what this is geometrically and explore how we arrived at it in the following
pages…



 39 of 44

8.0 The Proton Charge

I construct the electric field as such (Fig. 2): x is one component of ℝ3(x, y, z). Events in
ℝ3(x, y, z) are through time with components ct1 and ct2 where c is the speed of light. The
electrons and the protons qe and qp in the presence of one another cross ct1 into ct2 giving
themselves acceleration in the x and −x directions.

Fig. 2

We have

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
i j k ⃗
0 ct1 0 = (ct1 − ct2 ) i
0 0 ct2

We suggest

·· ⃗
Equation 8.1 x ∝ (ct1 − ct2 ) i

The position of x changes in the space of ℝ3(x, y, z) and has travelled to t (0,ct1, ct2 ) a place in
·· ⃗ m
time, as well. Since ct=meters there is a g such that x = g(ct1 − ct2 ) i . Thus since g ⋅ m =
s2

 40 of 44

1 1 1 m m
and g = = 2 that is 2 ⋅ ⋅ s = 2 . Thus g is frequency squared (f 2) and we suggest it is
s 2 t s s s
derived from the separation between the charges qe and qp. That there is some velocity v such

(x)
v
that f = . We call upon our equation for 1 second:

rp h 4π
= 1secon d
mp Gc

(x)
2 rp
v h 4π ke q 2
(c) = ⋅
mp Gc m x2

rp h 4π q2
v 2(c) = ke
mp Gc m

α2 1
Letting v= ⋅ from our equation for k
6 k

4 8π 3G 1 s
k = m (1 + α) ⋅ NA =
3 p c h
3 773.5 m

1 m
= 773.5
k s
And m = mp we have

2
h 4π rp2
ke ( 6 k )
c α2 1
Equation 8.2 ⋅ = q2
Gc

h 4π rp2 (6.626E − 34)(4π)(0.833E − 15)2

= = 5.37E − 31
Gc (6.674E − 11)(299,792, 459)

We get

1
q= (0.033) 773.52(5.37E − 31) = 9.1435E − 19C
36(18769 )
2

q 9.1435E − 19C
Equation 8.3 =⋅ = 5.71proton s ≈ 6proton s!
qp 1.602E − 19C
𝔼

 41 of 44

9.0 Conclusion

We would like to present some things clearly:

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh

1 h 4π rp2
= 1.004996352secon d s
6α 2 mp Gc

RH h 4π
t =
2α 2 mp Gc

1 3 1 c 3h 1 1 1 3 1 c 3h 1
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ≈ = ⋅ ⋅
k 4 mp 8π 3G 1 + α NA k 4 mp 8π 3G NA

t 3 2 6.626E − 34 18769 1.2E − 10 1

= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
ck 16 6.674E − 11 (1.6726E − 27)2 6.02E 23 π
Thus

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp t1 = 8.288587 × 10−16 = 0.829f m
3 4πh

If t1 is 1.00 seconds even. In terms of our theory

RH 3 2 h
t1 = ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
π16α 2 mp2 NA G

Or as another estimate:

RH 2 1 h
t1 = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.067secon d s
π α 2 mp2 6 NA g

Because

3 2
= 0.265165
16

2
= 0.23570
6
0.23570
= 0.888888
0.265165
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 42 of 44

Or, in the sense that

1 h 4π rp2
= 1.004996352secon d s
6α 2 mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
t1 = 2
α 6mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
t6 = 2
α mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
= 6pr oton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )
α mp
2 Gc

1 h 4π rp2
= 1pr oton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydr ogen(H )
α mp
2 Gc

3 c 3h 3
mi = mp
2 8π 3G 3mp2

4 8π 3G
k = mp ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

And the life span of the Universe is

h c3
⋅
G mp 1.599298E 29J
(1secon d ) = = 3.734E 21secon ds
mi ( 1k )
2 42831423.39J

Is 1E14 years or 100 trillion years. Given we have

1 rp h 4π
Eq 2.1. ⋅ = 1secon d
6α 2 mp Gc
K Emoon
Eq. 2.2 (Ear th Da y) = 1secon d
K Eearth
Then
𝔼

 43 of 44

h c3
G
⋅ mp K Emoon
⋅ (Ear th Da y) = Li feSpa nUniverse
mi ( k )
1
2 K Eearth

h c3
⋅ rp
G mp 1 h 4π
⋅ ⋅ = Li feSpa nUniverse
mi ( k )
1
2 6α 2 mp Gc

k ve = 6

Where

4 8π 3G
k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

And

RH
rp mp = k
NA
Where

hc
k = = 6.93E − 9kg
2π 3G
𝔼
𝔼

 44 of 44

The Author