BEEE – Unit I - Page 1

BASICS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT - I. AC FUNDAMENTALS, BATTERIES AND UPS

Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BEEE) subject deals with the basics of
electrical and electronics engineering. The electrical and electronics engineering can be
compared as below.

Comparison of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Electrical Engineering Electronics Engineering
Deals with generation, distribution and Deals with flow of electrons in electronic
1
consumption of power (electricity). devices and circuits.
Electrical devices mainly change current Electronic devices manipulate current in a
2 into another form of energy such as heat or way, so that it can do particular task.
light.
3 Deals with high voltage and current. Deals with low voltage and current.
Electrical devices mostly work with Electronic devices mostly work with Direct
4
Alternating Current (AC) Current (DC)
Examples of Electrical devices are fan, Examples of electronic devices are mobile
5
washing machine, motor, etc. phone, digital camera, laptop, etc

Alternating Current
Alternating current is one in which the direction of current reverse periodically. Polarity and
the magnitude of the current changes at the regular interval of time. Each cycle of
alternating current consists of two half cycles. During one half cycle, the current or voltage
acts in one direction while during the other half cycle in opposite direction.

Difference between AC and DC

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)
The direction of the current reverse The direction of the current remain same.
1
periodically.
Polarity and the magnitude of the Polarity and the magnitude of the current
2 current changes at the regular interval of is constant.
time.
Direction of flow of electrons is Direction of flow of electrons is
3
bidirectional. unidirectional.
4 Does not have polarity. It has + and - polarity.
5 Obtained from alternators. Obtained from generators, battery, etc.
Graphically, it is represented by irregular Graphically, it is represented by the
waves like sine wave, triangular wave, straight line.
6
square wave, square tooth wave, etc.

AC Sine Waveform
Commercial alternators produce sinusoidal AC by rotating a coil in a uniform magnetic field.
The sinusoidal alternating voltage can be expressed by the equation.
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e = Em sinwt
where e = instantaneous value of alternating voltage
Em = Maximum value of alternating voltage
w = angular velocity of the coil
t = time

DC Waveform

Advantages of AC over DC
1) AC voltages can be stepped up and stepped down efficiently by means of
transformer.
2) The transmission and distribution cost is cheaper in AC system than the DC system.
3) AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC motors.
4) The switch gear for a AC system is simpler than the DC system.
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Generation of Single Phase A.C. By Elementary Alternator

The figure shows an elementary single phase alternator. It has only one coil rotating in
anticlockwise direction in the 2 pole magnetic field with an angular velocity w. The e.m.f.
induced in the coil is given by
e = Em sinwt
where e = instantaneous value of alternating voltage
Em = Maximum value of alternating voltage
w = angular velocity of the coil
t = time

AC Wave form

The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of voltage and current
versus time is called wave form.

Instantaneous Value
The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called instantaneous value. The
instantaneous values of alternating voltage is represented by "e" and for current is
represented by "i".
e = Em sinwt
where e = instantaneous value of alternating voltage
Em = Maximum value of alternating voltage
w = angular velocity of the coil
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t = time

i = Im Sinwt
where i = instantaneous value of alternating current
Im = Maximum value of alternating current

Cycle
One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is called a cycle.

Time Period
The time taken to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity is called time period. It is
represented by T.

Frequency
The number of cycles made by an alternating quantity per second is called its frequency. The
unit of frequency is Hertz(Hz).

Amplitude or Peak Value

The maximum positive or negative value of an alternating quantity is called amplitude or
peak value.

Average Value
Average value is the average of the instantaneous values of an alternating quantity over one
complete cycle of the wave.

To obtain the average value, divide the period into n equal intervals. For these individual
intervals the currents are i1 i2, i3. Then the average value of the current is
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FORM FACTOR
The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is called form factor.

PEAK FACTOR
The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity is called peak factor.

PHASE
Phase of an alternating quantity is the fractional part of time period through which the
quantity has advanced from the selected zero position of reference.

Consider voltage waveform of time period T second as shown in figure. The maximum
positive value +Vm occurs at T/4 second or 90°. Hence phase of positive peak is at T/4
seconds or 90°. Similarly the phase of negative peak (-Vm) is at 3T/4 second or 270°
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Phasors / Phase difference / Leading and Lagging Sin wave

This figure shows two sin waves, one wave represent voltage and another current.
The maximum of voltage is Vm and maximum of current is Im.

The voltage wave is written as

v = Vm Sin wt

The current wave reaches maximum value 90° later than the voltage wave. Hence current
wave is written as
i = Im Sin (wt – 90)

The current wave is said to be “lagging behind” the voltage wave by an angle of 90° or
otherwise the voltage wave is said to be “leading” the current wave by an angle of 90°.

When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have two different zero points, they
are said to have “phase difference”.

PHASE ANGLE
The angle between the voltage vector and current vector is called phase angle.

SINGLE PHASE
If the generator has only one armature winding, it is known as single phase generator. The
supply produced by single phase generator is called single phase supply.

THREE PHASE
If the generator has three separate identical windings displaced from each over by 120°
then the generator is said to be 3 phase generator. A 3 phase generator produce three
voltages of same magnitude and frequency but displaced 120° electrical. The supply
produced by 3 phase generator is called 3 phase supply.

ADVANTAGES OF THREE PHASE OVER SINGLE PHASE

1) 3-phase power has a constant magnitude but single phase power is a pulsating one.
2) A 3-phase system can be set up a rotating magnetic field in stationary windings. This is
not possible in single phase system.
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3) For the same rating, 3-phase machines are smaller in size and have better operating
characteristics than single phase machines.
4) Three phase induction motors are self starting whereas single phase induction motors
are not self starting.
5) Three phase motors have better power factor and efficiency over single phase motor.
6) Generation, transmission and utilisation of power is more economical in three phase
system compared to single phase system.

BATTERIES
Battery is an electro-chemical device, which delivers electric energy by chemical reaction.
An e.m.f. is produced when two dissimilar solid conductors known as electrodes are placed
in a conducting liquid known as electrolyte and current will flow through the external circuit
connected across the two electrodes.

Classification of Cells
The cells are classified into two types
1) Primary cell
2) Secondary cell

Primary Cell
A cell which cannot be recharged is called Primary cell. In a primary cell, the chemical action
is irreversible. The Primary cell convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
Example : Dry cell, Voltaic cell

Secondary Cell
The cell which can be recharged is called Secondary cell. During charging, secondary cell
converts electrical energy into chemical energy and it is stored in the cell. When the cell
discharges, the stored chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
Example : Lead acid cell, Nickel Cadmium cell

BATTERY
When number of cells are grouped together, it is called battery.
Types of batteries
1. Primary cell
A cell which cannot be recharged is called Primary cell.
Example : Dry cell, Voltaic cell

2. Secondary cell
The cell which can be recharged is called Secondary cell.
Example : Lead acid cell, Nickel Cadmium cell
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LEAD ACID BATTERY

Construction
A battery consists of a number of cells and each cell of the battery consists of the following
components.
1) Container
2) Positive plate
3) Negative plate
4) Separator
5) Electrolyte
6) Cell covers and vent plugs
7) Cell connectors
8) Battery terminals

Figure

1) Container
The container contains the plates and the electrolyte. It is made of acid resisting materials
like glass or hard rubber.

2) Positive plate
Positive plate is made of lead-peroxide (Pb02) deposited on a grid frame. The colour of the
positive plate is dark brown.

3) Negative plate
Negative plate is made of spongy lead (Pb). The colour of the negative plate is grey.

4) Separator
It is made of thin sheet of porous insulating materials. Separators are placed between
positive and negative plates. It is made of wood, glass or rubber.

5) Electrolyte
The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.23.
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6) Cell covers and Vent plugs

Each cell has a cover made of hard rubber. Vent plug has a vent hole for easy escape of gas
formed inside the cell during charging. Vent plugs can be easily removed for adding
electrolyte.

7) Cell connectors
Cell connectors are used to connect the individual cells in series to give the required voltage.
Lead alloys are normally used as cell connector.

8) Battery terminals
A battery has two terminals, positive and negative. The terminals are generally made of lead
alloys.

Active materials
Those materials which undergo chemical reactions during charging and discharging are
known as active materials.
The following are the active materials in a lead acid battery
1) Lead peroxide (Pb02) - positive plate
2) Spongy Lead (Pb) - negative plate
3) Dilute Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) - Electrolyte

Chemical reactions during discharging

When the cell is connected to external load, it discharges and sends current through the
load. Figure shows the discharging arrangement of lead acid battery. During discharging, the
electrolyte H2SO4 is split into positive H2 and negative SO4 ions. Positive H2 ions move
towards anode (positive plate) and negative SO4 ions move towards cathode (negative
plate). The chemical reactions at anode and cathode are given below.

at anode
PbO2 + H2 + H2SO4 à PbSO4 + 2H2O
at cathode
Pb + SO4 à PbSO4
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Physical changes during discharging

1) Both the plates become PbSO4 which is whitish in colour.
2) Due to formation of water, specific gravity of the electrolyte decreases.
3) The voltage of the cell decreases.
4) The cell gives out energy.

Chemical reactions during charging

To charge a discharged cell, anode is connected to positive terminal of DC supply and

cathode is connected to negative terminal of DC supply as shown in the figure. During
charging, positive H2 ions moves towards cathode and negative SO4 ions move towards
anode. The chemical reactions at anode and cathode are given below.

at anode
PbSO4 + SO4 + 2H2O à PbO2 + 2H2SO4

at cathode
PbSO4 + H2 à Pb + H2SO4

Physical changes during charging

1) The anode becomes Pb02 and cathode becomes Pb. The two plates regain their
original colour of dark brown (positive plate) ang grey (negative plate).
2) Due to absorption of water, specific gravity of electrolyte is increased.
3) The voltage of the cell increases.
4) Energy is stored in the cell.
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METHODS OF CHARGING BATTERY

Direct current is used for charging storage batteries. The positive terminal of the DC source
must be connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the negative terminal of the
source to the negative terminal of the battery.

Generally the following two methods are used for charging batteries.
1. Constant current method
2. Constant voltage method

1. Constant Current Method

In constant current method of charging, the batteries are connected in series as shown in
figure. The charging current is maintained constant throughout the charging process by
adjusting the rheostat. Charging is done till the cells start gassing.

2. Constant voltage method

In this method of charging, the batteries to be charged are connected in parallel as shown in
figure. The charging voltage is maintained constant throughout the charging process. Since
the batteries are charged quickly, this method is mostly used in battery charging shops.
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CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF LEAD ACID BATTERY

1) Install the battery firmly.
2) Tighten all connections periodically.
3) Keep the battery dry and clean to avoid discharging through moisture.
4) Keep the battery surface free of any electrolyte.
5) Apply petroleum jelly to terminals to prevent corrosion.
6) The level of the electrolyte must be kept above the top of the plates.
7) The level of the electrolyte should be checked at regular intervals. The level of
electrolyte is maintained by adding only distilled water.
8) The cell should be recharged as soon as possible after discharge.
9) Do not leave the battery in a discharged condition for a long period.
10) Never allow the battery to discharge below the specified value of voltage.
11) Overcharging should also be avoided.
12) During charging the positive terminal of the battery is to be connected to the
positive terminal of the supply and negative to the negative terminal of the supply.
13) The temperature of the cell should not exceed above 40°
14) The battery terminals should not be short circuited.
15) Carefully follow the instructions of the manufacturer.

INDICATIONS OF FULLY CHARGED CELL

The indications of a fully charged cell are
1. Voltage
During charging, the voltage of a cell increases . There is no further rise in voltage when the
cell reaches full charge condition. The approximate voltage per cell is 2.1 V.

2. Gassing
When the cell is fully charged, it freely gives off hydrogen at cathode and oxygen at the
anode. The process is known as 'gassing'.

3. Specific gravity of the electrolyte

During discharging water is formed, hence the specific gravity of the electrolyte decreases.
During charging the water is absorbed, hence the specific gravity of the electrolyte
increases. The specific gravity of fully charged cell is 1.28.

4. Colour of plates
When the cell is fully charged, the colour of positive plate becomes dark brown and the
negative plate is grey.

MAINTENANCE FREE BATTERIES

These batteries do not require the usual maintenance during its entire life. In maintenance
free lead acid batteries, the grid frames are made of low antimony or calcium. These
batteries operate 3 or 4 years without maintenance.
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UPS - UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY

NEED FOR UPS

UPS is Uninterrupted Power Supply. It is used to maintain the continuity of supply in case of
power failure in industries, institutions and households. Examples are computer
installations, chemical plants, communication systems, hospitals, etc.

TYPES OF UPS
UPS are classified into two types
1) Online UPS
2) Offline UPS

OFFLINE UPS
Offline UPS supplies AC power directly to the load and in case of power failure, UPS supplies
the power from the battery backup. In Offline UPS, there is short interruption (4 to 5 milli-
seconds) in supply of power during power failure.

Under normal conditions, “Normally ON” is closed and “Normally OFF” is opened. The main
supply is delivered to the load directly and at the same time the batteries are charged
through rectifier. In case of power failure, “Normally ON” is opened and “Normally OFF” is
closed. Hence the battery supplies required power to the load, through the inverter and
filter. The time taken for this change over is about 4 to 5 milli seconds.
Merits
1) Low cost.
2) Battery life is high.

Demerits
1) There is a small interruption of supply during power failure.
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ONLINE UPS
Online UPS supplies the AC power to the load through rectifier and inverter circuit even
when the AC mains power is available. In online UPS, there is no interruption of power
supply during power failure.

Under normal conditions, “Normally ON” is closed and “Normally OFF” is opened. During
AC main supply, the batteries are charged using rectifier and at the same time AC supply is
given to the load through inverter and filter circuit. In case of main supply failure, battery at
once take over, with no break of supply to the load.

In case of failure of inverter, main AC supply is directly given to the load by closing the
`Normally OFF' switch and opening the 'Normally ON' switch. After inverter fault is cleared,
UPS is again supplied to the load through 'Normally ON' switch.

Merits
1) There is no momentary interruption of supply during power failure.
2) In the case of failure of inverter, the load can be switched on to the main AC supply
directly.

Demerits
1) High cost.
2) High temperature.
3) It consumes more power.
4) Battery life is low.
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NEED OF HEAT SINK

Heat sink is the metal sheet, mostly aluminium, available in the UPS or any electronics
circuit board to dissipate additional heat generated during operation. Heat sink will dissipate
the heat to the surroundings and protect the circuit.

SPECIFICATIONS AND RATINGS OF UPS

According to Association of UPS manufacturer of India, UPS sold in India should meet the
following specifications.
1) The rating of UPS will be specified in both VA and watts.
2) The UPS will have a minimum input voltage of 160 - 275 V at an input frequency of
47-53 Hz.
3) The maximum peak voltage will be less than 250 V.
4) The battery configuration and efficiency of inverter will be specified.
5) The UPS will have operational features like cold start, short circuit protection, and
battery- low cut off.

MAINTANANCE OF UPS INCLUDING BATTERIES

1) Check the operation of the UPS and switch gears.
2) Clean and tighten all the connections at the input and output terminals.
3) Check all power cables.
4) Visually check printed circuit board alignments.
5) Check and calibrate each system such as switch gear, circuit breakers, meters, and
alarm.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS

Very Short Questions

1) Define instantaneous value. Pg.3
2) Define form factor. Pg.9
3) Define peak factor. Pg.9
4) What is meant by single phase? Pg.10
5) What is meant by 3 phase? Pg.10
6) What is battery? What is its use? Pg.11
7) What are the active materials in lead acid battery? Pg.13
8) State the different methods of charging a battery. Pg.15
9) What is meant by UPS? What is the use of UPS? Pg.17
10) What is heat sink? Pg.19

Short Questions
1) What is Alternating Current (AC)? Draw its waveform. Pg.1 & 2
2) State the difference between AC and DC. Pg.1
3) What are the advantages of AC over DC? Pg.2
4) Define RMS value. Pg.6 & 8 (last formula)
5) What is meant by leading and lagging sin wave? Pg.10
6) State the classification of cells. (or) What is primary cell and secondary cell? Pg.11
7) What are the indications of fully charged cell? Pg.16
8) What are maintenance free batteries? Pg.16
9) What is offline UPS? Pg.17
10) What is online UPS? Pg.18
11) Discuss the specifications and ratings of UPS. Pg.19
12) Discuss the maintenance of UPS. Pg.19

Brief and Big Questions

1) Define cycle, time period, frequency, amplitude and average value. Pg.4
2) Discuss phase, phase angle and phase difference? Pg.10
3) What are the advantages of three phase over single phase. Pg.10
4) Explain the constructional details of lead acid battery. Pg.12
5) Discuss different methods of charging batteries. Pg.15
6) Briefly explain the care and maintenance of lead acid battery. Pg.16
7) Explain with block diagram the working of offline UPS. Pg.17
8) Explain with block diagram the working of online UPS. Pg.18