Historical Perspectives on

Near-Death Phenomena

Barbara A. Walker, Ph.D.

Eastern Illinois University

William J. Serdahely, Ph.D.

Montana State University

ABSTRACT: The authors present an introductory overview of the history of

near-death phenomena, followed by a synopsis of near-death research repre
sentative of three historical eras: 1880s-1930; 1930s-1960; and 1960 to the
present.

Belief in life surviving physical death is hardly a new concept. As

long ago as 2500 B.C. men were writing about this incredible phenome
non (Rawlings, 1978). The Egyptian Book of the Dead, considered one of
the oldest pieces of literature in the world, contains a collection of
prayers and formulas that can be used for assistance in the next world
(Rawlings, 1978; Ross, 1979). Ancient Egypt was the first culture to
teach that the soul was immortal (Rawlings, 1978). Within that society
it was believed that when a person's physical body died the soul would
enter the Judgment Hall of Osiris where it would then begin a life
filled with everlasting joy and happiness (Budge, 1956; Ross, 1979).
Various ceremonies described within The Egyptian Book of the Dead
indicated that the deceased would regain memory, speech, and physi
cal movement upon entry into the Other World. Likewise, the book

Dr. Walker is with the Department of Health Studies at Eastern Illinois University,
and Dr. Serdahely is Professor of Health Science at Montana State University. Requests
for reprints should be addressed to Dr. Walker at the Department of Health Studies,
Lantz Building, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL 61920.

Journal of Near-Death Studies, 9(2) Winter 1990

1990 Human Sciences Press, Inc. 105
106 JOURNAL OF NEAR-DEATH STUDIES

states that when one dies one will be able to recognize deceased friends
and relatives within this new world (Ross, 1979).
The ancient Greeks also believed in the existence of the immortal
soul. The Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato both advocated that
the soul departed from the physical body at death, freed in order to be
reunited with deceased friends and relatives. Plato believed that the
reunion occurred in a place of great brilliance, after which the soul
would leave in order to observe a life review and receive judgment
(Rawlings, 1978).
Plato (428-384 B.C.), in the tenth book of The Republic, also de
scribed a tale about a soldier, Er, who died on the battlefield. At the
moment of physical death Er's consciousness departed from his physi
cal body to roam the countryside, reentering his earthly body just prior
to his intended cremation (Rawlings, 1978).
Christianity also assumes a fundamental doctrine encouraging a
belief in the immortality of the soul (Rawlings, 1978). This doctrine of
belief is founded upon the teaching of the scriptures contained within
the Holy Bible. The Bible contains numerous examples to support a
belief in life after death. The Apostle Paul made reference to this in his
letter to the Corinthians (2 Corinthians 5:1, 7-10):

For we know that when this tent we live in now is taken down-when
we die and leave these bodies-we will have wonderful new bodies in
heaven, homes that will be ours forevermore, made for us by God
Himself, and not by human hands.... We know these things are true
by believing, not by seeing. And we are not afraid, but are quite
content to die, for then we will be at home with the Lord. So our aim is
to please Him always in everything we do, whether we are here in this
body or away from this body and with Him in heaven. For we must all
stand before Christ to be judged and have our lives laid bare-before
Him. (The Living Bible, 1973)

As that passage illustrates, Christian belief in an afterlife is depen

dent upon the spiritual faith expressed within this doctrine. It is also
interesting to note that Paul mentioned a life review and judgment
process, common elements contained within much of the contemporary
near-death literature.
Although many Oriental cultures had expressed beliefs in the after
life since the third century A.D. (Becker, 1981; Ch'en, 1964), it was not
until the eighth century A.D. that those ideas were expressed in
written form (Rawlings, 1978). At that time The Tibetan Book of the
Dead was created to assist the dying in their transition from life to
death (Fremantle and Chogyam, 1975; Moody, 1977; Rawlings, 1978).
BARBARA A. WALKER AND WILLIAM J. SERDAHELY 107

The Tibetan account describes the art of dying and delineates the
various stages of the soul. Accordingly, upon physical death the soul
becomes enveloped within a new body known as the "shining." Instan
taneous travel, heightened sensory awareness, meeting deceased loved
ones, feelings of extreme peace and contentment, and a judgment are
also described within the content of the book (Becker, 1985; Fremantle
and Chogyam, 1975, Rawlings, 1978).
Many of the afterlife experiences described in The Tibetan Book of
the Dead correspond to traditional Indian yogico-tantric exercises used
in meditation (Eliade, 1971). Yoga suggests that within a truly medita
tive state the person must "die" to this life in order to transcend to a
level of higher consciousness. Within the Indian culture, yoga has
served as an important tradition whereby we are aware of the possible
separateness of body and consciousness; a practice that Mircea Eliade
(1971) wrote can help us to anticipate death in order to be reborn into a
sanctified life.
Throughout the centuries numerous historical figures have made
personal testimonies related to near-death phenomena. Among the
better known figures describing such experiences have been Carl
Jung, Thomas Edison, Benjamin Franklin, Elizabeth Browning, Eddie
Rickenbacker, Louisa May Alcott, and Ernest Hemingway (Rawlings,
1978). In fact, Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms is said to be based in
part upon a personal near-death incident he encountered on the battle
field during World War I (Audette, 1982). Likewise, whether based on
personal experience or not, a number of other authors have recounted
tales containing elements of near-death phenomena. Listed among
these have been such people as William Shakespeare, Leo Tolstoy,
Edgar Allan Poe, Charles Dickens, Thornton Wilder, Victor Hugo, and
Katherine Anne Porter (Audette, 1982; Bertman, 1979; Flynn, 1984;
Straight, 1984).
During the 1700s out-of-body and near-death concepts were publicly
clarified by a famed Swedish scientist of the era, Emanuel Swedenborg
(Rhodes, 1982). For a number of years Swedenborg experienced out-of
body travel, during which many spiritual ideas and deceased people
were supposedly revealed to him. As a result of these enlightening
experiences, Swedenborg left the realms of science and government to
pursue spiritual truths. He recorded his experiences, many anony
mously, in hopes of helping others to understand this domain better.
Swedenborg claimed that there is constant interplay between the
spiritual world and the earthly world, serving as the source of our
emotions and ideas. He stated that in reality humankind is a spirit
within a mortal body, here on earth to learn and help others. He also
108 JOURNAL OF NEAR-DEATH STUDIES

claimed that the complete human being, in reality, is a married pair.

Within his book Heaven and Hell (1928), Swedenborg discussed ideas
relating to the afterlife: deceased elderly becoming young again; after
life existence within a nonmaterial world perceived according to the
arrangement of ideas and images created within our own minds; and
existence in an afterworld in which time has no meaning and space is
signified in emotional terms, designated only by how "close" we are to
those like ourselves (Rhodes, 1982).
During the 1700s and 1800s various physicians, clergy, and others
reported experiences in which people returned from death (Audette,
1982; Rawlings, 1978). An article relating to a near-death incident
encountered by the Cardinal Archbishop Donnet of Bordeaux was
published in Lancet in 1866. Recorded tales obtained from the Chip
pewa Indians during the 1820s described warriors who traveled out
side their bodies at the moment of death, later returning to tell of their
spiritual adventures (Schorer, 1985-86). Likewise, tales of NDEs expe
rienced after high doses of hashish were recorded by French hashish
clubs during the mid-1800s (Siegel and Hirschman, 1984). Many of
these club members were Swedenborg followers as well.
Public testimonies of near-death accounts have become increasingly
prevalent during the twentieth century. Whether because of better
life-sustaining measures, longer life spans, or more open disclosure of
the subject, near-death experiences are fairly commonplace today.
Thousands of case studies have documented NDEs, particularly over
the past 25 years. According to a 1980 Gallup survey, 5 percent of the
adult population have gone through a near-death experience (Gallup,
1982). Projecting this percentage onto the current population, it is
estimated that approximately thirteen million American adults have
lived through a near-death incident.

Near-Death Research

Although accounts of near-death phenomena have existed for thou

sands of years, scientific research has been necessary to lend cred
ibility to the topic in modern Western cultures. Since the seventeenth
century, under the influence of Sir Francis Bacon and the Royal Soci
ety of London, the scientific method has replaced doctrines of faith as a
valid source of truth within most Western societies. Moreover, areas of
study that could not be measured within the realms of natural law and
direct observation were seldom welcomed within the scientific commu
nity (Ross, 1979).
Nevertheless, interest in the unexplained has prevailed, manifesting
BARBARA A. WALKER AND WILLIAM J. SERDAHELY 109

itself within what some consider pseudoscientific areas of study. Scien

tific research into whether human personality survives physical death
has existed for more than a century. Ian Stevenson (1977) has divided
this field of endeavor into three historical periods: (1) 1880s-1930s; (2)
1930s-1960; and (3) 1960 to the present.

1880s-1930s
Contemporary near-death research is a derivative of early paranor
mal experimentation and observation. Paranormal investigators dur
ing this era were primarily concerned with collecting, classifying, and
analyzing stories related to personal contact with the deceased (Stev
enson, 1977). During the 1870s and 1880s the work of William
Crookes, a respected chemist, lent support to the scientific study of
paranormal phenomena (Ross, 1979). Crookes had originally set out to
expose paranormal occurrences a fraudulent; however, he soon came to
believe in the existence of certain psi phenomena, or extrasensory
perception (ESP).
Many types of psi phenomena were investigated by Crookes and
others during the late nineteenth century, including clairvoyance,
spirit writing, spirit music, spiritual impersonations, trancelike states,
trance speaking, apparitions, and possession (Ross, 1979). Although
many published reports were met with criticism and skepticism, public
and scientific curiosity continued to grow.
Supported by the scientific community, the Society for Psychical
Research (SPR) was established in England during 1882 (Ross, 1979;
Stevenson, 1977). This organization was founded by prominent scien
tists and scholars interested in establishing a formal forum from which
to investigate paranormal phenomena. Early members included a
number of well-known scientists from Cambridge University, and
many members of the society became followers of the spiritualist
movement, whose tenet held that psi phenomena were evidence of life
surviving physical death. An American branch of the SPR was begun
in 1885 under the leadership of William James, a leader in the Ameri
can spiritualist movement (Ross, 1979; Stevenson, 1977).
A leading SPR member during this era, Frederic W. H. Myers, was
extremely interested in proving the existence of life after death. He
and his colleagues believed that research into this area would serve
three important functions: (1) increase our total understanding of the
universe; (2) expand the focus of all science and philosophy to include
"the knowledge of life in man independent of blood and brain"; and (3)
apply this newfound knowledge to open limitless avenues for further
discovery (Ross, 1979).
110 JOURNAL OF NEAR-DEATH STUDIES

Despite the quality of the research conducted, work done by the SPR
was often met with criticism by other factions of the scientific commu
nity. It is believed that the indirect influence of the Darwinian theory
during this era created ideological conflicts concerning belief in the
existence of the human soul and its potential for surviving physical
death (Stevenson, 1977). An example of this conflict is evident in the
fact that Alfred Russel Wallace, who together with Charles Darwin
developed and publicly advocated the theory of natural selection, was
privately an ardent proponent of spiritualism (Stevenson, 1977).
During the late 1800s many scientists began to shift attention from
professional psychics to ordinary people reporting paranormal phe
nomena (Audette, 1982; Ross, 1979). Anecdotal accounts increasingly
replaced controlled experiments as evidence of paranormal phenom
ena, generally receiving the stamp of approval only after intense
scrutiny by the SPR. As more cases were reported, discrete psi catego
ries became recognized. With the increased use of these anecdotal
accounts, a new philosophy began to take shape within the field of
parapsychology, now placing the burden of disproof upon skeptics
(Ross, 1979).
Skeptics, many of whom were psychologists and physicians, sug
gested that these accounts represented evolutionary psychoses used for
self-adaptation. That attitude toward paranormal phenomena served
as the foundation from which the multiple personality theories of
psychological study began (Ross, 1979; Stevenson, 1977). Myers con
tended that man possessed a subliminal level of cognition, a theory
that won acceptance from many scientists and was used to support the
spiritualist and nonspiritualist views alike (Ross, 1979).
In 1900 Theodore Flournoy noted that psychology had fully em
braced the concept of a subliminal subconscious, though often gener
ally denouncing the existence of spiritualism. Rigid scientific attitudes
kept many psychologists from further exploring this area. William
James tried to promote paranormal philosophies in the field of psychol
ogy, believing that some mental disorders were independent of the
physical body. His attempts, however, were generally met with resis
tance (Ross, 1979).

1930s-1960

Paranormal research relating to life surviving death was greatly

ignored during this historical era. As a result of the poor reception
such research received prior to this period, many parapsychologists
BARBARA A. WALKER AND WILLIAM J. SERDAHELY 111

lost interest, believing this area of study to be "premature at best and

hopeless at worst" (Stevenson, 1977). The field turned its attention
toward the study of extrasensory perception with living persons.
Although life after death issues were not a primary focus of attention
in the field of parapsychology at this time, a few significant research
contributions were conducted within this 30-year period. In 1945,
Gardner Murphy, a well-respected psychologist, wrote three notewor
thy essays on the topic of life surviving death. Although Murphy
claimed that much of the existing research was inconclusive, he felt
that recurring evidence might be suggestive of postmortem survival
(Murphy, 1945a; Murphy, 1945b; Murphy, 1945c; Stevenson, 1977).
Personal testimonies continued to be published in the scientific liter
ature during this period, as well. The near-death accounts of such well
known people as Ernest Hemingway, Richard E. Byrd, and Carl Jung
during this era rejuvenated some public and scientific attention, but
the attention was basically short-lived (Audette, 1982; Ross, 1979;
Stevenson, 1977).
One of the more notable studies of this era was conducted by Donald
West in 1948, wherein he sampled a small portion of the English
population concerning psi phenomena. West reported that 14 percent
of his sample had undergone a hallucinatory experience and 9 percent
had reported seeing apparitions of the dead (West, 1948).
A few loosely controlled clairvoyant studies were also conducted at
this time in an attempt to communicate with the dead. In the 1950s,
Hornell Hart noted recurrent similarities within a large number of
reported cases of apparitions and out-of-body experiences (Hart, 1956;
Stevenson, 1977). Many of these characteristics paralleled Raymond
Moody's (1975, 1977) later findings regarding NDEs.

1960 to Present
In 1961, Karlis Osis conducted a survey of physicians and nurses who
had witnessed the alleged deathbed visions of their dying patients.
Osis concluded that these reported visions, suggestive of postmortem
survival, were not hallucinations. He noted that hallucinations of the
sick are generally only visual in nature, whereas these accounts in
cluded auditory occurrences. He also noted that medical factors predis
posing one to hallucinations, such as a high fever, did not increase the
number of visions reported. Of those apparitions reported, 90 percent
involved communication with close, deceased relatives. This was the
first study that used modern survey methods and statistical evaluation
in examining death-related phenomena (Osis and Haraldsson, 1977b).
112 JOURNAL OF NEAR-DEATH STUDIES

The 1961 survey served as a pilot study for later research conducted
in 1977 (Osis and Haraldsson, 1977a). This second study involved the
surveying of physicians and nurses from the United States and India
about the deathbed visions of dying patients. More than 1,000 Ameri
cans and 700 Indians participated in the study. Of those interviewed,
216 American physicians and 255 Indian physicians reported having
observed patients who described seeing visions while close to death.
Most of these patients were terminally ill. Identity of these apparitions
included those already dead, religious figures, and those still living. In
cases where the dying patient saw apparitions of the dead, 65 percent
felt that these figures had come to aid them in their transition into
another worldly existence. When demographic factors such as gender,
age, education and, socio-economic status were examined in relation
ship to specific aspects of patient apparitions, no significant correla
tions could be identified. Culture and religion seemed to have a slight
influence on the reporting of different religious figures in this study,
however (Osis and Haraldsson, 1977a, 1977b).
The modern revival of circumthanatology, the study of near-death
phenomena (Lundahl, 1982), is credited to Russell Noyes, a psychia
trist. In 1972, Noyes began to accumulate anecdotal accounts of NDEs
derived from personal interviews and clinical records. Many of Noyes's
subjects were victims of drownings, falls, and similar accidents. Within
this research and subsequent works, Noyes noted that persons exposed
to life-threatening danger commonly experience feelings of hyperalert
ness, depersonalization, and mystical consciousness (Noyes, 1972;
Noyes, Hoenk, Kuperman, and Slymen, 1977; Noyes and Kletti, 1976a,
1976b, 1977; Noyes and Slymen, 1978-79). According to Kenneth Ring
(1982), Noyes's work marked the beginning of two significant changes
in the field of near-death studies: (1) a shift from parapsychological
dominance to medical dominance in investigating near-death experi
ences; and (2) an attempt to investigate the experience of dying using
the direct interviews of near-death survivors.
In the early 1970s Elisabeth Kubler-Ross began talking publicly
about the existence of near-death phenomena. Well-known and re
spected for her study of the terminally ill, Kubler-Ross became in
trigued with the topic and stated that she herself had heard testi
monies of such accounts (Kastenbaum, 1979; Moody, 1975). Her
comments created a considerable impression upon the general public,
and she probably did more to arouse public acceptance and curiosity
about NDEs that any other single figure. Although Kubler-Ross
openly acknowledged having a great interest in this area of study, she
has not published any methodological accounts of her findings (Ring,
1982a).
BARBARA A. WALKER AND WILLIAM J. SERDAHELY 113

The affirmation of Kiibler-Ross created a more receptive climate for

researchers who followed. In 1975, Raymond Moody, Jr. published Life
After Life, a book that is given credit for coining the term "near-death
experience." Moody, a psychiatrist, interviewed 150 people claiming to
have had a near-death experience. In examining the content of these
interviews, Moody noted the 15 common elements that typify a near
death experience (Moody, 1975). These common elements were de
scribed as follows:

1. ineffability (having difficulty describing the experience in

words);
2. hearing oneself being pronounced dead;
3. hearing a loud buzzing or ringing noise at the moment of
death;
4. feeling that one's consciousness has been detached from the
physical body, and/or viewing one's physical body as a
spectator;
5. feeling a sensation of total peace and well-being;
6. moving through a long, dark tunnel;
7. meeting spirits of loved ones and/or others previously
known;
8. appearing before a "being of light";
9. within the presence of this "being of light," undergoing a
three-dimensional panoramic life review;
10. approaching a border or boundary, beyond which there is a
world of intense beauty;
11. suddenly returning to one's physical body, sometimes being
told that it was not one's time to die;
12. being reluctant or afraid to tell others;
13. undergoing value changes toward life;
14. experiencing a change in attitude towards death; and
15. corroboration of out-of-body events.

Collectively, these 15 elements constitute what Moody referred to as a

"core" or deep near-death experience. Despite similarities in reported
accounts, no two were found to be identical. Likewise, none of his
subjects described all 15 elements within any single account (Moody,
1975).
Moody's book appeared at the top of the best-seller list in this country
within a few months of publication. Translated into 30 languages, it
was instrumental in attaining worldwide interest in near-death expe
riences (Ring, 1982).
With international interest sparked, several near-death researchers
114 JOURNAL OF NEAR-DEATH STUDIES

convened in Charlottesville, Virginia, during November, 1977, to dis

cuss future directions for near-death studies. This meeting marked the
founding of the first professional organization dedicated to the study of
near-death experiences, the Association for the Scientific Study of
Near-Death Phenomena (ASSNDP). This organization was instrumen
tal in stimulating scientific research in the area of near-death studies
(Ring, 1982).
In 1979, John Audette published an account of 2,300 cases collected
by Fred Schoonmaker of persons who had nearly died in a life
threatening situation. Of these reported cases, 1,400 reported having
had a near-death experience. These testimonies served to substantiate
further the existence of near-death phenomena.
In 1980, Ring authored the first book to investigate the topic of NDEs
from a scientific viewpoint. That book, Life At Death, was based upon
the interviews of 102 patients who had come close to death. In addition
to the interviewing method, Ring developed and used an instrument
called the Weighted Core Experience Index (WCEI). The purpose of the
WCEI was to examine various elements of the subject's near-death
experience and to determine the "depth" of the encounter. Scores were
based on arbitrarily weighted items used to assign values based upon
various components of Moody's 15 near-death elements (Moody, 1975).
Scores on the WCEI ranged from 0 (absence of NDE) to 29 (a deep, rich
NDE). A score of 6-9 was designated as representing a "moderate"
NDE, while a score of 10 or higher represented a "deeper" NDE. Ring
described the "core experience" as being comprised of a series of five
stages: peace, body separation, entering the darkness, seeing the light,
and entering the light (Ring, 1980). Of the 102 patients interviewed, 48
percent reported having undergone a near-death experience. Ring's
research also attempted to compare the NDEs of three categories of
people: victims of illness, accidents, and suicide. Based upon the re
sults of his interviews, Ring noted that, overall, NDEs occurred most
frequently among victims of illness, and least among those attempting
suicide. However, subsequent research conducted by Ring and Stephen
Franklin (1981-82) did not support these findings.
Ring (1980) also investigated the relationship of gender and reli
giosity to frequency and depth of the near-death encounter. Religiosity
did not appear to play a significant role in either frequency or depth of
the NDE. Gender did not appear to affect depth of the near-death
encounter; however, a greater number of women experienced NDEs in
relationship to illness, and more men experienced NDEs because of
accidents. Ring cautioned against generalizing from these findings,
however, as the population sample was not randomly selected and,
thus, subject to bias (Ring, 1980).
BARBARA A. WALKER AND WILLIAM J. SERDAHELY 115

Ring also noted that many experiencers reevaluate their personal

values following their return from a near-death encounter. This reas
sessment process, or aftereffect, is particularly prevalent among those
having undergone a deeper, core experience.
In 1981, the ASSNDP was incorporated in Connecticut as the Inter
national Association for Near-Death Studies (LANDS), located at the
University of Connecticut. LANDS has since served as a professional
and service organization, with an extensive archive of near-death case
studies, a research referral system, and this journal, initially pub
lished as Anabiosis but since 1987 as the Journal of Near-Death
Studies.
In 1982, Michael Sabom published Recollections of Death, a book that
recounted the interviews of 116 patients. Only medically documented
cases where a patient was unconscious and experiencing a life
threatening situation were used. Patients unconscious only as a result
of anesthesia were deleted from the study. Personal interviews were
conducted as soon after the event as possible. Of Sabom's respondents,
42 percent claimed to have undergone a near-death experience. Sabom,
once a skeptical cardiologist bent on disproving this phenomenon, was
impressed by these testimonies, which included many of his own pa
tients. He investigated these accounts from a medical perspective,
concluding along with Ring (1980) that medical interpretations alone
could not explain away the experiences (Sabom, 1982; Ring, 1982).
Likewise, Sabom concluded that demographic variables and the type of
life-threatening situation encountered had no influence upon the inci
dence of NDEs.
In 1982, George Gallup, Jr. published Adventures in Immortality, a
book recounting his data derived from a Gallup Poll. Gallup conducted
a national survey of 1,500 randomly selected American adults. Based
upon his findings, Gallup determined that approximately five percent
of the American adult population has experienced a near-death event.
Gallup also examined the relationship between the occurrence of
NDEs and a variety of demographic variables. Included among those
variables were age, gender, race, social class, educational level, occu
pation, income, area of residence, religious background, and frequency
of church attendance. Gallup's data showed little or no relationship
linking the incidence of NDEs to the specified variables.
In 1984, Ring completed his second major scientific investigation of
NDEs, following up on the results of this first study in 1980. The major
purpose this study was to interview experiencers concerning the ele
ments of the NDE and related aftereffects. Forty-two participants were
interviewed directly, while an additional 174 subjects completed a
written questionnaire. Ring concluded that many near-death experi-
116 JOURNAL OF NEAR-DEATH STUDIES

encers undergo significant value changes following their NDE, partic

ularly those who have undergone a "deeper" experience. His data,
along with those of Bruce Greyson (1981, 1983a) and Charles Flynn
(1982), suggest that the near-death experience affects personal value
changes in the following ways: deeper love and concern for others;
increased spirituality, deemphasizing formal religion; better self
image; lessened fear of death; more acceptance of others; heightened
quest for knowledge; an increased sense of purpose in life; decreased
concern for impressing others; and a decreased desire to attain mate
rial things.
In addition to the various personal transformations already men
tioned, some experiencers have also had problems in adjusting to their
return to everyday life (Ring, 1984). This is particularly prevalent
among core experiencers. The experiencer often has trouble accepting
the fact that he or she has been removed from paradise, a place of total
peace and beauty, and forced to exist within the earthly realms of pain
and sorrow (Ring, 1984).
Many experiencers also become severely depressed as a result of
trying to convey the importance of their encounter to others (Bush,
1983; Ring, 1984). Often, health care professionals and family mem
bers cannot relate to the concept of a near-death experience, choosing
to discount the experiencer's claims as a stress-induced illusion. As a
result, experiencers become frustrated and depressed, choosing to keep
quiet for fear of being labeled mentally ill (Ring, 1984).
A number of variables account for this unwillingness to listen, most
of which are associated with our cultural fear of death and the inability
and unwillingness to relate to a phenomenon of this type. Likewise,
well-established philosophies among the behavioral sciences have in
hibited our willingness to accept NDEs. Orthodox Christianity's varied
interpretations of the afterlife also create a skeptical foundation upon
which to judge near-death phenomena. Some psychologists have theo
rized that when an individual is faced with imminent death, ego
defense mechanisms take charge to preserve the value of one's exis
tence (Widdison, 1982).
Based upon informal discussions, academic debates, news articles,
and articles contained within semiprofessional journals, Harold
Widdison (1982) concluded that most psychologists do not feel that a
few "deviant cases" of reported near-death phenomena are proof of
postmortem existence. He wrote that although many people have expe
rienced close encounters with death, psychologists have received few
accounts of reported near-death experiences (Widdison, 1982). How
ever, Barbara Walker and Robert Russell (1989) conducted a study of
117 randomly selected registered psychologists from within the state of
BARBARA A. WALKER AND WILLIAM J. SERDAHELY 117

Illinois, 19 percent of whom indicated having counseled a near-death

client. This study also indicated that 7 percent of these psychologists
had personally undergone an NDE, while 28 percent indicated having
had personal contact with a near-death experiencer.
In recent years, the nursing profession has begun to address ways of
providing for the spiritual and emotional concerns of the near-death
client. In 1978, Anthony Lee observed that many patients would try to
discuss their near-death experiences with nurses following cardio
pulmonary resuscitation. Feeling that most nurses were not profes
sionally equipped to handle these situations, Lee developed some clini
cal guidelines to assist in dealing with the problem. Included within
the guidelines were giving the patient assurance, whether conscious or
unconscious; attentively listening to any near-death accounts ex
pressed by the patient; maintaining a nonjudgmental attitude toward
the account; medically charting the event; consoling the patient and
family that these reported accounts are common; and observing
changes in patient behavior following the near-death event (Lee, 1978).
Annalee Oakes (1981) conducted a survey of 30 critical care nurses,
asking them to express their personal and professional feelings toward
anecdotal cases involving near-death phenomena. Most respondents
were fascinated by the topic. Half of the respondents felt that NDEs
should be reported, although they were not quite sure whose specific
duty it would be to handle the experiencers' concerns. Eighty percent
claimed that if a patient spoke about having had an NDE it would not
influence the type of nursing care given.
In 1986, Roberta Orne carried out a more comprehensive study
involving the attitudes and beliefs of 912 nurses toward NDEs. Ninety
three percent of these respondents claimed that patient reporting of
NDEs would not influence nursing care. Orne also found that nurses'
knowledge about NDEs and their "religious precepts" influenced their
attitudes toward the topic of near-death phenomena. The greater the
nurses' knowledge base, the more positive their attitude. Nurses work
ing in emergency departments had the greatest knowledge concerning
NDEs, while nurses in maternity units had the least. Of all the nurses
involved in this study, those working in psychiatric services were the
most accepting of these phenomena.
One aspect of the near-death experience that has recently begun to
receive the attention of near-death researchers is pediatric NDEs, in
which children, while still children, report their experiences. While
the near-death literature contains several hundred published accounts
of adults recounting their childhood NDEs, the literature contains less
than 20 documented cases of children describing their NDEs.
Most of the work on pediatric near-death experiences has been car-
118 JOURNAL OF NEAR-DEATH STUDIES

ried out by Melvin Morse and his associates (Morse, 1983; Morse,
Castillo, Venecia, Milstein, and Tyler, 1986; Morse, Conner, and Tyler,
1985). Nancy Bush has also contributed a documented pediatric case to
this small field of literature (1983). These authors believe the pattern
of the pediatric NDE is quite similar to that reported by adults. The
five stages Ring identified for adult near-death experiences have also
been found by Morse and his coworkers in pediatric NDEs.
Acknowledging their sample was small and nonrepresentative, the
Morse group did note two differences between pediatric and adult
NDEs. The pediatric near-death experiences they studied never con
tained a life review, nor did their young respondents report experienc
ing an altered sense of time. William Serdahely (1989-90) studied an
eight-year-old boy whose NDE was precipitated by nearly drowning
when he was seven. This pediatric respondent also did not have a life
review during his NDE, but he was quite emphatic about the fact that
time ceased to exist while he was out-of-body, a finding commonly
reported for adult NDEs.
One feature unique to Serdahely's pediatric case is that while the boy
did not encounter any deceased relatives during his NDE, he was
greeted by two deceased family pets during his tunnel experience. The
deceased pets comforted him, and after being licked by his dog, the boy
found himself back in his body, having regained consciousness in the
hospital.
Although our acceptance of people's near-death experiences has im
proved, their origin is, obviously, difficult to verify. In an attempt to
explain the NDE scientifically, numerous theories have been sug
gested in recent years. Among these are stress-induced limbic lobe
dysfunction (Carr, 1982), depersonalization (Noyes and Kletti, 1976a,
1976b, 1977), ego regression (Prince and Savage, 1966), Freudian re
ductionism (Rank, 1971), drug-induced hallucinations (Rogo, 1984),
and birth-recall models (Grof and Halifax, 1977; Sagan, 1979). Like
wise, many articles have been published refuting these hypotheses
(Becker, 1982; Greyson, 1983b; Grosso, 1981). Of all the research to
date, none constitutes absolute scientific proof regarding the authen
ticity of the near-death experience. However, the findings accumulated
thus far have been beneficial in reducing fear of death (Ring, 1982),
deterring suicide (McDonagh, 1979; Ring and Franklin, 1981-82), and
assessing personal values (Greyson, 1983a; Ring, 1984).
Whether the NDE is a physiological, psychological, and/or spiritual
phenomenon, some thirteen million adults in the United States claim
to have experienced some form of out-of-body transcendence while in a
state of clinical death or near death (Gallup, 1982). Its historical roots
BARBARA A. WALKER AND WILLIAM J. SERDAHELY 119

lend some credence to the authentic foundation of this occurrence. In

an attempt to increase our knowledge about NDEs through research
and anecdotal accounts, we can gain further insight into what might
lie beyond death and learn a little about who we are in the process.

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