Guidance For Ethanol Handling and Storage

Guidance for the storage and handling of
fuel grade ethanol mixtures at petroleum

distribution installations
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GUIDANCE FOR THE STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FUEL GRADE ETHANOL
MIXTURES AT PETROLEUM DISTRIBUTION INSTALLATIONS
Second edition
September 2016
Published by
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GUIDANCE FOR THE STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FUEL GRADE ETHANOL MIXTURES AT PETROLEUM DISTRIBUTION INSTALLATIONS
Contents
Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1 Introduction and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Petrol/ethanol blends volume versus energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 UK legal framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Physical properties of fuel grade ethanol mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.1 Physical properties of ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.2 Physical properties of methanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.3 Physical properties of denaturants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Handling philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Design integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Material/equipment compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Tanks and pipework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.4 Pipe sealants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.5 Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.6 Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.7 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.8 Other materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Petrol/ethanol blend corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Stress corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Storage tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Flame arrestors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Breathing systems/process design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6 Implications for vapour recovery units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7 Implications for hazardous area classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Denaturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1 Blending issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Key considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5 The supply chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5.1 Preparation for handling ethanol mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Ethanol mixtures receipt/road tanker loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.2 Sea receipt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.3 Pipeline receipt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
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Contents continued
Page
5.2.4 Rail/road receipt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5.2.5 Road tanker loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3 Contaminated or off-specification product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6 Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7 Environmental protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.2 Implications of release of ethanol mixtures on soil and groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.3 Operational issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8 Fire-fighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.2 Flame visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.3 Radiant heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.4 Fire detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.5 Fire-fighting response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.5.1 Using water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.5.2 Using foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.6 Storage tank foam systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9 HM revenue and customs compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Annexes
Annex A Supplementary information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

A.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
A.2 Water tolerance of ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
A.3 Requirements and test methods for petrol specified in BS EN228 . . . . . . . 42
A.4 Requirements and test methods for ethanol specified in EN 15376 . . . . . 45
A.5 Quality assurance and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
A.6 Phase separation of petrol/ethanol blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Annex B References/bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
B.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
B.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Annex C Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Annex D Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
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FOREWORD
This publication was originally produced by Alan Adams, and has been updated by James Coull at
the request of the Energy Institute (EI) Distribution and Marketing Committee to complement EI
Model Code of Safe Practice Part 2: Design, construction and operation of petroleum distribution
installations. It is intended to provide information for those involved in the storage and handling of
fuel grade ethanol mixtures at petroleum distribution installations.
This publication has been prepared specifically to address the handling of fuel grade ethanol mixtures
in the UK, which includes a specific type of denaturant, not typically encountered outside of the UK.
The information contained in this publication is provided as guidance only and while every reasonable
care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of its contents, the EI, and the technical representatives
listed in the acknowledgements, cannot accept any responsibility for any action taken, or not taken,
on the basis of this information. The EI shall not be liable to any person for any loss or damage which
may arise from the use of any of its publications.
Although the information in this code makes reference to legal requirements that apply in the United
Kingdom, certain aspects may also be applicable in other countries.
Suggested revisions are invited and should be submitted to the Technical Department, Energy
Institute, 61 New Cavendish Street, London, W1G 7AR.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication was originally prepared by Alan Adams, and has been updated by James Coull on
behalf of the EI Distribution and Marketing Committee in conjunction with:
Niall Ramsden Resource Protection International

Jeff Robson SGS Roplex Ltd
Hugh Tucker UKPIA
Steve Turgoose Intertek
Kevin Waterton Intertek
The EI wishes to record its appreciation of the work carried out by them, and also the following
members of the EI’s Distribution and Marketing Committee who provided comments on drafts of
this publication:
Dave De Halle Phillips 66 (Chairman)

Ian Goldsworthy Valero
The EI wishes to record its appreciation also to the following stakeholders who provided input:
Russell Best Philips66

Carole Bontoft Exxonmobil
Stuart Pointer HSE
Technical editing and project coordination was carried out by Toni Needham (EI).
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1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The European Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC and the European Fuel Quality
Directive 2009/30/EC promote the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for inclusion in
the diesel and petrol blends sold in Member States. The UK Government’s response was The
Renewable Transport Fuel Obligations Order (RTFO) which was first published in 2007 and
has been subsequently amended on a number of occasions1. This places an obligation on fuel
suppliers to ensure that a minimum target percentage of biofuel is contained in fuels used
for road transport (petrol and diesel) and non-road mobile machinery. The target percentage
required under the RTFO (2013 amendment) is that fuel overall contains at least 4,75 % by
volume and this is an average across all the fuels and does not have to be the same in each
individual fuel. The Department for Transport (DfT) plan a further revision to the RTFO in
2017 which is likely to increase the target.
To achieve these targets, biofuels may be made available in a number of forms, such as
100 % or high concentration biofuels, or as biofuels blended into mineral oil derivatives in
accordance with the appropriate existing European norms. In the UK, the petrol standard
is defined by BS EN228 which defines the maximum quantities of biofuels which can be
blended. The standard currently allows for two grades; fuel with up to 2,7 % m/m oxygen,
which typically contains up to 5 % volume ethanol and is therefore known as E5, this is the
grade most commonly marketed today. A second grade allows fuel to contain up to 3,7 %
m/m oxygen and this typically contains up to 10 % volume ethanol and is known as E10.
E10 is not currently sold in the UK but may be introduced as we approach 2020. Higher
ethanol blends, e.g. E20 or E85, are not currently anticipated to be introduced until after
2025. Methanol, ethanol and other oxygenates can also be blended either individually or
together, but could displace each other since the fuel is limited by the maximum overall
oxygen content.
Bioethanol (ethyl alcohol) is an alcohol made from renewable sources and has typically been
produced by fermenting starchy or sugary solids from crops such as corn, wheat, sugar cane
and beet, into bioethanol and water. For ethanol, methanol or their derivatives, such as
MTBE or ETBE, to be allowed under the RTFO, the fuel has to be renewable and meet the
carbon and sustainability criteria as defined within the Renewable Energy Directive.
If the renewable fuel is derived from a waste or residue feedstock then it will receive twice as
many Renewable Transport Fuel Certificates (RTFCs) as those derived from other feedstocks.
This means that it 'double counts' and therefore a renewable component derived from waste
which is physically present at 1 % volume in a fuel blend counts as 2 % compliance within
the RTFO.
The properties of ethanol and ethanol mixtures are such that the preferred practice for
blending with petrol is for this to take place so that contamination with water is avoided. In
practical terms this is usually either at rail supply locations or road distribution terminals, and
therefore appropriate facilities and measures will need to be in place to manage the receipt,
storage and handling, denaturing and blending of bioethanol mixtures.
1
The RTFO has been amended in 2009, 2011, 2013 and 2015
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1.2 SCOPE
The object of this guidance is to provide a technical overview and understanding of the issues
associated with the storage and handling of fuel grade ethanol mixtures, the blending of
ethanol mixtures into petrol and subsequent storage and handling of petrol/ethanol blends.
For the purposes of this document, an 'ethanol mixture' is defined as including various
combinations of ethanol and methanol along with denaturants such as petrol or a trade
specific denaturant for use in a road fuel. The term 'petrol/ethanol blend' refers to petrol
combined with an ethanol mixture.
Petrol/ethanol blends are generally referred to as E5, E10, E20, E85 to represent blends with up to
5 %, 10 %, 20 % and 85 % volume ethanol respectively. Currently within the UK retail sales are
E5, although it is expected that blends with higher proportions of ethanol mixtures such as E10
will be made more widely available in future years. It is likely that when E10 is widely sold within
the UK, E5 blends will still be required for use within older cars (as at 2015, indicatively around
85 % of all cars used in the UK may use E10; however, before use consumers should check with
their car manufacturers). It should also be noted that blends with a greater proportion of ethanol
mixture than E5 will require labelling at the retail pumps. The requirement to label pumps is
set out in The Biofuel (Labelling) Regulations 20042 and for any ethanol blend greater than
5 % volume requires that the words 'Not suitable for all vehicles: consult vehicle manufacturer
before use' are displayed prominently on any dispenser from which such fuel is sold or
offered for sale to the ultimate consumer.
This guidance concentrates on the specific issues relevant to the UK and considers the current
situation with petrol/ethanol blends with up to 5 % ethanol, E5, and also highlights areas
where different issues exist with the handling of higher blend ratios up to 20 % ethanol, E20.
Blends with greater than 20 % ethanol are beyond the scope of this document.
1.3 PETROL/ETHANOL BLENDS VOLUME VERSUS ENERGY
Due to the lower energy content of ethanol, the total energy content of the final petrol/
ethanol blend may be reduced slightly by approximately 1,5 % for E5, and 3 % for E10.
1.4 UK LEGAL FRAMEWORK
In line with the European Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC and the European Fuel
Quality Directive 2009/30/EC, the UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligations Order 2007 (RTFO)
was introduced and subsequently amended in 2009, 2011, 2013 and 2015. This places an
obligation on fuel suppliers to ensure that a minimum target percentage of biofuel is contained
in fuels used for road transport (petrol and diesel) and non-road mobile machinery. The target
percentage required under the RTFO (2013 amendment) is that the fuel contains at least
4,75 % volume which is an average across all the fuels and does not have to be the same
for each individual fuel.
Bioethanol blended as E5 petrol is currently the main biofuel used to meet the RTFO target
and it is anticipated that E10 may be introduced into the market as we approach 2020.
2
There is also a new European standard in development on fuel labelling BS EN 16942.
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Pure ethanol is highly taxed and to qualify for a reduced taxation level for use as a fuel or fuel
blend, ethanol must be denatured to render it unfit for human consumption and blended into
petrol. Ethanol can be transported and stored within the UK without denaturant; however,
because of the high duty levels that apply to pure ethanol there are strict requirements for
security of the product, e.g. sealing of tanks and full isolation from other products.
Denaturants such as denatonium benzoate (a bittering agent), methanol, naphtha, pyridine

and petrol are variously used worldwide. Within the UK petrol and denatonime benzoate are
authorised for use in road fuels (see section 3). Where it is required to add a denaturant to
ethanol for fuel use in the UK, this must meet the requirements of The Denatured Alcohol
Regulations 2005 and can include petrol and Trade Specific Denaturants (TSDA).
1.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FUEL GRADE ETHANOL MIXTURES
1.5.1 Physical properties of ethanol
Bioethanol (ethyl alcohol) is produced through the fermentation of a biomass, such as corn,
sugar cane or sugar beet. It is a flammable, colourless, slightly toxic pure alcohol compound,
and is best known as the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol is generally available
in two forms: hydrated with around 5 % water and anhydrous which is a minimum of
99,7 % ethanol.
Due to the ease of production of ethanol and its low toxicity, it is widely used as a solvent
for substances intended for human contact or consumption, including perfume, flavourings,
colourings and medicines. Ethanol also burns cleanly and its largest single use worldwide is as
a fuel or fuel additive. For many years ethanol has been used as an octane enhancer in petrol
in the USA, and in some countries such as Brazil it is frequently used at concentrations of
85 % – 100 % for motor vehicles with fuel flexible engines. The energy value of ethanol is,
however, approximately 67 % of the energy value of petrol per unit volume.
Unlike petrol, ethanol is highly soluble in water. Ethanol and petrol dissolve in each other
with a relatively weak bond. Very small quantities of water can be dissolved in a petrol/
ethanol blend but beyond a certain concentration the water will cause the ethanol to
separate from the petrol and form a separate solution with the water. This is known as
phase separation and the resultant water/ethanol solution will sink to the bottom of a tank
leaving petrol, without ethanol, in the upper layer. It should be noted that if phase separation
occurs the process is essentially irreversible. The solubility of water in a petrol/ethanol blend
is temperature-dependent and increases with an increase in temperature; it also rises with
increasing ethanol content. Fuel grade ethanol for blending with petrol should be anhydrous
to avoid phase separation which will occur at a water content above approximately
0,05 % at 15 °C for a blend containing 1 % ethanol, rising to approximately 0,2 % for a
blend containing 5 % ethanol.
Ethanol has a lower vapour pressure but wider flammable range than petrol. In a tank the
vapour space above ethanol can always be assumed to be in the flammable range. Ethanol
flames are difficult to see in daylight.
Ethanol vapour is denser than air. It has a low odour threshold and should be readily detected
by smell.
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Ethanol and petrol/ethanol blends are conductive and there should be no build-up of
electrostatic charge whilst pumping, filtering, truck loading, etc. However, ethanol vapour
can be ignited by electrostatic discharges and sparks from other sources.
Ethanol has a low toxicity and is readily biodegradable both aerobically and anaerobically in
water and soil. Typically, in soil and groundwater the half-life of ethanol is between a few
hours and A few days. The impact of ethanol on the environment is discussed in section 7.
The requirements and test methods for fuel grade ethanol for use in Europe are given in BS
EN 15376 Automotive Fuels – Ethanol as a blending component for petrol – Requirements
and test methods.
1.5.2 Physical properties of methanol
Methanol is the simplest alcohol, and is a volatile, colourless, highly flammable liquid. At
room temperature it is a polar liquid, and is used as an antifreeze and a solvent. It is also used
in combination with ethanol to form ethanol mixtures which are blended with petrol. The
European Fuel Quality Directive allows up to 3 % volume methanol to be blended in petrol.
Methanol flames are almost invisible in daylight and when it burns it produces very little soot.
Methanol also has a distinctive faintly sweet pungent odour and should be readily detected
by smell.
However, unlike ethanol, methanol is toxic by inhalation, ingestion and/or skin absorption
and is metabolised to form formic acid. Initial symptoms of methanol intoxication include
central nervous system depression, headache, dizziness, nausea, lack of coordination, and
confusion.
As with ethanol, methanol is fully soluble in water and is readily biodegradable in both
aerobic (oxygen present) and anaerobic (oxygen absent) environments. Methanol will not
persist in the environment, with the half-life for methanol in groundwater being one to seven
days. Since methanol is miscible with water and biodegradable, it is unlikely to accumulate in
groundwater, surface water, air or soil.
1.5.3 Physical properties of denaturants
In the UK, due to the high duty levels on alcohol, HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC) have
strict requirements regarding the use of denaturants, and these are detailed within the
Denatured Alcohol Regulations 2005. In practice these include both petrol and a Trade
Specific Denaturant denatonium benzoate (see section 3).
Denatonium benzoate (benzyldiethyl [(2,6-xylycarbamoyl) methyl] ammonium benzoate) is

a white odourless granular compound used as a bittering agent. It is the bitterest substance
yet discovered and can be detected by taste at 10 ppb and is noticeably bitter at levels of
50 ppb. It is toxic if ingested and an irritant to skin, eyes and lungs in an undiluted form.
Widely used in a number of industries, it is commonly available as the proprietary chemical
Bitrex. For use as a fuel grade ethanol mixtures denaturant, it is typically dissolved in ethanol
for ease of handling.
Experience has shown ethanol mixtures to be potentially more corrosive to carbon steel than
hydrocarbons, particularly in the presence of water, and corrosion inhibitors can be added
to ethanol mixtures to help control the increased corrosivity. For ease of application it is
common practice to add the corrosion inhibitor to the denaturant formulation.
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Table 1: Typical properties of petrol, ethanol and methanol
Petrol Ethanol Methanol

Density (kg/m ) 3
720–775 @ 15 °C 798 @ 20 °C 792 @ 20 °C
Vapour pressure (kPa @ 40 °C) 62–85 16 32
Energy value (MJ/l) 31,9 21,3 15,78
Octane (RON) 95/97 106 106
Water solubility (volume %) negligible 100 100
Flashpoint (°C) –43 13 A
11
Auto ignition temperature (°C) 257 423 464
Flammability limits (volume %)
Lower 1,4 4,3 7,3
Higher 7,6 19,0 36,0
Flame visibility Visible Difficult to see in Invisible in
daylight daylight
Risk phrases R11, 20, 21, 22, R11, 20, 21, 22, R11, 23, 25
45, 65 36, 37, 38, 40
A
Note: ethanol flashpoint varies with denaturant and water levels
1.6 HANDLING PHILOSOPHY
The preferred practice for blending ethanol mixtures with petrol is for this to take place so
that contamination with water or contamination with other products such as jet fuels is
avoided. In practice this blending therefore usually occurs either at rail supply locations or
road distribution terminals (either into terminal storage or the road tanker loading gantry). As
such, a number of factors must be considered when selecting the blending method.
Water is miscible with ethanol mixtures and in small quantities will be held in solution.
However, the solubility of ethanol mixtures in petrol decreases if water is present and can
result in phase separation if sufficient water enters a petrol/ethanol blend. Typically fuel
storage and distribution systems are not designed to be completely water-free and water
can enter storage tanks through normal breathing, rainfall (in the case of floating roof tanks)
and during transportation. Therefore additional precautions and strict quality control are
necessary to ensure dry, water-free systems.
As ethanol mixtures are solvents there is a tendency for any gum-type deposits and oxidised
salts in the fuel distribution system to be picked up by petrol/ethanol blends. In addition there
is an increased tendency to detach rust and particles from tank and pipeline walls. Both of
these actions have the potential to cause operational problems with blocked filters, etc.
Ethanol mixtures have shown an incompatibility with some metals and elastomers particularly
in older systems, see section 2.
For fuels with a high percentage of ethanol mixtures, such as E85, in-tank blending is likely
to be the most advantageous method due to the relative volumes of ethanol and petrol
involved. For the lower volumes of ethanol required for an E5 or E10 product, blending at
the road tanker loading gantry is an often selected method since it will reduce the risk of
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contaminating the petrol/ethanol blend with water and/or gum, dirt, rust etc. and minimise
the impact on existing terminal systems. Regardless of the blending method used there is a
significant increase in the vapour pressure of the resultant petrol/ethanol blend. Additionally
there will be a very small percentage volume expansion and the final blend will be greater
in volume than the sum of the original blend component volumes. However, this increase
is smaller than the limits usually found within the metering and stock reconciliation system
tolerances. Both of these factors must be taken into account when designing the blending
and accounting systems.
To ensure that the final product remains within the specification limits of BS EN228 it is
necessary to use a dedicated base fuel blendstock for oxygenate blends (BOB) to maintain
the correct oxygenate blends, which may have lower octane, vapour pressure and distillation
properties than standard petrol. The BOB may differ for different blend ratios and as such an
E10 BOB may be different from an E5 BOB. Once blended the petrol/ethanol blend should
not be mixed with conventional petrol before the point of sale, since further increases in
vapour pressure can occur, unless the vapour pressure of the petrol has been reduced.
Quality control procedures should clearly identify any allowable mixing in order to maintain
compliance with BS EN228.
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2 DESIGN INTEGRITY
2.1 MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT COMPATIBILITY
2.1.1 General
Generally it has been found that the majority of materials used in the storage and handling
of petrol are compatible with ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blends. Ethanol mixtures
have been in use as an oxygenate in petrol in the USA for around 20 years and very few
material compatibility issues have been reported in service with blends containing up to
10 % ethanol mixtures. Typical issues have been problems with swelling, hardening or minor
leakage of elastomeric seals and o-rings.
However, notwithstanding the experience to date, knowledge is still being gained and it is
apparent that some materials may be prone to degradation by continual contact particularly
with ethanol mixtures, or blends with high ethanol mixture concentration. Zinc, brass, lead
and aluminium are sensitive metals and non-metallic materials that may degrade include
natural rubber, polyurethane, cork, leather, PVC, polyamides and certain thermo and
thermoset plastics.
Where consideration is given to reusing existing equipment its suitability for use with ethanol
should be confirmed. The EI has published the guidance EI/DFA Research report Compatibility
of materials used in distribution handling systems with ethanol and petrol/ethanol blends
which provides guidance on compatibility issues.
Furthermore the solvent characteristics and consequent cleaning effect of ethanol mixtures
have the potential to loosen rust, scale, gums and other deposits in tanks and fuel systems.
It is therefore important to ensure that systems are fully cleaned prior to introducing ethanol
mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends to avoid the potential for fuel contamination and filter
blockages.
2.1.2 Tanks and pipework
Ethanol does not react with or permeate steel, and the carbon steel used in finished product
terminal tanks and pipework is generally compatible with both ethanol mixtures and petrol/
ethanol blends. The solvent characteristics of ethanol mixture can however cause loosening
of rust from interior walls.
Incidences of increased corrosion rates in petrol/ethanol blend service and stress corrosion-
cracking in ethanol service have been experienced and this is discussed in more detail in 2.2.
Where existing storage tanks with epoxy or polyester coatings are to be used for the
storage of ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends, the manufacturer of the lining should
be consulted to ensure suitability of the coating. This should take account of the specific
composition of the ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blends to be stored.
Aluminium internal floating covers may be susceptible to corrosion if used in tanks containing
anhydrous ethanol mixtures, and therefore the use of non-aluminium materials, such as
stainless steel, should be considered for 'wetted' components. Fuel grade ethanol mixtures
will normally contain a small percentage of water, up to 0,3 % vol, which is generally
considered sufficient to prevent corrosion of aluminium components. Aluminium has proved
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to be compatible with E5 and E10 petrol/ethanol blend service, but advice should be sought
from internal floating cover manufacturers, particularly if being used for ethanol mixtures or
petrol/ethanol blends such as E20 or E85.
2.1.3 Pumps
For neat and denatured ethanol mixture service, the preferred materials for seals are
carbon and ceramic. Teflon-impregnated packing materials are recommended for packing
construction.
Experience with existing petrol pumps (both above-ground and submersible) operating with
petrol/ethanol blends has not identified any major issues but checks with the manufacturer
should be made if elastomeric seal materials are used in any of the pump components.
2.1.4 Pipe sealants
In general it is not recommended to use threaded fittings in pressure systems but if it is

required to use such fittings a pipe thread sealant Teflon tape or a Teflon-based pipe thread
compound should be used. Alcohol-based pipe sealant should be avoided.
2.1.5 Meters
For use with ethanol mixtures, meters should have internal o-rings and seals designed to
withstand the solvent action found with ethanol mixtures, and meter manufacturers should
be consulted for their recommendations.
No specific wear or leakage problems have been experienced in service with existing petrol
meters used in petrol/ethanol blend service.
2.1.6 Hoses
Hose suppliers should be consulted for appropriate materials for use with ethanol mixtures.
Deterioration of transfer hoses by petrol/ethanol blends is negligible based on experience to
date.
2.1.7 Filters
Filters and screens used at terminal facilities are generally not affected by ethanol mixtures
or petrol/ethanol blends.
When petrol/ethanol blends are first introduced to a system the solvent action may loosen
built-up lacquer on the tank walls and sediment in the bottom of the tank. This may result in
the need for a filter change shortly after conversion. Once the system is clean, filter life will
be similar to that when using any petrol.
A #40 mesh screen (approximately 400 micron) in transfer lines between tanks and to pump
suctions is recommended for terminal operations.
It is recommended that the final filter between storage and loading/blending gantry should
be no larger than 80 microns nominal size (approximately 180 mesh).
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2.1.8 Other materials
A number of elastomers have shown a potential for swelling or hardening to occur when
in ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blend service. It is difficult to generalise about gaskets
and seals because of the many variations in elastomer composition. Manufacturers should
be consulted for advice.
Table 2 gives an indicative overview of material compatibility that has been identified to date.
Table 2: Compatibility of commonly used materials with ethanol mixtures and petrol/
ethanol blends.
Metallic materials fuel blend compatibility
Metallic Materials E10 E15 - E25 E100

Aluminium/aluminium alloy (1100) ● ●
Bronze ● ●
Carbon steel ● ●
Nickel/nickel plate ●
Stainless steel ● ●
Zinc ● ●
Non-metallic materials fuel blend compatibility
Polymeric materials – elastomers E10 E15 - E25 E100

Nitrile/buna-N – (NBR) – hoses and gaskets ● ●
Nitrile/buna-N – (NBR) – seals only ● ●
Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM) Chemraz, Kalrez) 3 ●
Natural rubber ● ●
Unspecified fluoroelastomers (FKM)4
Fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ) ● ●
Polychloroprene (CR)5 – hoses and gaskets ● ●
Polychloroprene (CR) – seals only ●
Polysulfide rubber ●
Silicone rubber ●
Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) ●
Viton F-605C/viton VTR-9209 ● ● ●
Viton G Series – low temperature ● ●
3
FFKM; e.g. Chemraz, Kalrez
4
Fluoroelastomers elastomers, e.g. Fuorel, Viton. Note that different grades are available which have different
physical characteristics and chemical resistance; consult supplier.
5
CR; e.g. Neoprene
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Table 2: Compatibility of commonly used materials with ethanol mixtures and petrol/
ethanol blends (continued)
Polymeric materials – thermoplastics E10 E15 - E25 E100

Polyoxymethylene (POM, Acetal) ● ●
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) ● ●
Polyethylene (PE) ●
High density PE (HDPE) ● ●
Methyl-methacrylate (Perspex) ●
Polyamide/nylon 11 (PA 11)/Nylon 12 (PA 12) ● ● ●
Polyamide/nylon 6 (PA 6) ● ●
Polyamide/nylon 6/6 (PA 6/6) ● ● (E15) ●
● (E25)
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) ●
PET Glycol-modified (PETG) ●
Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) ● ●
Polypropylene (PP) ●
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) ● ●
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, e.g. Teflon) ● ●
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) ● ●
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) ● ● ●
Polymeric materials – thermosets E10 E15 - E25 E100

Epoxy coatings, fibreglass-reinforced A wide range of proprietary and generic
polyester, vinyl ester and epoxy resins materials is commercially available
Polyurethane and urethane coatings (splash Simple terms such as GRP or FRP can include
protection) different resin and reinforcement systems
The manufacturer should be consulted for
specific recommendations
Polymeric materials – miscellaneous E10 E15 - E25 E100

Alcohol-based pipe dope/sealant ●
Cork ● ● ●
Compatible with the ethanol blend ●

Incompatible with the ethanol blend ●
The above information is based on Research Report: Compatibility of materials used in

distribution Handling Systems with Ethanol prepared by Intertek P&IA for EI/DFA (KW9391,
October 2013)
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2.2 PETROL/ETHANOL BLEND CORROSION
2.2.1 General
Various forms of corrosion have been identified in ethanol and petrol/ethanol blends. These
include:
−− Dry corrosion;
−− Wet corrosion (water in ethanol);
−− Electrolytic corrosion;
−− Galvanic corrosion;
−− Stress corrosion cracking;
−− Erosion-corrosion, and
−− Biological corrosion.
These mechanisms are discussed in guidance EI/DFA Research report Compatibility of

materials used in distribution handling systems with ethanol and petrol/ethanol blends.
The major forms are wet general corrosion, associated with water presence, and for carbon
steel, stress corrosion cracking (SCC), which are discussed below.
Ethanol mixtures do not permeate or react with carbon steel and do not appear to significantly
change corrosion rates. There is however a potential for stress corrosion cracking as discussed
in 2.2.2.
With petrol/ethanol blends it has been found that the presence of ethanol may contribute
to increased corrosion due to greater conductivity than petrol, an affinity for water and a
tendency to pick up impurities, resulting in the potential for increased galvanic and electrolytic
corrosion. Experience in the UK has confirmed this potential for increased corrosion rates in
carbon steel storage tanks in E5 service.
Some organisations have found it beneficial to use additives to inhibit corrosion. Corrosion
inhibitor additives with proven effectiveness in petrol/ethanol blends are commercially
available, and these can be added either prior to shipment or during receipt at the distribution
terminal if required. Manufacturers’ advice should be sought, or testing carried out, to ensure
an appropriate treat rate if these additives are used. Also available are pH buffered corrosion
inhibitors to stabilise the acidity of the ethanol mixture and provide added protection against
the risk of corrosion. It should be noted that even when using corrosion inhibitors an integrity
regime that includes checks for corrosion is still required.
Water mixes readily with ethanol mixtures and will be held in solution up to its saturation
level, which for an E5 ethanol blend is approximately 0,2 % vol. at 15 °C, increasing to
around 0,4 % vol. for an E10 blend. Whilst ethanol mixtures are also miscible with petrol
they have a higher affinity to water and when the water content reaches saturation level
separation of the ethanol mixture/water mix will occur from the petrol. This is known as
phase separation with the lower phase being the ethanol mixture/water mix and the upper
phase being petrol. Phase separation creates an ethanol mixture-rich water bottom which
may cause increased potential for localised corrosion of the tank steelwork.
To minimise potential issues the water content of petrol/ethanol blends should be kept below
0,1 % vol. Note that in compliance with BS EN15376 ethanol mixtures may contain up to
0,3 % water prior to blending with petrol.
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Generally terminal fuel storage systems are not designed to be watertight since water is not
soluble in petrol and can be readily drained off from storage tanks. Additional measures are
therefore likely to be required, particularly for existing systems, to ensure that the terminal
storage and handling equipment and processes for ethanol mixtures, BOB and ethanol blends
are managed carefully to prevent water ingress at any time.
A programme of taking bottom samples should be in place and this should include checking
that the samples are clear and bright. In addition, it is recommended that regular analysis
of water content is carried out on petrol/ethanol blend storage tanks to monitor trends so
that appropriate measures can be taken if water content rises to such a level that phase
separation could occur. Also storage tanks should be checked regularly for water bottoms
and any aqueous phase which is found to be accumulating should be removed immediately.
However any 'water' removed will also contain ethanol mixtures, and consideration should
be given to appropriate fuel quality controls to ensure BS EN 228 specification compliance.
Water bottoms can also encourage microbial growth in storage tanks. Microbes, both
bacterial and fungal, can enter a storage system through fuel transfers, vents and equipment
and can grow wherever water is present. If fungal activity is identified in areas where there is
no direct contact with ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends, such as on external surfaces
of a tank, biocide treatments can be used. Biocide treatments can also be used for surfaces
where there is contact with ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends, such as on internal
surfaces of a tank; however, care needs to be taken that the treatment does not impact the
quality of the product.
Existing tank water gauges and electronic dip tapes should be checked to ensure they are
suitable for use with ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blends. It should be noted that not
all water-finding pastes are suitable for use with water/ethanol mixtures and care should be
taken to ensure an appropriate paste is used to avoid incorrect or misleading results.
2.2.2 Stress corrosion cracking
Although the corrosion rate of carbon steel in ethanol mixtures service is typically low the
potential for stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in ethanol storage tanks and pipework has been
identified in recent studies such as API Technical Report 939D Stress corrosion cracking of
carbon steel in fuel grade ethanol: Review, experience survey, field monitoring, and laboratory
testing. Failures have occurred in tanks (floors, lower shell and floating roofs), loading rack
piping (butt and tack welds), and in-line equipment (such as air eliminator heads) when these
were exposed to ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blends.
SCC is the formation of brittle cracks in a material resulting from a corrosive process occurring
whilst the material is under tensile stress. Cracking often occurs at stress levels below the
normal design level for the material and may be instigated in areas where localised corrosion,
e.g. pitting, has already occurred.
The API Technical Report 939D Stress corrosion cracking of carbon steel in fuel grade ethanol:
Review, experience survey, field monitoring, and laboratory testing has not identified any
reported occurrences of SCC by ethanol manufacturers or in the primary distribution of
ethanol or after ethanol has been blended into petrol. The report indicates that the most
vulnerable area appears to be in terminals with storage and handling facilities for ethanol
mixtures prior to blending, although no significant differences were identified in the basic
handling and operating practices used throughout the supply chain.
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There are no reports of SCC in E10 blends either in field experience or laboratory tests,
although SCC has been reported in E85 blends in laboratory tests using severe conditions
(slow strain rate tests with notched samples).
Further guidance is available within API technical bulletin API 939E Identification, repair,
and mitigation of cracking of steel equipment in fuel ethanol service which deals with the
handling of cracks in existing equipment and reduction of SCC occurrence in new equipment
as a result of exposure to ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blends. In addition further
guidance is available via a number of NACE International papers (see references for further
details).
It has been identified that the following conditions are likely to contribute significantly to the
occurrence of SCC:
−− steel construction with high local stresses;
−− non heat-treated welds particularly where high stress/strain concentration points are
present;
−− flexing components such as tank bottoms, roof plates and spring components;
−− residual stresses or cold work, e.g. fabrication, forming, fit-up and subsidence, and
−− water, aeration and increased acidity of ethanol.
It is therefore clear that careful attention to the handling of ethanol mixtures and petrol/
ethanol blends is important to minimise the potential for water pick-up, contamination and
aeration during primary transportation.
When developing new storage and handling systems for ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol
blends it is important to ensure that the design of tanks and piping systems minimises sources
of mechanical stress and flexing of components. Where practicable the use of post weld heat
treatment (PWHT) on potentially susceptible welds in line with suitable assessments/design
reviews/in service monitoring is recommended. As such PWHT should be considered as the
primary mitigation technique for SCC.
In the case of existing tanks converted for the storage of ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol
blends the use of an appropriate coating is likely to be the most effective way of minimising
the likelihood of SCC. When installing a tank liner to a previously used tank, thorough surface
preparation, cleanliness and lining application are of critical importance.
Where existing systems such as receipt pipelines, tanks and terminal piping are to be used
in ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends service, a risk assessment should be carried out
to assess the likelihood and consequences of SCC occurring. The risk assessment should as
a minimum consider age, condition, inspection/maintenance regime, percentage of time the
equipment will be in ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends service, and the consequences
of equipment failure.
There are additives available that may provide some protection against stress cracking.
Operators could consider the use of these additives if they have significant concerns regarding
stress corrosion.
2.3 STORAGE TANKS
A dry and clean storage system is a prerequisite for handling ethanol mixtures and petrol/
ethanol blends to minimise potential problems with water and contamination in the final
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product. Consideration must also be given to managing the vapour space above ethanol
mixtures, which can always be assumed to be in the flammable range.
All tanks should be designed to a recognised code such as BS EN 14015 Specification for
the design and manufacture of site built, vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed, above ground,
welded, steel tanks for the storage of liquids at ambient temperature and above, or API
Standard 650 Welded steel tanks for oil storage or equivalent. Tanks designed to the relevant
standards that have previously been in petrol service have generally been found suitable for
the storage of ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blends provided appropriate consideration
is given to the material compatibility and corrosion issues discussed in 2.1 and 2.2.
With a flash point of 13°C, the EI Model Code of Safe Practice Part 15: Area classification
code for installations handling flammable fluids identifies ethanol as a Class 1 fluid and it is
recommendedthat fixed roof tanks are used for ethanol mixtures storage. Unless fitted with
an additional dome cover, external floating roof storage tanks are not suitable due to their
susceptibility to the ingress of rainwater. For small storage capacities the use of horizontal
tanks is acceptable.
The vapour pressure of ethanol at 16 kPa is considerably lower than petrol, and the storage of
ethanol mixtures is not covered by the European Directive 94/63/EC on the control of volatile
organic compound (VOC) emissions resulting from the storage of petrol and its distribution
from terminals to service stations. It is therefore not a legislative requirement to install an
internal floating cover since due to the relatively low vapour pressure, satisfactory emission
control can be achieved by the use of correctly sized pressure/vacuum valves.
However, the use of an internal floating cover (IFC) is considered best practice for the storage
of ethanol mixtures to further minimise evaporation losses and to manage the risks associated
with the vapour space. Where an IFC is used it is acceptable to free vent the vapour space
above the cover or install pressure/vacuum valves. Inerting the vapour space with nitrogen
is an option that may be considered to ensure a non-flammable vapour space but this
adds operational complexity and would require to be carefully assessed for practicality in a
distribution terminal environment. (Refer to section 2 for material compatibility and corrosion
considerations if aluminium floating covers are to be used.)
In geographical areas that are subject to large ambient temperature swings and high humidity
it may be necessary to dry the air entering a tank through vents or pressure/vacuum valves
to avoid contamination from condensation of moisture in the air. However, air dryers can
present a risk of blockage to the venting system and should not be used unless absolutely
necessary. Operational experience from areas of high temperature and high relative humidity
indicates that there has been no issue with ingress of water/water vapour from normal tank
breathing, which is in line with calculations which suggest an average increase in water
content of less than 0,005 % from breathing assuming daytime ambient temperatures
around 30 °C and humidity levels of around 90 %.
As discussed in 2.2, ethanol is more corrosive than petrol, and experience in the USA and
more recently in the UK would suggest that coating tank bottoms with an ethanol-resistant
epoxy lining can be beneficial both for ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blend storage
tanks. Operators should therefore consider the relative benefits in relation to the costs for
coating:
−− the tank bottom and partially up the sides;
−− the tank shell and the bottom, or
−− all the wetted surfaces including the floating roof.
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Storage tank design for new-build ethanol mixture or petrol/ethanol blend tanks should
consider impermeable tank foundations or alternative floor design in order to mitigate
potential groundwater and soil contamination. Where an existing terminal tank is to be put
into ethanol service consideration should be given to carrying out a full integrity inspection
on the tank prior to the change of use.
It should be noted that tanks used for the storage of petrol/ethanol blends will be required
to comply with the VOC Directive (2009/126/EU) for emission levels. Appropriate measures,
such as IFCs, will be required and local legislative requirements may dictate specific additional
measures to be taken for both ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blend storage.
Water drainage facilities should be provided on storage tanks. The effectiveness of drainage
facilities on existing tanks to be used for ethanol mixtures, petrol/ethanol blends or BOB
should be confirmed and upgraded if necessary, and in the case of new tanks the floor
should be designed to facilitate water removal. Closed and segregated drainage systems
should be used to allow collection and appropriate bio-treatment of drainage material or
removal as a trade waste.
As ethanol has a greater electrical conductivity than petrol, capacitance-type tank gauging
equipment may need to be recalibrated for ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blend service.
Also, radar gauges should be checked to ensure that the reflector is suitable for use with
ethanol mixtures.
2.4 FLAME ARRESTORS
Flame arrestors are used in vapour collection, pressure relief and tank vent applications. Where
flame arrestors are installed they should be classified for the specific gases/vapours to be
handled and should be either deflagration or detonation arrestors dependent on the specific
application as described in BS EN 12874 Flame arresters. Performance requirements, test
methods and limits for use and the requirements of European Directive 94/9/EC implemented
in the UK by The Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for Use in Potentially Explosive
Atmospheres Regulations, 1996 (EPSR).
For petrol applications flame arrestors classified for Group IIA flammable vapours should be
used, and for ethanol mixtures flame arrestors classified for Group IIB flammable vapours
should be used.
As identified in the SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden report Fuel vapour composition
and flammability properties of E85, testing indicates Class IIA should be sufficient for up to
97 % ethanol/petrol blends; however, a more conservative 90 % limit for ethanol/petrol
blends is also sometimes recommended. Therefore vapours from petrol/ethanol blends with
up to 90 % ethanol mixture content can be considered to have the same characteristics as
petrol and therefore existing flame arrestors suitable for Group IIA should be suitable for
E5,E10, E15 and E20 blend applications.
It is recommended that all gantries used for loading petrol/ethanol blends are fitted with
detonation or deflagration arrestors and that these are compatible with ethanol vapours. It
should be noted that for the venting of flammable vapours from storage tanks the maximum
protection is provided when the end of line flame arrestors are both explosion and endurance
burn proof.
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2.5 BREATHING SYSTEMS/PROCESS DESIGN
When loading ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends, or when there is the possibility of
routing ethanol mixture vapours to the vapour recovery unit (VRU), an assessment of the
effects on the VRU needs to be considered. Although the lower vapour pressure of ethanol
mixtures reduces the vapour concentration, the assessment should consider overall volumes
loaded and the dilution effect of other products being loaded. Also to be considered are
periods when high percentages of ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends could be loaded.
If necessary, adequate safeguards or controls should be provided to prevent prolonged
operations unless the VRU is designed for high ethanol vapour to prevent exceeding
authorised exhaust emissions.
2.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR VAPOUR RECOVERY UNITS
There is significant experience with E10 road tanker loading and vapour recovery in the USA.
In general the experience has been positive with few issues identified. Material compatibility
issues may result if the VRU components have not been designed for oxygenated petrol, e.g.
aluminium may be present in vapour valves in some older units and possibly absorber vessel
packing rings.
In the UK the majority of VRUs use carbon adsorption technology and VRU manufacturers
have historically advised avoidance of ethanol mixture vapours due to the higher heat of
adsorption of ethanol mixtures compared to petrol and the potential for the development
of hot spots within the carbon beds. To date there has been no indication of increased
susceptibility to hot spots with E5 provided normal good VRU operating practices are
followed.
In VRU systems with liquid ring vacuum pumps, ethanol mixtures will be absorbed into the
water/glycol seal fluid. Over time the seal fluid will increase in volatility and the ethanol
mixtures will not separate from the fluid in the absorber column, resulting in decreased VRU
efficiency and performance. For blends up to E10 this issue can be stabilised by increasing
and maintaining the seal fluid operating temperature in the range 35 – 38 °C. At higher
ethanol mixture percentages the use of dry vacuum pump systems should be considered.
However, so far within the UK no issues with seal fluid have been identified which can be
directly attributed to ethanol mixtures.
2.7 IMPLICATIONS FOR HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION
Like petrol, as defined within the EI Model Code of Safe Practice Part 15: Area classification
code for installations handling flammable fluids, ethanol mixtures are Class I fluids and there
should be no major implications on area classification where ethanol mixtures or a petrol/
ethanol blend are to be handled in existing petrol systems. However, ethanol is classified as
IIB flammable vapours and as such the hazardous area classification should include ethanol
mixtures and petrol/ethanol blends. Reference should be made to the EI Model Code of
Safe Practice Part 15: Area classification code for installations handling flammable fluids, for
guidance in this area.
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3 DENATURING
3.1 GENERAL
Currently the majority of fuel grade ethanol mixtures are sourced from outside of the UK and
this may be received with or without the denaturant added.
In the UK, pure ethanol is subject to a very high duty level (around 40 times greater per litre
than petrol) and therefore to minimise duty and accounting issues, as well as the complexities
associated with handling a high value product within the secondary distribution system, it is
recommended that denaturing is carried out as early as possible in the supply chain. Where
practical this should be done prior to shipping by the producer to the agreed UK specification.
Where denaturing is to be carried out at a distribution terminal in the UK a fully isolated and
sealed handling and storage system will be required for undenatured ethanol. An additional
separate permit is required from HMRC for the storage of pure ethanol.
3.2 SPECIFICATION
Ethanol for use as a fuel or fuel blend must be denatured in line with the requirements of
The Denatured Alcohol Regulations 2005 to ensure it is unsuitable for drinking. To support
this HMRC produce Excise Notice 473: Production, distribution and use of denatured alcohol,
which gives advice on what is required when denatured alcohol is produced, distributed and
used in the UK.
The HMRC have 11 eleven denaturants and of these the HMRC have approved two
formulations of trade specific denatured alcohol (TSDA) for bioethanol to be used as a road
fuel.
Formulation TSDA formulation Approved use

number
9 99 % ethanol Manufacture of bioethanol – used

1,0 % methanol as a road fuel
Denatonium benzoate is added Manufacture of bio-diesel

to the resulting mixture in the
proportion of 10 micrograms per
millilitre
11 99 % ethanol Manufacture of bioethanol – used
1 % unleaded petrol with a as a road fuel
research octane number (RON)
greater than 91
Excise Notice 473: Production, distribution and use of denatured alcohol
TSDA may be received from another EU Member State if, in the opinion of the HMRC, it
has been made as nearly as is possible in accordance with the UK approved formulations.
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Consignments of TSDAs from another EU Member State must be imported into an Excise
warehouse holding the relevant approval to store such goods, until the HMRC decide if the
formulation can be considered the same as one of the UK approved formulations.
It is also possible to receive TSDA from outside the EU. However, it must first be imported
to either a Customs warehouse or an Excise warehouse approved to hold such goods, until
the HMRC are satisfied that the formulation can be considered the same as one of the UK’s
TSDA formulations.
Premises and the process used for denaturing must be approved by HMRC and a licence is
required. Further information about obtaining approval as a trade specific alcohol denaturer
is available in HMRC Public Notice 473 Production, distribution and use of denatured alcohol.
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4 BLENDING
4.1 BLENDING ISSUES
Blending ethanol mixtures with petrol to produce the required petrol/ethanol blend at the
distribution terminal is a common means to achieve the preferred option of ethanol blending
as close to the point of sale as possible.
Ethanol has a low vapour pressure when compared to petrol; however, when blended with
petrol up to 5 % volume there is a significant increase in the vapour pressure of the resulting
blend which then levels off as the ethanol concentration increases.
Figure 1: Ethanol/gasoline blends: vapour pressure increase vs ethanol content
Source: Joint EUCAR/JRC/CONCAWE Programme on effects of petrol (gasoline) vapour

pressure and ethanol content (2007)
In order to meet the requirements of BS EN228 it is therefore necessary to use a dedicated

base fuel BOB which may need to have a lower octane and vapour pressure than standard
petrol. Close control of the blending process is therefore necessary to ensure the blended
product is within specification.
Blending ethanol and petrol creates an endothermic energy transfer resulting in a volume
expansion of the ethanol and removal of heat and consequent reduction in temperature and
volume of the petrol. When the temperature of the blend returns to ambient there will be a
very small percentage volume expansion and the final blend will be greater in volume than
the sum of the original blend component volumes. This volume expansion property has an
impact on metering and duty issues. However, this increase is smaller than the limits usually
found within the metering and stock reconciliation system tolerances.
The three basic options for blending ethanol mixtures into petrol are:
1. into tank;
2. directly into road tankers (splash or sequential blending);
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3. in line at the gantry during road tanker loading, which as shown in Figure 2 can be
subdivided into:
−− ratio blending with both ethanol mixture and petrol streams metered separately into
a common loading line;
−− side stream blending where an ethanol mixture is metered into the petrol line

upstream of the petrol meter.
The relative merits of each option are summarised in Table 3.
Ratio blending Side stream blending
Meters Meters
Gasoline Ethanol Gasoline Ethanol
Figure 2: Schematic of ratio and side stream blending
Table 3: Comparison of blending options
Blending method Advantages Disadvantages
1.
Direct in-tank −− Simple blending process, −− May need additional tank
blending no specific blending for storing the blend prior
equipment required. to loading on to truck, but
−− Suitable for location not if blending on receipt
that blends petrol from of BOB.
components. −− Increased potential for
−− Allows for comprehensive contamination of blended
testing and opportunity for product, e.g. water, rust,
correction of blend. scale pick-up.
2.
In-line blending −− Simple blending process, −− Increased potential for
into tank no specific blending contamination of blended
equipment required. product, e.g. water, rust,
−− Suitable for location scale pick-up.
that blends petrol from
components.
−− Allows for comprehensive
testing and opportunity for
correction of blend.
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Table 3: Comparison of blending options (continued)
Blending method Advantages Disadvantages
3.
Directly into −− Ethanol mixture system −− Mixing of components may
truck/railcar is segregated reducing not be complete.
(splash or likelihood of contamination −− Difficult to correct blend if
sequential or pick-up of water, rust, problem occurs.
blending) scale, etc. −− Volume increase must be
accounted for.
4.
In line at −− Can be controlled by the −− Requires specialised
loading gantry Terminal Automation blending equipment.
(truck/rail) System (TAS) −− Requires two custody
ratio blending −− Allows for mixing of transfer meters.
components before −− Volume increase must be
reaching truck/railcar accounted for.
compartment.
−− Ethanol mixture system
is segregated reducing
likelihood of contamination
or pick-up of water, rust,
scale, etc.
5.
In line at −− Can be controlled by the −− Difficult to correct blend if
loading gantry TAS. problem occurs.
(truck/rail) −− Can account for volume −− Requires specialised
side stream increase. blending equipment.
blending −− The side stream process is
similar to typical additive
injection methods currently
used.
−− Ethanol mixture system
is segregated reducing
likelihood of contamination
or pick-up of water, rust,
scale, etc.
In-tank blending is particularly suitable for locations such as import terminals that blend
petrol from components to meet specific customer requirements. Full testing of the blended
product can be carried out before release for truck loading but, due to the increased potential
for water pick-up and phase separation, additional controls are required to suitably manage
water content within the blend.
Splash or sequential blending is not recommended due to potential problems with mixing
and accounting.
For ratio blending the petrol and ethanol mixtures are measured by their own independent
meters; however, the resultant petrol/ethanol blend does not pass through a meter and as
such the total volume loaded onto the road tanker has to be calculated rather than directly
measured. This may require specialist equipment and/or alterations to the TAS.
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For most fuels distribution terminals side stream blending is considered best practice and is
the recommended method. It provides the most direct method for measuring total volume
loaded to road tanker. Most existing TASs are configured to manage additive injection using
the side stream principle and can accommodate the ethanol mixture injection stream, giving
benefits of ease of control and measurement.
Although ethanol mixtures mix readily with petrol, the blending pipework configuration
should be designed to maximise mixing time in the loading line between the ethanol injection
point and the main loading meter. Ethanol injection systems are widely used for E5 and E10
blends, and satisfactory mixing of the blend is achieved without the need for a static mixer
installed in the line.
4.2 KEY CONSIDERATIONS
The requirement to use a specific blendstock may mean that this cannot be used as fuel
without the addition of an ethanol mixture. The vapour pressure issue also has an impact
on retail sites and once retail tankage has been moved to a petrol/ethanol blend there are
specification implications if normal petrol is delivered to a site instead of the petrol/ethanol
blend. Consequently the supply of ethanol mixtures to a terminal must be robust and
contingency plans should be in place in the event of issues with supply or blending problems
in the terminal.
Similarly the supply of blendstock to the terminal must be robust and the quality of the
blendstock should be maintained within set parameters to ensure that the final petrol/
ethanol blend meets BS EN228.
Where a terminal has commingled stock supplied from more than one source, agreement
must be reached with all supply parties on a standard specification for the BOB supplied and
the percentage ethanol mixture to be used in the petrol/ethanol blend. There should be no
changes required to existing additive injection systems; however, additive formulation will
need to be confirmed suitable for the petrol/ethanol blend.
Blending during loading must be controlled to a close tolerance and monitored continually.
The blending system should be set up to give a constant proportional blend throughout
loading, and control systems should be 'fail safe' and stop loading in the event of the blend
ratio going out of tolerance. In this way, in the event of a failure of the blending system
during loading, any product that has been loaded on to a road tanker prior to a shutdown
should be within the tolerance of BS EN228 and can be delivered to the retail site. Similarly in
the event of a power failure or system shutdown for any reason, any product already loaded
should be within the required specification. In the event of a blending alarm, loading should
be stopped and the cause of the alarm investigated. Loading should not be recommenced
until it can be assured that the blended product will meet the required specification.
Procedures and slops facilities should be in place to handle off specification product. Daily
stock reconciliation of loaded quantities against tank dips for ethanol mixtures, BOB and
petrol/ethanol blends should be carried out. Where automatic tank gauging (ATG) system
readouts are used for the reconciliation process, physical tank dips should be taken on a
regular basis to validate the ATG readings.
Consideration of material compatibility needs to be carefully reviewed for the entire storage
and loading system to ensure it takes into account the composition of the product at each
given point in the system, i.e. that the metallurgy is suitable at the point that ethanol mixture
is injected into the loading system.
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5 THE SUPPLY CHAIN
5.1 PREPARATION FOR HANDLING ETHANOL MIXTURES
As described in section 1, ethanol mixtures have an affinity for water and whilst small
amounts can be held in solution, problems can occur with phase separation at relatively low
levels of water in a petrol/ethanol blend. Ethanol mixtures are a good solvent and in addition
to picking up any water in a system it will remove rust, scale and other deposits from tanks
and pipework.
It is therefore vitally important that pipelines, tanks and all associated systems are clean and
fully dewatered before the introduction of ethanol mixtures. It is recommended that systems
for handling ethanol mixtures are dedicated and completely segregated from other product
handling systems. When this is not practical, for example with receipt lines, dewatering will
need to be undertaken prior to introducing ethanol mixtures into the system.
Systems should also be checked for material compatibility with ethanol mixtures. Filters should
be installed on ethanol mixtures receipt lines and storage tank outlets to collect rust and scale
deposits that are cleaned from the system when ethanol mixtures are first introduced. Filters
should be checked and cleaned after first receipt of ethanol mixtures and closely monitored
subsequently for excessive build-up of deposits.
5.2 ETHANOL MIXTURES RECEIPT/ROAD TANKER LOADING
5.2.1 General
The mode of shipment of ethanol mixtures to terminals for blending with petrol will be
dependent upon a number of factors such as the normal terminal supply mode and the
throughput of the ethanol mixtures. Additional consideration must be given to ensuring the
dryness and cleanliness of hoses, pipework, tanks, etc. Segregated slops facilities should be
provided. If undenatured ethanol mixtures are to be received in a terminal, receipt systems
must be fully segregated. (Refer to section 3 for additional information.)
5.2.2 Sea receipt
Some of the ethanol mixtures for use in the UK are shipped by sea from countries outside
of the EU such as Brazil and the USA. Supply departments must ensure that vessels used for
ethanol mixtures are fully compatible with the product, e.g. tank coatings, valve and pump
seals. In addition, tanks must be dry and clean prior to loading ethanol mixtures and must
remain watertight during transit.
Vessel tank inerting systems that use flue gas should not be used with ethanol mixtures due
to the potential for carbon dioxide in the flue gas to be absorbed into the ethanol mixtures
and increase the acidity of the ethanol mixtures.
For discharge of ethanol mixtures, standard petrol discharge procedures for electrical isolation
of the vessel should be followed. Segregated receipt systems are preferred and a filter should
be installed in the system to collect scale, rust, etc. emanating from the vessel.
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5.2.3 Pipeline receipt
Cross-country pipelines are generally multi-product lines and it is recommended that they are
not used for ethanol mixtures (or petrol/ethanol blends) due to issues with contamination
(both of ethanol mixtures and subsequent grades such as aviation fuel; water pickup; and
interaction with pipeline corrosion inhibitors which may increase the acidity of the ethanol
mixtures.
5.2.4 Rail/road receipt
The most common mode of receipt of ethanol mixtures for the majority of the UK in land
terminals is by road tanker. It is also possible that rail receipt may be used in the future.
The road tanker or railcar should be confirmed as being suitable for the carriage of
ethanol/ethyl alcohol UN 1170. Rail and road tanker compartments must be clean and dry
before ethanol mixtures are loaded. Hoses must be electrically continuous and dedicated to
ethanol mixture use or purged with ethanol mixtures or petrol before use. The tanker must
be earthed before unloading and filters should be installed in the system to collect scale and
rust.
5.2.5 Road tanker loading
For distribution terminals it may be practical to load and distribute denatured ethanol
mixtures by road tanker from a hub terminal. Loading facilities for ethanol mixtures should
be similar to normal bottom loading arrangements for petrol with an earth/overfill prevention
system, metering and flow control. Ethanol has a high conductivity and in a well-designed
system should not build up an electrostatic charge during loading. Loading rates up to 2 400
litres/min with a conventional 100 mm loading system may therefore be used.
It should be noted that when loading E5, E10 or E20 vapour recovery will also be required.
It is important to verify that the tankers used for ethanol mixtures are of a suitable design
and previous service. Prior to first use, it should be verified that the tank itself has been
approved for the carriage of ethanol/ethyl alcohol UN 1170 by reference to the tank’s initial
test certificate; all compartments should be inspected for cleanliness and dryness.
Since ethanol mixtures have a wide flammable range, the vapours remaining in a road tanker
compartment after discharge are likely to be in the flammable range. If a road tanker is
subsequently to be loaded with different products, particularly distillate products capable of
producing a high electrostatic charge, care must be taken to control loading rates in line with
established industry practice for reducing the risk of electrostatic ignition.
Typically road tankers used for ethanol mixture transportation will have aluminium tanks.
It should be noted that as discussed in section 2 there are potential compatibility issues
between aluminium, gasket materials and ethanol.
5.3 CONTAMINATED OR OFF-SPECIFICATION PRODUCT
Product quality is maintained through a combination of hardware systems, procedures and

testing. All stages of the supply chain must be able to account for the quality of product
issued from that stage. Ideally, analysis of product quality should be performed at each stage
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in the supply chain and reported using appropriate quality certificates.
Procedures must be in place to manage off-specification product at all stages of the supply
chain. Both ethanol mixtures and the blendstock received into a terminal must be on
specification. If there is any doubt with respect to product quality the receipt should not be
commingled with existing on-specification product.
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6 METERING
When ethanol mixtures are blended with petrol there will be a very small percentage volume
expansion and the final blend will be greater in volume than the sum of the original blend
component volumes. This volume expansion property has an impact on metering. However,
this increase is smaller than the limits usually found within the metering and stock reconciliation
system tolerances. When using the side stream blending process the petrol/ethanol blend
will pass through the normal gantry custody transfer meter and hence the small volume
expansion due to blending will be accounted for within the terminal reconciliation process.
During loading the temperature of both petrol and ethanol mixture streams must be
measured to facilitate the volume reconciliation process.
Gantry meters should be calibrated for the relevant petrol/ethanol blend and should be
proved before commencing road tanker loading operations of any changed petrol/ethanol
blends. It is recommended that proving intervals should not exceed three months until 12
months’ experience has been built up with petrol/ethanol blends and an assessment of
metering performance has been carried out and appropriate proving intervals established.
With side stream blending the ethanol mixture stream will be metered into the loading line
upstream of the main gantry meter. Proprietary blending equipment suitable for ethanol
mixtures typically utilises oval gear positive displacement meters and these meters should be
capable of suitable linearity and repeatability performance to ensure that the required blend
tolerance can be achieved. However, dependent upon the arrangement for denaturing the
ethanol mixtures, it is possible that these ethanol mixture meters may need to be classed as
fiscal meters to satisfy HMRC requirements for reconciliation and duty calculation purposes.
In any case it is necessary to ensure close control of the blend metering process to ensure the
resultant blend meets the finished petrol specification.
When denaturing of ethanol mixtures is carried out at the terminal, additional metering of
the undenatured ethanol mixtures into, and denatured ethanol mixtures out of, storage may
be necessary to satisfy HMRC requirements.
The API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards chapter 11.3.3 provides guidance for
ethanol density and correction factors.
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7 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
7.1 GENERAL
In general there should be no additional significant environmental issues with petrol/ethanol

blends provided good practice codes and guidelines for storage and handling of petroleum
are followed as outlined in EI Environmental guidelines for petroleum distribution installations.
However, for ethanol mixtures, additional measures as discussed in 7.3 will be required.
Ethanol mixtures have low vapour pressures, and are highly soluble in water. Ethanol mixture
adsorption to organic matter is minimal and it is readily biodegradable both aerobically and
anaerobically in subsurface and surface systems. Ethanol mixtures are therefore unlikely to
persist or migrate substantially in the aqueous environment; however, the rapid aerobic
degradation of ethanol mixtures will quickly use up available oxygen and this may have a
detrimental effect on the immediate environment. It should also be noted that in the event of
a spill, the standard recovery measures used to segregate normal hydrocarbons from water
will not be effective due to the solubility of ethanol mixtures in water. In addition ethanol
content in effluent streams may be limited by allowable discharge consents.
Notwithstanding the increased biodegradability of ethanol mixtures, the philosophy of

'prevention is better than cure' applies equally to ethanol mixtures as it does to hydrocarbons.
Consequently there should be rigorous focus on eliminating any loss of containment through
specific design and good operating practices.
Terminal environmental risk assessments should take account of the hazard, incident
likelihood and consequence in relation to ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends handled
within the terminal. Environmental management systems and emergency response plans
should also address these issues.
7.2 IMPLICATIONS OF RELEASE OF ETHANOL MIXTURES ON SOIL AND GROUNDWATER
A spill of an ethanol mixture, onto uncontaminated soil will biodegrade quickly due to natural
attenuation. Laboratory studies have indicated a half-life of ethanol in soil and groundwater
of between 0,1 and five days and between one and seven days for methanol.
A spill of ethanol mixture into soil or groundwater previously contaminated by hydrocarbons

may result in an increase in mobility and persistence within the groundwater of plumes of
VOCs such as BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes). A similar effect may
occur if a petrol/ethanol blend is spilled on either contaminated or uncontaminated soil or
groundwater.
Ethanol has a co-solvency property that results in up to 100 times higher solubility and hence
higher concentrations of BTEX in an ethanol/water mixture than in water without ethanol.
Studies have indicated that ethanol concentrations need to exceed around 1 % by volume
in the aqueous phase for this to have a significant effect on BTEX concentrations. Since the
biodegradation of ethanol is relatively quick this will have the effect of depleting oxygen
and nutrient levels thus slowing the degradation rate of BTEX and other petrol components.
Ethanol also acts as a surfactant and this may encourage an increased mobility of BTEX.
Overall these properties of ethanol may result in more persistent BTEX plumes and studies
have indicated that plume lengths can increase by up to 2,5 times. In addition, it is possible
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that contaminated soils that have previously been considered to contain immobilised residual
product can be become mobilised with the potential to migrate off-site.
Methanol is classified as being toxic to aquatic life in higher concentrations, Therefore ethanol
mixtures with higher proportions of methanol can present a higher risk to aquatic life. Data
sheets should be consulted for details on the toxicity but typical values may be in the region of
10 000 mg/l for toxic effects for aquatic life. However, within soil and groundwater methanol
typically has a half life of about one to seven days; it is also miscible in water and will dilute
rapidly within surface water. Methanol therefore has similar co-solvency and biodegradation
properties to ethanol and will therefore have a similar impact on BTEX.
7.3 OPERATIONAL ISSUES
The solubility of ethanol mixtures has an operational impact in two main areas:
−− Ethanol mixtures will readily absorb water which can result in the product becoming
off-specification and the possibility of phase separation occurring either in terminal
or retail site storage tanks.
−− Water and ethanol are fully miscible and cannot be separated in conventional oil/
water separators.
Ethanol mixture systems should therefore be maintained watertight and water-free when
in service. It is therefore critical that ethanol mixture systems are fully dewatered and dried
before the first introduction of ethanol mixtures or the recommissioning of tankage or
pipework that has been opened up for maintenance.
As discussed in 2.3, storage tanks should be of the fixed roof type in order to minimise the
potential for water ingress. Tank top fittings such as dip tubes, access chamber covers and
tank gauging connections should be carefully inspected and maintained to ensure that they
are weatherproof and watertight.
Ethanol mixture pipelines should be completely segregated from other hydrocarbon systems
and preferably dedicated to ethanol mixture service. Segregation should be achieved by the
use of double block and bleed valves as a minimum; however, it is recommended that any
connecting pipework to non-ethanol systems has spool pieces removed and flanges blanked
to prevent any inadvertent cross-connections.
Petrol/ethanol blend tankage should be provided with the means to check for and drain
water (aqueous phase water/ethanol) bottoms. Checks for the presence of water should be
carried out regularly using water-finding paste suitable for use in petrol/ethanol blends, or a
fixed system which has been properly calibrated for use in petrol/ethanol blends.
Tank drainage connections should be positively isolated when not in use. A segregated tank
water drainage system should be provided to facilitate appropriate waste disposal or bio-
treatment.
Where practical, ethanol mixture tanks should be installed in impervious bunds segregated
from other hydrocarbon storage bunds. Ethanol mixture bund drains should ideally be routed
separately from other site drainage to facilitate waste disposal or on site bio-treatment. Where
this is not readily achievable when changing the use of existing tanks/bunds consideration
must be given to the consequences of an ethanol mixture spill, with regard to:
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−− spill isolation;
−− fire-fighting and fire water run off;
−− drainage system integrity and management, and
−− disposal of contaminated water/product.
Similarly, consideration must be given to how drainage around ethanol mixture receipt and
loading gantry areas will be managed in the event of a spill of ethanol mixture or petrol/ethanol
blend, bearing in mind that ethanol will pass through a conventional oil/water separator.
Local authorities and/or the Environment Agency should be consulted as appropriate with
regard to permissible discharge consents for ethanol mixtures.
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8 FIRE-FIGHTING
8.1 GENERAL
To some extent from the point of view of fire hazard, ethanol mixtures can be compared
with petrol (see 1.5). It has a lower vapour pressure, higher flashpoint and higher auto-
ignition temperature, but a wider flammable range. Like petrol, the vapours are heavier
than air and may accumulate at low level over a wide area in the event of a spill or leakage.
However, there are some particular properties of ethanol mixtures that require additional
considerations be given to fire-fighting response.
8.2 FLAME VISIBILITY
Unlike petrol which gives off large quantities of visible smoke, an ethanol fire burns with a
bright yellow flame with only minor amounts of smoke generation, while methanol burns
with a clear flame which is virtually invisible. It is important that fire-fighters are made aware
of the flame characteristics of ethanol fires and that this aspect is properly covered in training
and emergency planning. At some incidents involving alcohols, thermal imaging cameras
have been successfully used by fire-fighters to gain a better assessment of flame size and the
extent of exposed areas to the fire.
8.3 RADIANT HEAT
The radiant heat from ethanol-containing fuels is different from that of petrol. This should
be taken into consideration when determining the possible need for cooling water systems
for fire-exposed surfaces or the need to deploy water monitors as overall incident scenario
water demands might be affected. Where software is used to assess radiant heat output
from credible scenarios such as full surface tank fires, users should ensure that the software
is appropriate to ethanol-containing fuels where appropriate.
There have been a limited amount of experiments carried out to determine the radiant heat
output from large scale ethanol based fuel fires. Some such experimental work is described
in a report issued by SP, the Swedish Test Institute: ETHANOL, Experimental results of large
ethanol fuel pool fires. This report describes both small scale, and large scale (18 m diameter)
experiments using E97 (3 % petrol) and E85 (15 % petrol) fuels. The Executive Summary
states:
'The laboratory scale tests showed increasing heat flux with increasing proportion of gasoline
in the fuel. However, for the large scale tests, the E97 and E85 fuels emitted the same radiant
heat. In addition, the heat exposure towards the nearby surrounding is approximately 2 – 3
times higher for both the E97 and E85 fuels compared to calculated and experimental data
on gasoline. The difference declines with increasing distance but is still about a factor 2
higher at distances of 30 – 40 m. The radiative fraction (ratio of radiant to chemical heat
release) as a function of the fire area will probably have a larger influence on E85 compared
to E97 due to the higher content of gasoline. Therefore, it is likely that a larger E97 fire would
generate a higher heat flux compared to a similar E85 fire and the difference between the
two would increase as the fire area increases'.
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8.4 FIRE DETECTION
Because of its very clean burning characteristics, ethanol mixture fires may not be detected
by some fire detection devices e.g. devices that rely on detection of radiation. In addition,
some detectors may be less sensitive to ethanol mixtures fires than they are to fires in other
flammable liquids. It is important to ensure that the detection system used is suitable for
ethanol mixtures and has appropriate sensitivity. This is best done by seeking certified data
from detector manufacturers.
8.5 FIRE-FIGHTING RESPONSE
8.5.1 Using water
Ethanol is soluble in water and can therefore be extinguished by dilution. However, laboratory
tests have shown that dilution of more than 500 % is required to achieve extinguishment
and so this is not a practicable strategy in most cases apart from shallow spill fires. The
flashpoint of ethanol mixtures/water solutions increases with increasing water concentration
as shown in Table 4, but is still within the EI’s definition of a Class I product, (see Model
Code of Practice Part 19: Fire precautions at petroleum refineries and bulk storage terminals),
even when water content is increased to 70 %, and a Class II product at up to 90 % water
content.
However, it is also recognised that in some cases addition of relatively small quantities of
water to petrol/ethanol blends can bring about phase separation which precipitates the
alcohol and water to the bottom, leaving the petrol intact and thus permitting possible
extinguishment as a conventional petrol fire with conventional foams. Again, the approach
would only be applicable in situations where the alcohol content was low and the overall
fuel quantity small.
Table 4: Flashpoint of ethanol mixtures/water mixtures
Ethanol 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 96
concentration
(% by
volume)
Flash- (°F) 144 120 97 84 79 75 72 70 68 63 63
point (°C) 62 49 36 29 26 24 22 21 20 17 17
8.5.2 Using foam
Alcohols and other water miscible fuels require special foam for effective extinguishment.
'Multi-purpose' foams are types that can extinguish fires in both hydrocarbon and water
miscible fuels. They are often referred to as 'alcohol resistant' foams because alcohols are the
most common water miscible fuels. Multi-purpose foams are available in a variety of different
generic types but as at 2015 all available types require gentle application to be effective. The
Lastfire Group (see http://www.lastfire.org.uk/) has developed a test protocol specifically to
assess the performance of a foam concentrate on a water soluble fuel such as ethanol, but
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when monitor type application directly into the fuel surface is simulated some foams are
ineffective or at best inefficient. Plunging of the foam into the fuel destroys the foam and
prevents build-up of a vapour-suppressing blanket. This means that application of foam by
monitors or other forceful means will probably not be effective unless very high application
rates are used which may be impractical. Foam manufacturers give advice such as the foam
should be applied to the back wall of the tank on fire so that it flows gently down the wall
onto the fuel surface or that foam should be applied to the inner tank wall at the side so that
it creates a swirling action as the foam flows onto the fuel surface. Such actions might be
possible with smaller tanks but might be impractical on larger diameter tanks.
Although it has been shown in some tests that ethanol quantities as low as 2,5 % can have
an effect on foam performance, work in the 1970s and 1980s using the US Federal Fire Test
Specification OF 555C as the basis for testing, showed that some good quality standard
foams could be used under certain application conditions (i.e. relatively gentle) with petrol
having an ethanol content up to 10 % (E10). A report to this effect was published by the
API in 1985 – Evaluation of fire fighting foams as fire protection for alcohol-containing fuels.
More recent work using a different fire test (Underwriters Laboratories UL 162 Standard for
safety foam equipment and liquid concentrates) has clearly shown the importance of foam
quality and application technique. A poor quality standard foam or poor or inappropriate
application technique will not give effective extinguishments.
Although a good quality standard (i.e. proven by test) foam can be used on E5 and E10 a
more efficient foam attack will be achieved with a multi-purpose foam. For ethanol content
greater than 10 %, such as E20, a multi-purpose foam must be used. If a standard foam
concentrate is to be used for ethanol blends then the user should seek confirmation through
validated test data which establish application rates that the foam is suitable for the blend
using the application method used on site.
With any foam on any fuel, greater effectiveness and efficiency are obtained with 'gentle'
application of the foam rather than forceful application which tends to pick up fuel and
cause foam destruction. In most real situations, totally gentle application is not possible. At
the time of writing, there is no foam concentrate on the market that is truly efficient and
proven on water soluble fuels of significant depth using forceful application techniques such
as large capacity foam monitors. In some cases, unless a tank is provided with a foam system
that is operable, then it might have to be accepted that a controlled burn down strategy is
adopted. In practice this is what has happened at some real incidents.
Some multi-purpose foams are used at different concentrations for hydrocarbons and for
water soluble fuels. For example, a particular foam may be used at 3 % concentration on
hydrocarbons but 6 % on ethanol, and different application rates of foam solution might
apply.
Overall, with the introduction of ethanol mixtures or petrol/ethanol blends especially those
greater than 10 % ethanol, there may be a need to change the foam concentrate used on
site unless it is already a multi-purpose type. Even if the foam is multi-purpose, there may be
a need to alter its percentage pick-up rate and increase application rate (and hence additional
concentrate will be required to maintain system run times and alternative nozzles and/or foam
piping may be required). Ultimately, the only way to check the necessity of this is through
the foam concentrate manufacturer by seeking independently verified test data. It should be
noted that with the increase in storage and use of ethanol mixtures, foam manufacturers
are putting increasing efforts into testing and development of foam concentrates so the
latest information should always be sought on application rates and acceptable application
methods. Application rates of foam solution are normally significantly higher than those for
hydrocarbons, but this depends very much on the foam concentrate. It is always advisable to
seek independently validated test data to establish what application rate is applicable for any
particular foam concentrate.
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8.6 STORAGE TANK FOAM SYSTEMS
It has already been noted that foam monitors are generally not an efficient means of
extinguishing deep fuel fires involving ethanol mixtures due to the forceful application
technique although increased application rates can be successful in some cases where tanks
are relatively small. Subsurface applications should not be used with any currently available
foams.
Semi-subsurface application (see Model Code of Practice Part 19: Fire precautions at
petroleum refineries and bulk storage terminals) can be used but the associated maintenance
and testing issues mean that it is not a preferred method. The most appropriate system is a
fixed-foam pourer system designed and installed in accordance with a recognised standard
such as EN 13565-2 Fixed firefighting systems – Foam systems or NFPA 11 Standard for low-,
medium-, and high-expansion foam. The foam pourer should be a type that directs the foam
against the tank wall so it runs down the inside of the tank shell and is consequently applied
as gently as possible.
It should be noted that with the increasing storage of ethanol mixtures or other water soluble
fuels there are research programmes in place to find more efficient extinguishing mechanisms
and so up to date information should always be sought prior to any system design. This is
particularly true with increasing constraints due to environmental effects meaning that foam
manufacturers are often changing concentrate formulations.
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9 HM REVENUE AND CUSTOMS COMPLIANCE
As bioethanol is an alcohol, businesses producing, distributing or importing bioethanol and

those blending or mixing bioethanol with light oils will need to comply with the requirements
of The Alcoholic Liquor Duties Act 1979, The Spirits Regulations 1991 and The Denatured
Alcohol Regulations 2005. Details of the requirements can be found in HMRC Public Notice
473: Production, distribution and use of denatured alcohol, and Public Notice 179E Biofuels
and other fuel substitutes.
Bioethanol that is to be used in the production of another product, such as a petrol/ethanol

blend, can be designated as 'process oils' – refer to Public Notice 179E. Warehouse keepers
and producers may deliver process oils without payment of excise duty provided they move
between tax warehouses. If bioethanol intended for blending with duty suspended oil is
delivered direct to an excise warehouse, then duty may be suspended until the product leaves
the warehouse. The point at which bioethanol becomes taxable will continue to be the point
at which it is used or set aside for use as a fuel for any engine, motor or other machinery, or
as an additive or extender in any substance so used.
Typically for inland terminals within the UK all hydrocarbon products stored and delivered
from the terminal are duty paid. However, import and refinery terminals are generally classed
as excise warehouses with duty being paid when product is loaded onto a road tanker.
Consequently, additional controls and accounting processes need to be in place at each
terminal to ensure the correct duty levels are applied to petrol/ethanol blends with duty
liability being dependent upon the final blend ratio. If duty paid ethanol mixtures are brought
into a duty warehouse, it will be necessary to agree a duty reclaim process with HMRC.
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ANNEX A
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
A.1 GENERAL
This annex provides supplementary information on:

−− the water tolerance of ethanol;
−− the requirements and test methods for petrol specified in BS EN228;
−− the requirements and test methods for ethanol specified in BS EN15376;
−− recommendations for quality assurance/testing, and
−− phase separation of petrol/ethanol blends.
A.2 WATER TOLERANCE OF ETHANOL
As described in 1.5 beyond a certain concentration of water in fuel, ethanol separates from
petrol and forms a separate solution with water. Turbidity point, or haziness, indicates this
onset of phase separation as a function of the water content of the fuel blend. Figure A.1
shows the results of a DGMK study that included the testing of:
−− regular unleaded petrol with vapour pressure ~90 kPa and 25 % aromatics;
−− regular unleaded petrol with vapour pressure ~90 kPa and 35 % aromatics;
−− super unleaded petrol with vapour pressure ~60kPa and 25 % aromatics, and
−− super unleaded petrol with vapour pressure ~60 kPa and 35 % aromatics.
All fuels contained no ETBE or MTBE and the turbidity points were tested twice at each
condition. For further information see DGMK Research Report 645 Laboratory test programme
on the addition of ethanol to automotive fuels.
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30
20
10
-10
-20
-30
-40
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
1% EtOH 3% EtOH 5% EtOH

1% EtOH/0,5% TBA 3% EtOH/0,5% TBA 5% EtOH/0,5% TBA
1% EtOH/1% TBA 3% EtOH/1% TBA 5% EtOH/1% TBA
Figure A.1: Turbidity point (in °C) of petrol containing ethanol as a function of the
water content (in mg/kg)
A.3 REQUIREMENTS AND TEST METHODS FOR PETROL SPECIFIED IN BS EN228
Table A.1 provides the requirements and test methods specified for petrol in BS EN228
Automotive fuels. Unleaded petrol. Requirements and test methods.
(This table is indicative only; the current standard may be obtained from BSI)
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Table A.1: Requirements and test methods for unleaded petrol with a maximum oxygen
content of 3,7 % (m/m) 'E10'
Property Units Limits Test method a

Min. Max. (See 2. normative
references)
Research octane number, RON 95,0 – EN ISO 5164D
Motor octane number, MON 85,0 – EN ISO 5163D
Lead content mg/l – 5,0 EN 237
Density (at 15 °C) c
kg/m 3
720,0 775,0 EN ISO 3675
EN ISO 12185
Sulfur contentD mg/kg – 10,0 EN ISO 13032
EN ISO 20846
EN ISO 20884
Manganese content D mg/l EN 16135
until 2013-12-31 – 6,0 EN 16136
from 2014-01-01 – 2,0
Oxidation stability minutes 360 – EN ISO 7536
Existent gum content (solvent mg/100 ml – 5 EN ISO 6246
washed)
Copper strip corrosion (3 h at rating class 1 EN ISO 2160
50 °C)
Appearance e clear and bright Visual inspection
Hydrocarbon type content O,T,
% (V/V)
- olefins – 18,0 EN 15553
- aromatics – 35,0 EN ISO 22854
Benzene content D
% (V/V) – 1,00 EN 238
EN 12177
EN ISO 22854
Oxygen content D,K
% (m/m) – 3,7 EN 1601
EN 13132
EN ISO 22854
Oxygenates content D % (V/V) EN 1801
- methanol g – 3.0 EN 13132
- ethanol h – 10,0 EN ISO 22854
- iso-propyl alcohol – 12.0
- iso-butyl alcohol – 15,0
- tert-butyl alcohol – 15.0
- ethers (five or more C atoms) – 22.0
- other oxygenates I – 15,0
Note: This table is an extract from BS EN 228:2012. Please refer to this standard for full table and notes.
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Table A.2: Requirements and test methods for unleaded petrol with a maximum oxygen
content of 2,7 % (m/m) 'E5'

Min. Max. (See 2. normative
references)
Research octane number, RON 95,0 – EN ISO 5164 D
Motor octane number, MON 85,0 – EN ISO 5163 D
Lead content mg/l – 5,0 EN 237
Density (at 15 °C) c
kg/m 3
720,0 775,0 EN ISO 3675
EN ISO 12185
Sulfur content D
mg/kg – 10,0 EN ISO 13032
EN ISO 20846
EN ISO 20884
Manganese contentD mg/l EN 16135
until 2013-12-31 – 6,0 EN 16136
from 2014-01-01 – 2,0
Oxidation stability minutes 360 – EN ISO 7536
Existent gum content (solvent mg/100 ml – 5 EN ISO 6246
washed)
Copper strip corrosion (3 h at rating class 1 EN ISO 2160
50 °C)
Appearance e clear and bright Visual inspection
Hydrocarbon type content D,
% (V/V) EN 15553
- olefins – 18,0 EN ISO 22854
- aromatics – 35,0
Benzene content D
% (V/V) – 1,00 EN 238
EN 12177
EN ISO 22854
Oxygen content D % (m/m) – 2,7 EN 1601
EN 13132
EN ISO 22854
Oxygenates content D % (V/V) EN 1601
- methanol f – 3,0 EN 13132
- ethanol D – 5,0 EN ISO 22854
- iso-propyl alcohol h Volume blending
- iso-butyl alcohol h restricted to
- tert-butyl alcohol h 2,7% (m/m)
- ethers (five or more C atoms) maximum oxygen
h
content
- other oxygenatesh,I
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Table A.3: Volatility classes for unleaded petrol with a maximum oxygen content of 3,7 %
(m/m%) 'E10'
class class class class class class (See 2.

A B C/C1 D/D1 E/E1 F/F1 Normative
references)
Vapour kPa, min. 45,0 45,0 50,0 60,0 65,0 70,0 EN 13016-1b
pressure (VP) kPa, max. 60,0 70,0 80,0 90,0 95,0 100,0
% evaporated % (V/V), min. 22,0 22,0 24,0 24,0 24,0 24,0 EH ISO 3405
at 70 °C, E70 % (V/V), max. 50,0 50,0 52,0 52,0 52,0 52,0
% evaporated % (V/V), min. 46,0 46,0 46,0 46,0 46,0 46,0 EH ISO 3405
at 100 °C, % (V/V), max. 72,0 72,0 72,0 72,0 72,0 72,0
E100
% evaporated % (V/V), min. 75,0 75,0 75,0 75,0 75,0 75J0 EH ISO 3405
at 150 °C,
E150
Final boiling °C, max. 210 210 210 210 210 210 EH ISO 3405
point (FBP)
Distillation % (V/V), max. 2 2 2 2 2 2 EN ISO 3405
residue
Vapour lock index, max. _ _ C D E F
index (VLI) (10 – – – –
VP + 7 E70)
Vapour lock index, max. C1 D1 E1 F1
index (VLI) (10 1064 1164 1214 1264
VP + 7 E70)
A.4 REQUIREMENTS AND TEST METHODS FOR ETHANOL SPECIFIED IN EN 15376
Table A.4 provides the requirements and test methods specified for ethanol in EN 15376
Automotive fuels – Ethanol as a blending component for petrol – Requirements and test
methods.
(This table is indicative only; the current standard may be obtained from BSI)
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Table A.4: Requirements and test methods specified for ethanol in BS EN15376
Property Unit Limits Test method a

minimum maximum (See clause 2.
normative
Ethanol + higher saturated alcohols % (m/m) 98,7 prEN 15721 b

content
Higher saturated (C3-C5) mono- % (m/m) 2,0 prEN 15721 b
alcohols contentc
Methanol content % (m/m) 1,0 prEN 15721 b
Water contentd % (m/m) 0,300 EN 15489
EN 15692
Total acidity (expressed as acetic % (m/m) 0,007 EN 15491
acid)
Electrical conductivity c µS/cm 2,5 EN 15938
Appearance clear and colourless EN 15769
Inorganic chloride content mg/kg 1,5 EN 15492
Sulfate content mg/kg 3,0 EN 15492
Copper content f
mg/kg 0,100 EN 15488
EN 15837
Phosphorus content9 mg/l 0,15 EN 15487
EN 15837
Involatile material content mg/100 ml 10 EN 15691
Sulfur content f
mg/kg 10,0 EN 15485
EN 15486
EN 15837
A.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND TESTING
A tripartite task force comprising members from Europe, USA and Brazil was established in
2007 with the aim of harmonising the relevant test standards for fuel grade ethanol mixtures.
It is likely that the work of this task force will continue for some time and consequently
changes in standards and methods can be expected.
In addition to the test methods listed in BS EN15376, the test methods in Table A.5 are
commonly used to check the quality of ethanol mixtures and petrol/ethanol blends.
It should also be noted that at the time of writing this document there were a number of
quality assurance and testing methods under development:
−− FprEN 16270, Automotive fuels – Determination of high-boiling components
including fatty acid methyl esters in petrol and ethanol (E85) automotive fuel – Gas
chromatographic method
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−− Pr EN 16761-1, Automotive fuels – Determination of methanol in automotive ethanol

(E85) fuel by gas chromatography – Part 1 Method using single column technique
−− Pr EN 16761-2, Automotive fuels – Determination of methanol in automotive ethanol
(E85) fuel by gas chromatography – Part 2 Method using heart cut technique
−− Also, an ISO TC 28/SC 7 new work item proposal for Petroleum products and other
liquids – Ethanol – Standard test method for pH determination of ethanol fuel
−− And the CEN TC19 Working Group 38, Fuels Coordination Working Group on the
alternative fuels is also looking at a number of ethanol/methanol methods
Table A.5: Test methods in use for ethanol and petrol/ethanol blends
Visual clarity Clear to very pale straw colour and visibly free of any
suspended solids
Apparent proof Can be determined using a proof hydrometer. Fuel grade
ethanol should be in the range 197 – 200 proof before
denaturing. Note that the addition of gasoline as a denaturant
will result in a higher proof reading than for pure ethanol.
API gravity/specific API Gravity Range is API 46° to 49°. This corresponds to a
gravity specific gravity range of 0,7972 to 0,7839 (the specific gravity
scale is inverse to the API gravity scale).
Purity ASTM D5501 Standard test method for determination
of ethanol content of denatured fuel ethanol by gas
chromatography.
pHe level ASTM D6423 Standard method for determination of pHe of
ethanol, denatured fuel ethanol and fuel ethanol. As of 1
January 2008 there is no EN standard for test and it should be
noted that pHe is a different acidity measure from the more
common pH scale.
For petrol/ethanol blends the following procedure has been provided by the U.S. Department
of Energy in its Guidebook for handling, storing, and dispensing fuel ethanol and is based on
a similar procedure for methanol developed by General Motors.
'Water Extraction Test' for the determination of the approximate ethanol content of
a petrol/ethanol blend.
Note: Errors in ethanol content of up to five percentage points may occur for E85 blended
with gasoline containing detergent additives.
Essential equipment
50 ml volumetric pipette100 ml graduated cylinder with stopper.
Procedure
1. Use the volumetric pipette to extract exactly 50 ml of fuel and place the fuel in the
graduated cylinder.
2. Add approximately 50 ml of water to the fuel in the cylinder. (The total volume
should not exceed 100 ml.)
3. Place the stopper in the cylinder, and shake the contents vigorously for about 15
seconds.
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4. Loosen the stopper to release the pressure in the cylinder but do not remove the
stopper.
5. Tighten the stopper. Place the cylinder upright on a level surface away from sunlight
and heat sources. Wait 15 minutes. If separation of the two layers is not complete,
lightly tap the cylinder to encourage complete separation.
6. Record the level of the top and bottom of the hydrocarbon layer (upper layer). Do
this by reading the measurement at the lowest part of the meniscus at both the top
and bottom of the upper layer.
7. Find the volume (in millilitres) of the upper layer by subtracting the value at the lower
meniscus from the value at the upper meniscus.
8. Calculate the ethanol concentration (percent by volume) by this equation:
% ethanol = 98,69 - [1,97 x volume of the upper layer in millilitres]
9. Calculate the hydrocarbon concentration (percent by volume) by this equation:
% hydrocarbon = 1,31 + [1,97 x volume of the upper layer in millilitres]
A.6 PHASE SEPARATION OF PETROL/ETHANOL BLENDS
Unlike with petrol, water is completely soluble in ethanol. Ethanol and petrol have co-solvency
properties and will dissolve in each other but with a relatively weak bond in comparison to
the bond between water and ethanol. When water is added to a petrol/ethanol blend only
a very small amount can be dissolved in the blend compared with the amount that could be
absorbed by pure ethanol.
The amount of water that can be tolerated by a blend is dependent upon the percentage of
ethanol in the blend and the temperature of the blend. When the tolerable level is exceeded,
ethanol will separate from the petrol and form a solution with the water. This is known as
phase separation.
Figures A.2 and A.3 are provided to help explain the mechanism of phase separation for a
petrol/ethanol blend. Figure A.2 shows a typical ternary diagram for three components, A, B
and C. In this figure the point Mix 1, represents a mixture of 60 % A and 40 % B by volume.
If this mixture is then diluted with a third component, C, the point at Mix 1 will move towards
the 100 % C point on the diagram. Assuming that the resultant mixture contains 50 % C the
point Mix 2 will then represent the mixture of the three components. Note that throughout
the dilution with component C the ratio of components A and B remains constant.
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100
10 90
20
80
%B
%C 30
70
40
60
Mix 1
50 60% A
50
40% B
60
40
Mix 2
70
after 30
dilution
80
20
90
10
100
0 20 40 60 80 90 100
%A
Figure A.2: A typical ternary diagram

(Taken from Sykes, R. 2007. Future fuels for light aircraft, Popular Flying)
Figure A.3 shows the ternary diagram for a petrol/ethanol blend at 21 °C. In the non-shaded
area of the diagram the three components, petrol, ethanol and water can exist together in a
single phase but in the shaded area the water with nearly all the ethanol would exist as one
phase, that is, phase separation will occur.
In the example shown for an E10 start at point A, that is 10 % ethanol/90 % petrol. If water
is added to the blend to make up 20 % of the new total and assuming a normal mixture,
point A would move in the direction of 100 % water (bottom left corner of the diagram) until
reaching point Bt. However, since this line crosses into the shaded area of the diagram phase
separation will occur. The lighter phase will be virtually 100 % petrol as shown by point Bp
and the other phase would consist of 72 % water and 28 % ethanol as shown by point Bw.
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100
10
90
20
80
% Water 30
% Ethanol
70
40
60
50
50
60
Bw. Water and
Ethanol phase 40
70
30
80
20
90 A 10% Ethanol
10 90% Petrol
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Bp. Petrol
Bt. with 20% water if only phase
% Gasoline phases did not separate
Figure A.3: A ternary diagram for petrol/ethanol/water

(Taken from Sykes, R. 2007. Future fuels for light aircraft, Popular Flying)
It can be seen from Figure A.3 that the amount of water that can be tolerated in a 10 %
ethanol blend, E10, is very small and even less for E5. Once separation has occurred it can be
considered to be effectively an irreversible process so it is critical to ensure that systems used
for the storage and handling of ethanol and petrol ethanol blends are kept free from water.
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ANNEX B
REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY
B.1 REFERENCES
The following publications have been specifically referred to in the text.
API (http://www.api.org/standards/)
Recommended Practice 1626, Storing and handling ethanol and gasoline-ethanol blends at
distribution terminals and service stations
Standard 650 Welded steel tanks for oil storage
Technical Report 939D Stress corrosion cracking of carbon steel in fuel grade ethanol: Review,
experience survey, field monitoring, and laboratory testing
Literature review: Impact of gasoline blended with ethanol on the long term structural
integrity of liquid petroleum storage systems and components
Evaluation of fire fighting foams as fire protection for alcohol-containing fuels
Bulletin 939E Identification, repair, and mitigation of cracking of steel equipment in fuel
ethanol service
British Standards Institution (www.bsigroup.com)

BS 506-1 Methanol for industrial use. Specification for methanol
BS EN228 Automotive fuels. Unleaded petrol. Requirements and test methods
BS EN12874 Flame arresters. Performance requirements, test methods and limits for use
EN 13565-2 Fixed firefighting systems – Foam systems or NFPA 11 Standard for low-,
medium-, and high-expansion foam
EN 14015 Specification for the design and manufacture of site built, vertical, cylindrical,
flatbottomed, above ground, welded, steel tanks for the storage of liquids at ambient
temperature and above
BS EN15376 Automotive Fuels – Ethanol as a blending component for petrol – Requirements
and test methods
Energy Institute (www.publishing.energyinst.org/)

Biofuels: Literature review of potential risks to UK water resources
Environmental guidelines for petroleum distribution installations
Model Code of Safe Practice Part 2: Design, construction and operation of petroleum
distribution installations
Model Code of Safe Practice Part 15: Area classification code for installations handling
flammable fluids
Model Code of Safe Practice Part 19: Fire precautions at petroleum refineries and bulk storage
terminals
Implications of biofuels on microbial spoilage and corrosion within the fuel distribution chain
and end use: A literature review
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Others
ASTM D5501 Standard test method for determination of ethanol content of denatured fuel
ethanol by gas chromatography
ASTM D6423 Standard method for determination of pHe of ethanol, denatured fuel ethanol
and fuel ethanol
CONCAWE Draft Report (February 2007) Guidelines for blending and handling motor
gasoline containing up to 10 % v/v ethanol
Deutsche Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft für Erdöl, Erdgas und Kohle e.V. (DGMK) (2005)
Research Report 645: Laboratory test programme on the addition of ethanol to automotive
fuels
European Council Directive 94/63/EC of 20 December 1994 on the control of volatile organic
compound (VOC) emissions resulting from the storage of petrol and its distribution from
terminals to service stations
European Council Directive 94/9/EC of 23 March 1994 on the approximation of the laws
of the Member States concerning equipment and protective systems intended for use in
potentially explosive atmospheres
HMRC Public Notice 179E Biofuels and other fuel substitutes
HMRC Public Notice 473 Production, distribution and use of denatured alcohol
NFPA 11 Standard for low-, medium-, and high-expansion foam
Sykes, R. 2007 (December). Future fuels for light aircraft. Popular Flying
The Alcoholic Liquor Duties Act 1979
The Denatured Alcohol Regulations 2005
The Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres
Regulations 1996 (EPSR)
The Spirits Regulations 1991
Underwriters Laboratories UL 162 Standard for safety foam equipment and liquid concentrates
U.S. Department of Energy Guidebook for handling, storing, and dispensing fuel ethanol
US Federal Fire Test Specification Of 555C
SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden report Fuel vapour composition and flammability
properties of E85
B.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following publications are suggested for further reading:
API Soil and Groundwater Research Bulletin No. 19, Evaluation of small-volume releases of
ethanol-blended gasoline at UST sites
API Soil and Groundwater Research Bulletin No. 23, The impact of gasohol and fuel-grade
ethanol on BTEX and other hydrocarbons in ground water: Effect on concentrations near a
source
Archer Daniels Midland Company, Fuel ethanol, technical information
Australian Institute of Petroleum GL14-2003 The storage, transport and handling of fuel
ethanol and ethanol blend fuels
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Materials Performance, Stress corrosion cracking in fuel ethanol: A recently recognized

phenomenon, December 2005
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Sicherheitstechnische Kenngroessen (Safety
Characteristics)
Renewable Fuels Association Publication #960501 Fuel ethanol, industry guidelines,
specifications and procedures
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ANNEX C
GLOSSARY
The following terms and definitions apply in this publication.
bioethanol Ethanol produced from fermentation of biomass such as

sugar cane, sugar beet and corn.
denaturant A substance used to render something unfit for human
consumption. In the UK a combination of denatonium
benzoate and methanol is used to denature pure
ethanol into fuel grade ethanol. In the USA the fuel
grade ethanol is generally produced using petrol as a
denaturant.
dry vapour pressure A measure used to express the volatility of a
equivalent (DVPE) hydrocarbon liquid. The higher the vapour pressure the
greater the volatility.
ethanol ethyl alcohol.
ethanol mixtures Mixtures which include various combinations of ethanol

and methanol along with denaturants such as petrol or
a trade specific denaturant for use in a road fuel.
E5, E10, E20, E85 Terms used to denote petrol/ethanol blend containing
up to 5 %, 10 %, 20 % and 85 % fuel grade ethanol
respectively.
fuel grade ethanol Pure ethanol that has been dosed with a denaturant.
petrol/ethanol blends A combination of petrol and an ethanol mixture.
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ANNEX D
ABBREVIATIONS
ATG automatic tank gauging

BOB blendstock for oxygenate blends
BTEX benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene
DVPE dry vapour pressure equivalent
E5 petrol containing up to 5 % ethanol
EPSR The Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for Use in Potentially Explosive
Atmospheres Regulations, 1996
EtOH ethanol
HMRC HM Revenue & Customs
IFC internal floating cover
kPa kilopascal
ppb parts per billion
PTB Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt
PVC polyvinylchloride
PWHT post weld heat treatment
RTFO Renewable Transport Fuel Obligations Order
SCC stress corrosion cracking
TAS terminal automation system
TBA tertiary-butyl alcohol
TSDA Trade Specific Denaturant
VCF volume correction factor
VRU vapour recovery unit
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This publication has been produced as a result of
work carried out within the Technical Team of the
Energy Institute (EI), funded by the EI’s Technical
Partners and other stakeholders. The EI’s Technical
Work Programme provides industry with cost
effective, value adding knowledge on key current
and future issues affecting those operating in the
Energy Institute energy sector, both in the UK and beyond.
61 New Cavendish Street
London W1G 7AR, UK
t: +44 (0) 20 7467 7100
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Guidance For Ethanol Handling and Storage

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Guidance For Ethanol Handling and Storage

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Guidance for the storage and handling of

fuel grade ethanol mixtures at petroleum

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For further information, please visit http://www.energyinst.org

BP Exploration Operating Co Ltd RWE npower

Copyright © 2016 by the Energy Institute, London.

ISBN 978 0 85293 937 6

Published by the Energy Institute

1 Introduction and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

5 The supply chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5.2.4 Rail/road receipt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

9 HM revenue and customs compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Annex A Supplementary information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Niall Ramsden Resource Protection International

Dave De Halle Phillips 66 (Chairman)

Russell Best Philips66

1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE

1.3 PETROL/ETHANOL BLENDS VOLUME VERSUS ENERGY

1.4 UK LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Denaturants such as denatonium benzoate (a bittering agent), methanol, naphtha, pyridine

1.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FUEL GRADE ETHANOL MIXTURES

1.5.1 Physical properties of ethanol

1.5.2 Physical properties of methanol

1.5.3 Physical properties of denaturants

Denatonium benzoate (benzyldiethyl [(2,6-xylycarbamoyl) methyl] ammonium benzoate) is

Table 1: Typical properties of petrol, ethanol and methanol

Petrol Ethanol Methanol

1.6 HANDLING PHILOSOPHY

2.1 MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT COMPATIBILITY

2.1.2 Tanks and pipework

2.1.4 Pipe sealants

In general it is not recommended to use threaded fittings in pressure systems but if it is

2.1.8 Other materials

Metallic materials fuel blend compatibility

Metallic Materials E10 E15 - E25 E100

Non-metallic materials fuel blend compatibility

Polymeric materials – elastomers E10 E15 - E25 E100

Polymeric materials – thermoplastics E10 E15 - E25 E100

Polymeric materials – thermosets E10 E15 - E25 E100

Polymeric materials – miscellaneous E10 E15 - E25 E100

Compatible with the ethanol blend ●

The above information is based on Research Report: Compatibility of materials used in

2.2 PETROL/ETHANOL BLEND CORROSION

These mechanisms are discussed in guidance EI/DFA Research report Compatibility of

2.2.2 Stress corrosion cracking

2.3 STORAGE TANKS

2.4 FLAME ARRESTORS

2.5 BREATHING SYSTEMS/PROCESS DESIGN

2.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR VAPOUR RECOVERY UNITS

2.7 IMPLICATIONS FOR HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION

Formulation TSDA formulation Approved use

9 99 % ethanol Manufacture of bioethanol – used

Denatonium benzoate is added Manufacture of bio-diesel

Excise Notice 473: Production, distribution and use of denatured alcohol

4.1 BLENDING ISSUES

Figure 1: Ethanol/gasoline blends: vapour pressure increase vs ethanol content

Source: Joint EUCAR/JRC/CONCAWE Programme on effects of petrol (gasoline) vapour

In order to meet the requirements of BS EN228 it is therefore necessary to use a dedicated

The relative merits of each option are summarised in Table 3.