Experiment-5

Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

Sourojit Ganguly
12 November 2021

Contents
1 Aim 2

2 Apparatus 2

3 Working Formula 2

4 Theory 2
4.1 Seebeck Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.2 Peltier Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.3 Thomson Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.4 Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.4.1 Why do we need different metals? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.5 Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.5.1 Principle of Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.5.2 Potential Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.5.3 Sensitivity of the Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.6 Seebeck Coefficent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

5 Procedure 7

6 Precautions 8

7 Observations and Graph 8

8 Calculation 9

9 Error Analysis 10

10 Result 10

11 Sources of Error 11

1
Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

1 Aim
To study the variation of thermo-emf across two junctions of a thermocouple,
and to find the Seebeck coefficient for a given thermocouple

2 Apparatus
T-type thermocouple, 2V battery, Potentiometer, Multimeter, connecting wires,
key, Mercury Thermometer, Resistance box, Ballistic Galvanometer, Bunsen
burner, Ice water bath.

3 Working Formula
E×r 1
p= ×
R+r L
where E is the emf of the battery, R is the resistance of the external resistance
attached i.e., the resistance box, p is the potential drop across the potentiometer
wire , r is the resistance of the potentiometer wire and L is the length of the
potentiometer wire.

4 Theory
4.1 Seebeck Effect
When two different metals are joined end to end to form a loop and if the
junctions are kept at different temperatures, there is a current in the loop. This
is called the Seebeck effect and the emf generated is called the Seebeck emf or
thermo-emf. The magnitude and direction of the emf depend on the metals and
the temperature of the hot and cold junctions. Thermoelectric Series:
• Metals are arranged in a particular sequence which can be used to predict
the direction of current in the fixed temperature range of (0 to 100)°C.
This sequence is called Thermo-electric series.
• Sb, Nichrome, Fe, Zn, Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, Al, Hg, Platinum-Rhodium, Pt,
Ni, Constantan, Bi.
At the cold junction, current is from the metal coming higher in the series to
the metal coming later.

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Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

Figure 1: Direction of current flow in an Fe-Cu system

If the cold junction is at 0°C and hot junction at θ (in Celsius), the thermo-
emf varies as:
1
εAB = aAB θ + bAB θ2
2
where aAB and bAB are constants for a pair of metals A and B and εAB is
positive if current flows from metal A to B.

4.2 Peltier Effect

It is the reverse of Seebeck effect. If two junctions are at same temperature and
electric current is passed through them, one junction is warmed up and other is
cooled down. If ∆H amount of heat is absorbed or liberated when charge ∆Q
is passed through the junction, then we define Peltier emf as:
∆H
ΠAB =
∆Q

4.3 Thomson Effect

If a metallic wire has a non-uniform temp and a current is passed through it,
heat may be absorbed or produced in different parts of the wire. This is called
Thomson heat (∆H) and is in addition to Joule’s heat. This is called Thomson
effect.

4.4 Thermocouples
A Thermocouple is used to generate thermo-emf by taking advantage of the
Seebeck Effect

• In a Thermocouple two different metals are used to form a circuit(they

form a cold and hot junction).

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Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

• The cold junction is used as the reference junction.

• The reference junction is kept at 0°C.
• There are many kinds of thermocouples depending on the two metals/alloys
that are used.
• The direction of current and the magnitude of thermo-emf depend on the
type of thermocouples and temperature difference.
• Different Thermocouples works in different ranges of temperatures.
• We use T-type Thermocouple made of Copper and Constantine. [Range:(-
250 to 450)°C]

Figure 2: Thermocouple Types

How is emf set up?

The temperature gradient creates path for electrons to flow, the heat excites
the atoms and hence the free electrons in them.

4.4.1 Why do we need different metals?

It is the inherent property of metal that affects how electrons behave within
the wires of a thermocouple. For example, electrons will flow in a different way
through iron than they do through copper. The two wires of a thermocouple
are exposed to the same temperature at the measurement junction, exciting
electrons and initiating a current. However, the electrical flow through each wire

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Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

is slightly different so if you take a voltage measurement at the reference junction

one wire will have more potential compared to the other. It’s this difference in
potential that we use to calculate the temperature. If our thermocouple had two
wires of the same metal the electrons would flow in the same manner through
both wires. We would have no differences with which to calculate a temperature
because there would be no voltage produced.

4.5 Potentiometer
Potentiometer is a device used to measure emf or potential difference accu-
rately.It gives a measure of an unknown potential difference by comparing it
with a known one. Potentiometer does not draw any current from the circuit
and still measures the potential difference so it acts as an ideal voltmeter.can
be used to compare the emf of two cells, to measure the internal resistance of a
cell, and potential difference across a resistor.

Figure 3: A Potentiometer

As shown in Fig., a potentiometer consists of a long wire AB of uniform

cross section, usually 4 to 10 m long, of material having high resistivity and
low temperature coefficient such as constantan or manganin. Usually, 1 m long
separate pieces of wire are fixed on a wooden board parallel to each other. The
wires are joined in series by thick copper strips. A metre scale is fixed parallel
to the wires. The ends A and B are connected to a strong battery, a plug key
K and a rheostat Rh. This circuit, called driving or auxiliary circuit, sends a
constant SI unit of current I through the wire AB. Thus, the potential gradually
falls from A to B. A jockey can slide along the length of the wire.Also, the p.d
of accumulator should always be greater than the p.d to be measured.

4.5.1 Principle of Potentiometer

The basic principle of a Potentiometer is that when a constant current flows
through a wire of uniform cross sectional area and composition, the potential
drop across any length of the wire is directly proportional to that length.

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Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

Figure 4: Construction of a Potentiometer

If we connect a voltmeter between the end A and the jockey J, it reads the
potential difference V across the length l of the wire AJ. By Ohm’s law,
ρl
V = iR = i
A
For a wire of uniform cross-section and uniform composition, resistivity ρ
and area of cross-section A are constants. Therefore, when a steady current i
flows through the wire,
ρl
i =k
A
⇒ V = kl
Therefore,
V ∝l

4.5.2 Potential Gradient

The potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire is known as po-
tential gradient and is given by
VAB
k=
l
SI unit of potential gradient is volt per metre i.e V/m. If l is the balancing
length and r is the resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire then the
thermo-emf generated is given by
V = kl
V = irl
Thus, by knowing the potential gradient in the potentiometer wire and the
length at which the balance point is obtained, the unknown potential can be
easily determined.
Note: In this experiment we use a ballistic galvanometer to find the balanc-
ing length because the voltage produced in the thermocouple are of millivolts so
ballistic galvanometer provides enough sensitivity for getting accurate results.

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Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

4.5.3 Sensitivity of the Potentiometer

A potentiometer is sensitive if:
(i.) it is capable of measuring very small potential differences, and,
(ii.) it shows a significant change in balancing length for a small change in
the potential difference being measured.
The sensitivity of a potentiometer depends on the potential gradient along
its wire. Smaller the potential gradient, greater will be the sensitivity of the
potentiometer. The sensitivity of a potentiometer can be increased by reducing
the potential gradient. This can be done in two ways:
(i.) For a given potential difference, the sensitivity can be increased by
increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.
(ii.) For a potentiometer wire of fixed length, the potential gradient can be
decreased by reducing the current in the circuit with the help of a rheostat or
a resistance box

4.6 Seebeck Coefficent

The rate of change of thermo-Emf with temperature is called thermo-power or
Seebeck coefficient S
dE
S=
dt
In this experiment the thermocouple used is the T type Thermocouple which
has a measuring range of -270°C to 400°C.

5 Procedure
1. Prior to setting the apparatus, use a multimeter to measure the EMF of
the battery and the resistance of the potentiometer wire AB.
2. Set the resistance in the resistance box as required. Compute the total
voltage drop across the potentiometer wire and its potential gradient.

3. Once the apparatus has been set-up and the hot water in the beaker is at
100 ℃ , measure the balancing length by identifying the null point, i.e.,
observing zero deflection position in the galvanometer.
4. Let the water cool. For every 5 ℃ drop in temperature, repeat the previous
step.

5. Compute the magnitude of thermo emf in each case. Tabulate the obser-
vations.
6. Plot the temperature difference along x-axis and the thermo-emf along
y-axis and use least square fitting to construct the best fit line.

7. Determine the slope of this line to obtain the Seebeck coefficient, S.

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Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

6 Precautions
1. The emf of battery should not change much over time so key should be
removed when circuit is not in use.
2. Hot junction should be kept away from contacts of the circuit and cold
junction.
3. Ballistic Galvanometer should not get voltage above millivolts range.

4. Jockey should not be slided but tapped lightly on the bridge wire to check
deflection.
5. All keys of resistance box should be checked beforehand and tightened
properly.

6. All wire ends should be cleaned with sandpaper.

7. Both the wires making the thermocouple should be insulated from each
other everywhere except at the junctions.

7 Observations and Graph

• Least count of meter bridge = 0.1 cm
• Least count of thermometer = 1 °C
• EMF of the battery = 1.834 V

• Resistance of Potentiometer wire (r) = 52.9 Ω

• Resistance from resistance box (R) = 17000 Ω
• Length of Potentiometer wire = 10 m= 1000 cm

7 OBSERVATIONS AND GRAPH Page 8

Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

S.No Temperature of hot junction (°C) Balancing Length Thermo-emf

1 99 603.3 3.43
2 85 471.4 2.68
3 80 426.5 2.43
4 75 375.7 2.14
5 70 336.6 1.92
6 65 286.7 1.63
7 60 241.5 1.37
8 55 206.4 1.17
9 95 558.3 3.98
10 90 519.3 2.95
11 55 166.6 0.95

Figure 5: ε v/s T

8 Calculation
Potential drop across potentiometer wire= p
E×r 1
= ×
R+r L
1.834 × 52.9 1
= ×
17000 + 52.9 1000
= 5.69 × 10−6 V cm−1

8 CALCULATION Page 9
Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

Slope of graph,
m = 0.0595 × 10−3 V cm−1
Slope of this graph gives the value of Seebeck coefficient ,

S = 5.95 × 10−5 V cm−1

9 Error Analysis
• For potential drop :
E×r 1
p= ×
R+r L
∆p ∆E ∆r ∆(R + r) ∆L
⇒ = + + +
p E r (R + r) L
We are assuming that the error made in measuring the value of e.m.f of
the battery, and in measuring the resistance obtained from the resistance
box are negligible.
As a worst case scenario, let ∆r= 1 Ω
∆p ∆r ∆L 1 0.1
∴ = + = + = 1.9 × 10−2
p r L 52.9 1000

∴ ∆p = p × 1.9 × 10−2 = 0.11 × 10−6 V cm−1

• For Seebeck Coefficent:

ε = SδT
, where δT is change in temperature.
ε p×l
⇒S= =
δT δT
∆S ∆p ∆l ∆T
⇒ = + +
S p l T
From experimental data: when T = 99 ℃, l = 603.3 cm
∆S 0.1 1
∴ = 1.9 × 10−2 + + = 2.93 × 10−2
S 603.3 99
∆S = S × 2.93 × 10−2 = 0.17 × 10−5 V cm−1

10 Result
The Seebeck coefficient is S = (5.95 ± 0.17) × 10−5 V cm−1

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Experiment-5 Thermo-emf of a Thermocouple

11 Sources of Error
1. There might be some extra resistance due to the joints in potentiometer.
2. Potentiometer scale may have unequal graduation markings (manufactur-
ing defect) which may let the error creep in, while measuring the balancing
length.
3. There might be error in observation of zero deflection in Ballistic Gal-
vanometer while determining the null point.
4. The temperature of the cold junction of the thermocouple increases during
the course of the experiment.

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11 SOURCES OF ERROR Page 11