UNIT - III

PRODUCT PLANNING AND PROCESS PLANNING

Product planning-Extending the original product information-Value analysis-Problems in lack of product

planning-Process planning and routing-Pre requisite information needed for process planning- Steps in process
planning-Quantity determination in batch production-Machine capacity, balancing- Analysis of process
capabilities in a multi product system.

1. What is product planning?

Product planning is concerned with:
 The evaluation of the range, mix, specification and pricing of existing and new products in relation to
present and future market requirements and competition.
 Planning of product range, mix, specification and pricing to satisfy company objectives and
Specifying the research, design and development support required.

2. What is the purpose of feasibility study in relation to product planning?

The purpose of feasibility study is to extend the market analysis with the intent of arriving at a
preferred system configuration that the firm is willing to offer the product or product-mix in response to
an identified need.

3. List the information that can be obtained from the system operation concept.
 Identification of prime mission of the system
 Definition of operating characteristics of the system
 Anticipated usage of the system and its elements
 Identification of effectiveness factors

4. List the information that can be obtained from the system maintenance concept.
a. Identification of levels of maintenance support.
b. Definition of repair policies
c. Definition of effectiveness measures
d. Establishment of supportability requirements in system/ equipment design
e. Establishment of requirements for logistics support

5. List the activities of advanced product planning.

i. Product selection and justification
ii. Products specifications and plans

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iii. Product acquisition plan
iv. Product evaluation plan

6. What is value analysis? (May 2012) (May 2011) (Nov 2009) (May 2011 Reg. 2004) (April/May 2018)
(Nov/Dec 2017)
Value analysis is a disciplined approach that ensures the necessary functions at minimum cost
without comprising on quality, reliability, performance and appearance.

7. What is value? List its types (May 2011 Reg. 2004) State the types of value. (April/May 2018)
Value, in general, taking the ‘use value’ as an objective, is the ratio between the function and the cost.
Value=Function/Cost
Types of economic value: 1. Use value, 2. Esteem value, 3. Cost value, 4.Exchange value.

8. How can you increase the value of a product?

The value of a product can be increased:
i) By reducing the costs
ii) By improving function
iii) By increasing function by increasing the costs disproportionately low

9. Differentiate between primary and secondary functions with respect to value analysis.
 Primary functions are the basic functions which the product is specially designed to perform.
 Secondary functions are those which if deleted would not prevent the devices from performing its
primary functions

10. Distinguished between value analysis an value engineering

 Value analysis is the application of a set of techniques to an existing product with a view to improve
its value. Thus value analysis is a remedial process.
 Value engineering is the application of exactly same set of techniques to a new product at the design
stage itself. Therefore value engineering is a preventive process.

11. Mention any four uses of value analysis.

i. It reduces the cost of product and determines the appropriate cost for the reliable performance of
the product.
ii. It helps employees to understand their jobs in a better fashion
iii. It creates new ideas and concepts for R&D department
iv. It creates cost consciousness among the employees in the firm

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12. When do you apply value analysis?
Value analysis can be applied in case of the following indications.
i) When the firm is unable to meet delivery schedules
ii) Due to change in technology
iii) When the cost of manufacturing is high
iv) When rate of profit has a falling trend

13. List any four reasons for product’s unnecessary costs.

i) Failure to utilize specialized knowledge
ii) Poor design of the component
iii) Lack of ideas and relevant information
iv) Unavoidable delivery constraints

14. List the various phases of value analysis.

i) Orientation phase iv) Creative phase
ii) Information phase v) Evaluation phase
iii) Functional analysis

15. What is meant by process planning?

Process planning can be defined as “an act of preparing a detailed processing documentation for the
manufacture of a piece part or assembly”.

16. List out the information required for process planning. (May 2012 Regulation 2004)
1) Assembly and component drawings and bill of materials
2) Machine and equipment details
3) Standard time for each operation and details of set up time for each job
4) Availability of machines, equipment and tools.

17. What are the factors affecting production planning? (Nov/Dec 2018)
i. Volume of production
ii. The skill and expertise of man power
iii. Delivery dates for parts or products
iv. Materials specifications
v. Accuracy requirements of parts or products.

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18. What is meant by machine balancing? (Nov 2009)
Machine balancing refers to the procedure of adjusting the times at work centres to conform as
much as possible to the required cycle time.
19. List the commonly used methods to reduce the cycle time to a minimum.
i) Reduce/eliminate idle time in the bottleneck activity
ii) Reduce the independent activity time
iii) Reduce the concurrent activity time.
20. What is meant by machine loading? (April/May 2019)
Machine loading is the process of assigning specific jobs to machines, men or work centers based
on relative priorities and capacity utilization.
21. How the routing place a crucial role in process planning? (May 2013)
Improper routing place a crucial role to incomplete the jobs at right time with right quality &
guiding improper routing.
22. What do you understand by multi product system? (May 2013)
More than two product balancing problem can be analyzed by a 3-D model, in this case the
condition for full capacity being represented by planes. For any given ratio between the amount required
for more than two products.
23. What is the problem of machine balancing? (May 2012)
The operation time will not be same at all stages, instead it will vary in length across the line. Some
machines may take higher time & some lower time. This system is also known as unbalanced production.
There are two problems
 Accumulation Problem
 Waiting Problem
24. Mention the factors affecting the routing procedure. (May 2010)
 Type of manufacturing process
 Plant equipment characteristics
 Availability of plant & equipments
 Difficulties in routing due to non availability of requisite skilled man power
25. List the advantages of process planning. (May 2010)
 Low cost
 Flexible Method
 Suitable for all kinds of companies.
26. What is meant by line balancing? (Nov/Dec 2017) (April/May 2019)
Line balancing is a manufacturing-engineering function in which whole collection of production-line tasks
are divided into equal portions. Well-balanced lines avoid labour idealness and improve productivity.

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27. Mention any two methods used to evaluate the functional work of the component. (May 2009)
 Marketing & production aspects and production & economic characteristics
 Design of equipments, complexity, shape, appearance.

28. State the principle initial data required for process planning. (May 2009)
 Assembly & component drawings and bill of materials
 Machine & equipment detail
 Standard time for each operation & details of set up time for each job
 Availability of machines, equipments and tools

29. State the aims of value analysis. (May 2012 Regulation 2004)
Value analysis is a systematic application of recognized techniques which identified the functions
of a product or service, establish a monitory value for the function & provide the necessary function
reliable at the lowest over all cost

30. State the major objective of assembly line balancing. (May 2011 Regulation 2004)
It refers to the procedure of adjusting the times at work centers to conform as mush as possible to their
required cycle time

31. Write the main objective of process planning. (May 2011)

 It is the systematic determination of the methods
 Product is to be manufactured economically & competitively
 To find production cost & profitability
 To ensure the availability of materials & Tools
32. List the factors affecting production planning. (Nov/ Dec 2018)
 Process planning establishes the link between engineering design and shop floor manufacturing.
 Process planning determines how a part/product will be manufactured.
 It becomes the important determinant of production costs and profitability.
 In addition, process planning facilities the feedback from the shop floor to design engineering regarding
the manufacturability of alternative.

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 Unit-III (16 marks)
PRODUCT PLANING AND PROCESS PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
1. What is product planning? (Apr/May 2011)
 Product planning is concerned with:
i. The evaluation of the range, mix, specification and pricing of existing and new products in
relation to present and future market requirements and competition;
ii. Planning of product range, mix, specification and pricing to satisfy company objectives; and
iii. Specifying the research, design and development support required.
 Thus the product planning is not only meant for new product and also for exiting products. In fact, it
is the activity that deals with company the proper balance between exiting and new products in the
product-mix.
 The product planning can be seen as the activity which links the company with its market. Thus it is
most directly concerned with the forward development of the firm as a whole.
 Product planning function is discharged usually by the line management, within the overall
corporate plan laid down by top management.
 Product planning serves as an input to process design.

2. List the need for product planning. (April/May 2017)

The product planning stems from the identification of a need for a product. The need for a product may
evolve from several sources and they are presented under two categories.
1) Need determined from current deficiencies:
 These product needs are stimulated as a result of some problem or deficiency occurring in a
product today.
 These needs can be met through the development, production and use of a new product or
process.
2) Needs determined from anticipated deficiencies:
 Anticipated needs can be determined through the prediction of social, political, ecological,
technological, and for economical trends.
3. Explain in detail about product planning processes?
Explain important elements of product planning. (Apr/May 2011)
Explain the phrase extending the original product information. (April/ May 2017)
 The product planning process is one of the most controversial within any company.
 Everyone wants a hand in new product definition and almost everyone will have contributions that
will make a new product successful.
 With all these interested parties, we need a system to perform the product planning process.

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  The most planning process often includes the following steps:
1) Marketing and marketing analysis.
2) Performance of feasibility studies, and
3) Advanced product planning.
Marketing and Marketing Analysis
Depending upon the nature of product, the aspect of marketing differs.
 For a simple product, the marketing function may not require direct engineering involvement.
 However marketing data help in the preparation of technical material or specifications which
support the product in its promotion.
 For more complex products, the marketing effort involves a team approach, constituting the non-
technical sales and promotional orientation, with the engineering role.
 The engineering role provides the technical support to answer questions concerning product
performance features, reliability and effectiveness characteristics, and maintenance requirements
and so on.
(i) Once the need for product planning is established, it is necessary to determine whether the
technology currently exits to satisfy the need, and if not, when it will be available.
(ii) Given the availability of proper technology, the next step is to determine the potential
market share of the product through a preliminary market analysis.
(iii) It is easy to estimate the demand for the existing product. But if the product is entirely new,
it is offered to the market first time, and then a detailed market survey is to be carried out
to estimate the demand for the product.
(iv) In addition to market research to produce an input to product development, the marketing
also accomplish other functions, including analyzing sales, tracking the performance of
products and of market segments; arranging sales activities and advertising companies;
developing and managing marketing channels; managing sales personal, sales plan and
promotion.
Feasibility study
 The purpose of feasibility study is to extend the market analysis with the intent of arriving at a
preferred system configuration that the firm is willing to offer the product or product-mix in
response to an identified need.
The various element of the feasibility study include:
i. A detailed need analysis:
 Definition of system operation requirements.
 Definition of maintenance support requirements.
ii. Identification of alternative configurations;
iii. Screening and evaluation of the available alternatives; and

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 iv. Selection of a preferred approach.

1) System operation requirements

The information that can be obtained from the system operational concept includes the following
a. Identification of prime mission of the system.
b. Definition of operating characteristics (such as size, weight, accuracy, output, rate, capacity, etc)
of the system.
c. Identification of the quantity of equipment, personnel facilities, etc
d. Anticipated time that the system will be in operational use.
e. Anticipated usage of the system and its element (such as hour of operation per day, on-off
sequence, operational cycles per months, etc).
f. Identification of effectiveness factor such as dependability, reliability, mean time between
maintenance, failure rate, maintenance down time, overall effectiveness, etc).
g. Definition of environment (such as temperature, humidity, ventilation, lighting, etc.) in which the
system is expected to operate.
2) Maintenances support requirements
The information that can be obtained from the system maintenance concept includes:
a. Identification of levels of maintenance support. Levels of maintenance include organizational
maintenance, intermediate maintenance, and depot maintenance.
b. Definition of repair policies.
c. Definition of effectiveness measures.
d. Establishment of supportability requirements (such as reliability, maintainability and human
factor characteristics) in system /equipment design.
e. Establishment of requirements for logistic support. The logistic support analysis function
includes the identification of maintenance tasks, task frequencies and times, maintenance
personnel qualities and skill levels, training needs and support equipment, supply support
facilities, and data.
The output report of the feasibility study should include the following information:
 A definition of the functional configuration and physical characteristics of the system.
 A description if the system operational and maintenance support requirements.
 This information, combined with advanced with advanced planning data is reviewed to
determine to determine whether the advanced the firm should proceed further with
system development.
3) Advanced product planning
The combined results of the preliminary market analysis and the feasibility study help in justifying
the product in terms of need and technical approach.

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 The advanced product planning activities include:
(i) Product selection and justification.
(ii) Product specifications and plans.
(iii) Product acquisition plan.
(iv) Product evaluation plan
(v) Product use and logistic support plan.
(vi) System proposal.
(i) Product selection and justification
 First the selected product must be evaluated in terms of life-cycle cost.
 Life-cycle cost includes all future costs associated with planning, R&D, production and/or
construction investment, operation and support and system phase-out.
 Then a product pricing scheme must be established, with the objective of maximizing the return on
investment.
(ii) Product specifications and plans
 Product specifications cover the technical design requirements for products and planning
documentation includes all management related activity.
 The various elements of product specification include:
a. System specification. It states the technical, operational, and support requirements for a
product.
b. Development specification. It states the technical requirements for any item below the top
system.
c. Procurement specification. It states the technical requirements for any item below the top
system level for any item.
d. Process specification. It states a service (such as heat treatments, welding, packaging etc) that
is performed on any item.
e. Materials specification. It states the raw material, WIP, tools, etc. that are used in the
fabrication of a product.
(iii)Product acquisition plan
 Product acquisition refers to the process of acquiring a product or system staring from the need
identification through the delivery of the product to the end user.
 It involves research, design, production, and some test and evaluation activities.
 The information that can be obtained from product acquisition plan include
a. Definition of tasks (related to all acquisition function).
b. Scheduling of tasks (using bar charts, Gantt charts, PERT/CPM, line of balance, etc.)
c. Organization of tasks into work packages.
d. Measurement of cost, performance, and effectiveness, and their control.

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 e. Establishing a corrective active procedure.
(iv) Production evaluation plan
 Product evaluation plan (in terms of performance and effectiveness) should be established in order
to establish that the product requirements have been accomplished adequately.
 The product evaluation plan usually includes:
a. Test and evaluation requirements.
b. Categories of test and evaluation.
c. Test preparation phase.
d. Test and evaluation procedure.
e. Data collection, and retest procedures.
f. System reworks, modifications and retest procedures.
g. Test and evaluation reporting.
(v) Product use and logistic support plan
 Product use and distribution plan covers the activities of the product marketing, sales strategy, and
the deployment and distribution of the products.
 Logistic support plan describes proposed levels of maintenance and recommended functions to be
performed at each level.
(vi) System proposal
 System or product proposal represents a recommended course of action based on the results of the
technical feasibility study and the advanced product planning.
 Two broad categories of system proposals are:
a. Internal proposal. It is a proposal generated within an industrial firm and directed to top
management for approval.
b. External proposal. It is proposal generated within a firm and directed to an outside agency
(i.e., may be another firm or government organization.

4. What is Value Analysis? (Nov/ Dec 2018)

 Value analysis aims at a systematic identification and elimination of unnecessary cost resulting in the
increased use of alternatives, less expensive material, cheaper designs, less costly methods of
manufacturing etc., to provide the same performance, quality and efficiency and in a decrease of
overall costs and consequently greater profits.
 Value analysis is one of the major techniques of cost reduction and cost prevention.
 Value analysis (VA) is also known as value engineering (VE), value assurance (VA), and value
management (VM).
 Value analysis is a disciplined approach that ensures the necessary functions at minimum cost without
comprising on quality: reliability, performance, and appearance.

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5. Define value
Definition: According to the society of American value engineering (SAVE), Value analysis is the
systematic application of recognized techniques which identify the functions of a product or services,
establish a monetary value for the function and provide the necessary function reliably at the lowest overall
cost.
In other words, value analysis, also known as value engineering is an organized creative technique directed
at analyzing the functions of a product, services or a system with purpose of achieving the required
function at the lowest overall cost consistent with all the requirements, which comprise its value, such as
performance, reliability, maintainability, appearance, etc

Concept of value and function

 Value analysis is the study of function and value. Thus it is necessary to have better understanding of
words ‘function’ and ‘value’

6. What is value?
 The term value is usually difficult to define, mainly because values change from person to person.
 Generally speaking, there are seven classes of value-economic, moral, aesthetic, social, political,
religious and judicial.
 Only the economic classification can be considered to be objective.
 It is only value that can be measured.
 The other values can be evaluated only subjectively.
 Classes of economic value: Economic value may be divided into four types.
Use value
 It is the measure of properties, qualities, and features which make the product accomplish a use.
 Therefore, use value is the price paid by the buyer (buyer’s view) or the cost incurred by the
manufacturer (manufacture’s view) in order to ensure that the product performs its intended functions.
 Use value is the fundamental form of economic value.
 An item without use value can have neither exchange value nor esteem value.
Esteem value.
 It is the measure of properties, features, attractiveness, fancy packing, etc., which increase sales appeal
or which attracts customers and create in them desire to own the product.
 Therefore, the cost esteem value is the price paid by the buyer or the cost incurred by the manufacturer
beyond the use value
Cost value
 It is the measure of sum of all costs incurred in producing the product

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  Therefore, the cost value is the sum of materials cost , labour cost, tool cost, and overheads expended to
produce the product
Exchange value
 It is the measure of properties, qualities and features of the product which make the product possible of
being traded for another product or for money
 In a conventional sense, exchange value refers to the price that a purchaser will offer for the product, the
price being dependent upon the satisfaction (value) which he derives from the product.

 Value derived from the product consists of two parts:

(i) The value due to reliable performance of the product, and

(ii) The value which the possession bestows upon the buyer.
Definition of value
 Value, in general, taking the ‘use value’ as an objective, is the ratio between the function and cost.

Function

Value =
Cost

In the above expression, function is expressed as units of performance and cost is expressed as a
monetary unit (i.e., as rupees).
 Thus value is expressed as a relationship of what a product (or service/system) accomplishes and at
what cost.
 The value of a product can be increased:
(i) By reducing can be increased.
(ii) By improving function,
(iii) By (i) and (ii) together, or
(iv) By increasing function by increasing the costs disproportionately low.

7. What is the Function of value analysis?

 Function is what makes an item useful. It is the value of a product—its functional utility.
 Types of functions: Three types of functions are primary, secondary, and tertiary functions.
1. Primary function.
 Primary functions are the basic functions which the product is specially designed to perform.
 Therefore, primary functions are the most essential functions whose non-performance would make the
product worthless.
2. Secondary function.

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  Secondary function are those which if deleted would not prevent the device from performing its
primary function.
 Secondary functions are usually related to convenience. The product can still work and fulfil its
intended objective even if these functions are deleted, but they may be necessary to sell the product.
3. Tertiary function.
 Tertiary functions are usually related to esteem appearance to the product.

8. Distinguish between Value Analysis Vs Value Engineering.(Nov/Dec 2014)

 Though the terms value analysis and value engineering are used synonymously, there is a difference
between the two. The difference lies in the time and the phase of product life-cycle at which the
techniques are applied.
 Value analysis is the application of a set of techniques to an existing product with a view to improve its
value. Thus value analysis is a remedial process.
 Value engineering is the application of exactly the same set of techniques to a new product at the
design stage itself. Therefore value engineering is a preventive process.

9. What are all the Uses of Value Analysis?

 It reduces the cost of product and determines the appropriate cost for the reliable performance of
the product.
 It helps employees to understand their jobs in a better fashion.
 It creates new ideas concepts for R&D department.
 It creates cost consciousness among the employees in the firm.
 It motivates the employees to come forward with new innovative ideas.
 It provides the proper information to the management, the expenditure at each stage of
manufacturing a product.
 It helps to fulfill the customer needs.
 It prevents overdesign of components.
 It increases the profits and deflates costs.

10. When to Apply Value Analysis?

Value analysis can be applied in case of the following indications:
1. When firm is unable to meet delivery schedules.
2. Due to change in technology.
3. When rate of profit has a falling trend.
4. When the cost of manufacturing is high.
5. When the competitors prices are low as compared to those of the firm.
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 6. When the company’s products show decline in the sales.
7. Introduction of new design and effective and efficient method of manufacture.

11. List the reasons for Unnecessary Costs

In any product, there will be some necessary costs. The reasons for unnecessary costs include:
(i) Failure to utilize specialized knowledge.
(ii) Poor design of the component.
(iii) Lack of ideas and relevant information.
(iv) Lack of standardization and exaggerated specification.
(v) Unavoidable delivery constraints.
(vi) Belief in the old traditional method.
(vii) Advances in technology are not considered.
(viii) Poor production planning and control system.
(ix) Lack of communication and coordination from various departments.
(x) Poor leadership.

12. Describe the Steps in Value Analysis. (Nov/Dec 2018) (Nov/ Dec 2017)
What is value analysis? Explain briefly the Steps in Value Analysis. (Apr/May 2012, 2014, Nov/Dec
2011)
Value analysis is a disciplined approach that ensures the necessary functions at minimum cost
without comprising on quality, reliability, performance and appearance.
The basic steps of the value analysis are shown in fig.
Step 1: Identify the product
 First, the product should be identified for study.
 Value analysis can be applied to a product as a whole or its subunits.
Step 2: Collect relevant information
 The next step is concerned with collecting all relevant information regarding the identified
product from the point of view of
(i) Marketing and application,
(ii) Engineering,
(iii) Manufacturing and procurement, and
(iv) Economics.
 Some of the information needed to be collected include:
(i) Technical specifications with drawings.
(ii) Production processes, machine layout and instruction sheet.
(iii) Time study details and manufacturing capacity.

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 (iv) Complete cost data marketing details.
(v) Latest development in related products.
Step 3: Define the functions
 As we know the functional analysis is the heart of value analysis. Therefore the primary,
secondary, and tertiary functions of the identified product/part should be identified and defined.
 Also the value content of each function should be specified and the high cost areas have to be
identified.
Step 4: Create different alternatives
 Knowing the functions of each part and its manufacturing details, the next step is to generate the
ideas and create alternative ways of achieving the defined functions.
 Brain storming technique can be used generate ideas. Here it is important that all feasible and non-
feasible suggestions (alternatives) are only listed and are not discussed or evaluated.
Step 5: Critically evaluate the alternatives
 The ideas generated in the previous step are compared, evaluated, and critically assessed for their
virtues, validity and feasibility as regards their financial and technical requirements.
 Also the ideas that are technically sound and involving lower costs should be further developed.
Step 6: Develop the best alternative
 Having obtained the best alternative, then it should be converted into a prototype manufacturing
model.
 Then the prototype is finally implemented into operation and results should be recorded.
Step 7: Implement the best alternative
 Having obtained the best alternative, then it should be converted into a prototype manufacturing
model.
 Then the prototype is finally implemented into operation and its results should be recorded.

13. List the Phases of value Analysis.

Explain the main phases involved in the value analysis exercise. (Nov/Dec 2012) (April/May 2019)
The various steps involved in the value analysis can be represented as a nine phase process. The
nine phases of value analysis are presented in below list.
1. Orientation phase: Selection of specific product, methodology to be followed for investigation,
assumptions made in the investigation, data collection.
2. Information Phase: Data from different source identify the facts; arrange the facts in a proper way.
3. Functional Analysis: List the components, cost of each basic function, estimate the worth of each basic
function, and determine the value for each function.
4. Creative Phase: Creative problem solving, ideas innovations rearrange them to provide different ways to
accomplish basic functions.

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 5. Evaluation Phase: Develop creative ideas according to the sequence, create various alternatives. Select one or
more alternatives for development.
6. Development Phase: Analyze the alternatives for technical requirement, economic feasibility; select one or two
alternatives for recommendations.
7. Recommendation Phase: prepare reports, presentation of decision making authority. A definite plan of action,
approval for implementation.
8. Implementation Phase: Obtain approval to the proposal; fix responsibility for implementation, problem
identification during implementation.
9. Follow-up Phase: Compare the results which original expectations, cost saving achievements; evaluate the
effectiveness, corrective action.
14. List the Ten Commandants of Value Analysis. (April/ May 2018)
The following are the ten basic commandants of value analysis.
1. Do not use a component or part that does not contribute to the value of the product.
2. Do not use a component or part whose cost is not proportionate to its usefulness.
3. Do not provide any features to the components or the finished product that are not absolutely
necessary.
4. Accept the change if the part of required quality can be made out of superior or inferior quality
material where the overall cost is less.
5. If a part of required quality can be made by a method or process costing less, use the alternative.
6. Replace a non – standard part with a standard part wherever possible. It will cost less.
7. Use proper tooling and manufacturing methods considering the quantities required.
8. Cost of a component shall be proportional to the material used and the labour, overhead and profit
allowed.
9. Where possible, use some other material or part better suited for the purpose.
10. If a dependable supplier can provide a part for a less or a better part for the same, then do not make
it yourself.
15. List out the principles of value analysis?
1. List the functional utility.
2. Principle of balanced combination.
3. Principle of direct motivation.
4. Principle of effective communication.
5. Principle of responsibility.
6. Principle of adequate information.
7. Principle of objectivity.
8. Principle of allocation.
9. Principle of selectivity.
10. Principle of simplification.
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PROCESS PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
16. What is meant by process planning?
 It is understood that the product design for each product has been developed in the design department.
 To convert the product design into a product, a manufacturing plan is required. The activity of
developing such a plan is called process planning.
 Process planning consists of preparing set of instruction that describe how to manufacture the product
and its parts.
 The task of process planning consists of determining the manufacturing operations required to transform
a part from a rough (raw material) to the finished state specified on the engineering drawing.
 Process planning, also known as operations planning, is the systematic determination of the engineering
processes and systems to manufacture a product competitively and systems to manufacture a product
competitively and economically.
 Process planning is a detailed specification which lists the operations, tools, and facilities.
 Process planning is usually accomplished in manufacturing department.

17. Define Process Planning.

 Process planning can be defined as “an act of preparing a detailed processing documentation for the
manufacture of a piece part or assembly.”
 According to the American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers, “Process planning is the
systematic determination of the methods by which a product is to be manufactured, economically and
competitively.”
 It consists of devising, selecting and specifying processes, machine tools and other equipment to
transform the raw material into finished product as per the specifications called for by the drawings.

18. Distinguish between Process Planning Vs Product Planning.

 Process planning is concerned with the engineering and technological issues of how to make the product
and its parts. It answers the question: “what type of equipment and tooling are required to fabricate the
parts and assemble the product?”
 Product planning is concerned with the logistics issue of making the product. That is production
planning is concerned with ordering the material and obtaining the resources required to make the
product in sufficient quantities to satisfy demand for it.
 It may be noted that that always production is done only after the process planning.

17
19. List the Importance of Process Planning. (Nov/Dec2009)
 Process planning establishes the link between engineering design and shop floor manufacturing.
 Process planning determines how a part/product will be manufactured.
 It becomes the important determinant of production costs and profitability.
 Production process plans should be based on in-depth knowledge of process and equipment
capabilities, tooling availability, material processing characteristics, related costs, and shop practices.
 The economic future of the industry demands that process plans that are developed should be feasible,
low cost, and consistent with plans for similar parts.
 In addition, process planning facilities the feedback from the shop floor to design engineering
regarding the manufacturability of alternative.

20. What are the informations required for process planning. (Nov/Dec 2012)
 A detailed process plan usually contains the route, processes, process parameters, and machine and tool
selections.
 Information required for process planning: In order to prepare a process plan (also called as route
sheet), one require the following information:
1. Assembly and component drawings and bill of materials (part list): This detail give the information
regarding the general description of part to be manufactured, raw material specification, dimensions,
and tolerances required, the surface finish and treatment required.
2. Machine and equipment details:
(i) The various possible operations that can be performed.
(ii) The maximum and minimum dimensions that can be machined on the machine.
(iii)The accuracy of the dimensions that can be obtained.
(iv) Available feeds and speeds on the machine.
3. Standard time for each operation and details of setup time for each job.
4. Availability of machines, equipment and tools.

21. What are the important Responsibilities of Process Planning Engineer? (April/ May 2018)
The specialists managing the process planning task are called process engineers or process
planners. The various responsibilities of a process engineer are given below:
1. Interpreting part print analysis, and symbols.
2. Gathering the fundamental details of product design, such as
(i) Type of rough stock.
(ii) Dimensional tolerances.
(iii) Type of finish.
(iv) Production rate.

18
 (v) Production volume.
(vi) Scrap losses.
(vii) Downtime.
(viii) Design changes, etc.
3. Selecting the machining processes.
4. Selecting proper machining with allied tooling based on:
(i) required machine capability,
(ii) set-up time,
(iii) practical lot size,
(iv) quality of parts,
(v) cost of tooling, and
(vi) Type of tooling.
5. Sequencing the operations.
6. Deciding on the inspection equipment in order to meet the desired quality.
7. Determining appropriate production tolerances.
8. Determining proper cutting tools and cutting conditions.
9. Calculating the overall times using work measurement techniques.

22. What are all the Factors affecting Process Planning

 The factors affecting process planning are:
 Volume of production
 The skill and expertise of products
 Delivery dates for parts or products
 Material specifications
 Accuracy and process capability of machines
 Accuracy requirements of parts or products

23. Describe the details of Process Planning Activities. (April/May 2010,2012, 2015, Nov/Dec 2015, 2017)
What are the various steps involved in process planning? (April/May 2017) (April/May 2019)
The different steps or activities involved in process planning are: Analysis of the finished part
requirements as specified in the engineering design.
 Determining the sequence of operation required.
 Selecting the proper equipment to accomplish the required operations.
 Calculating the specific operation setup times and cycle times on each machine.
 Documenting the established process plans.
 Communicating the manufacturing knowledge to the shop floor.
19
 Analyse

paert

pa Determine

pp
Select

Calculate

Document

Communicate

The above process planning activities are diagrammatically presented

Now, we shall discuss these activities, in detail, in the following sections.
(i) Analyze Finished Part Requirements
 The first step in the process planning is to analyse the finished part requirement as specified in the
engineering design may be shown either on an engineering drawing or in a CAD model format.
 The component drawings should be analysed in detailed to identify its features, dimensions, and
tolerance format.
 The part's requirement defined by its feature, dimension, and tolerance specifications will determine the
corresponding processing requirements (such as operations encompassing part shape generation,
inspection, testing, surface coating, packing, etc.)
(ii) Determine Operating Sequence
 The second in the process planning is to determine the sequence of operation required to transform the
features, dimensions, and tolerances on the part from a rough (initial) to a coating, packaging, etc.)
 The second step process planning is to determine the sequence of operation required to transform the
features, dimensions, and tolerances on the part from a rough (initial) to a finished state.
 The basic aim of this step is to determine the type of processing operation that has the capability to
generate the various types of features, gives the requirements.
 There are two alternative ways of viewing the decision process in determining the sequence of
operation. a) Rough part to finished product and b) Finished product to rough part.
(iii)Select "Machines"
 Once the appropriate of manufacturing process has been determined, the next step in process is to select
appropriate machines, equipment, and tools to accomplish the required operation.

20
  There are many factors which influence the selection of machines.
 The following considerations are to be made while selecting a machine:
(i) Economic consideration: Dues analysis should be made with respect to the initial cost, maintenance
and running cost. An alternative which results in lower total cost should be selected.
(ii) Production rate and unit cost of production.
(iii)Durability and dependability.
(iv) Lower process rejection.
(v) Minimum set up and put away times.
(vi) Functional versatility i.e., ability to perform more than one functions.
 Machine selection generally requires determining how the part would be processed on each of the
alternative machines so that the best machine can be selected.
 Also at the machine selection phase, the firm has to decide whether to make (manufacture) or buy
(purchase) the component part.
 In this regard, break-even analysis is the most convenient method for selecting the optimum method
of manufacture or machine amongst the competing ones.
(iv) Material Selection Parameters
The selection of a sound, economic material is another important aspect of process planning. The primary
parameters affecting the choice of a material are given below:
1. Function: Many of the parameters developed for material selections are related to the product must
perform in terms of mechanical, physical, electrical, and thermal properties of materials.
2. Appearance: The aesthetic value of the material must be considered while selecting the material.
3. Reliability: Reliability is another important criterion for material selection because of increasing
consumer demands for trouble free products.
4. Service life: The length of service life over which the material maintains its desirable characteristics is a
very important consideration in material selection.
5. Environment: The environment to which the material is exposed during the product life is a very
important consideration, depending on whether the environment is beneficial or harmful.
6. Compatibility: This is an important factor influencing material selection, especially whenever more
than one type of material is used in a product or assembly.
7. Producibility: The ease of producibility of an item is an important parameter in the selection of
material.
8. Cost: The cost of the material is a significant factor contributing to the overall cost.
(v) Calculate Processing Times
 After an appropriate set of machines required is selected, the next step in process planning is to
calculate the specific operation setup times and cycle times on each machine.

21
  The determination of setup times requires knowledge of available tooling and the sequence of steps
necessary to prepare the machine for processing the given work piece.
 For establishing accurate setup times, detailed knowledge of equipment capability, tooling, and
shop practice is required.
 The calculation of part processing times requires the determination of the sequence of processing
steps on each machine. This activity is often called out-planning.
 After the given machine or processing time is calculated, the appropriate times for part loading, part
unloading, machine indexing, and other factors involved in one complete cycle for processing a part
must be included to compute the expected machine cycle time.
 With the calculated machine cycle time, allowances (for operator personal time, fatigue time, and
supplemental time) are added to calculated the standard cycle time for processing one piece.
 With the calculated cycle time, appropriate machine rates (i.e., the cost of machine ownership/use
in Rupees per unit of time) are applied to calculate the expected standard cost for the given
operation.
(vi) Document Process Planning
 Having selected the best processing alternatives and associated machines, the next step in process
planning is to document clearly all the information in detail.
 The resulting process plan is generally documented as a job routing or operation sheet.
 The operation sheet is called “route sheet”, “instruction sheet”, “Traveller” or “planner”.
 A route sheet usually provides the following information:
i. Part identification (numbers and names).
ii. Description of the processing steps in each operation.
iii. Operation sequence and machines.
iv. Standard setup and cycle times.
v. Tooling requirements
vi. Production control information showing the planning lead time at each operation.
 A typical operations or route sheet is known in fig.3.7.
 Reasons for the documentation: Process planning is essentially documented for the following three
reasons:
 To have a record on how a part is processed in order to plan future parts design requirements in a
consistent manner.
 To provide a record for future job quoting, cost estimating, and standard costing systems.
 To act as a vehicle for communication.
(vii) Communicate process knowledge
 The final step in process planning is to communicate the manufacturing knowledge to the shop
floor (through the operations sheet and process drawing).

22
  This communication is essential to ensure that the part will be processed according to the most
economically possible way determined through process planning
 Also, the process documentation and corresponding communication provide a basis for improved
part consistency and quality in manufacturing.

APPROCHES TO PROCESS PLANNING

24. Briefly discuss about the approaches of process planning. (May/June 2012)
The two general approaches to process planning are:
1. Manual process planning, and
2. Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP).
(i) Retrieval CAPP system, and
(ii) Generative CAPP system.
1. MANUAL PROCESS PLANNING
 In traditional process planning system the process plan is prepared manually.
 The task involves examining and interpreting engineering drawing, making decisions on machining
process selection, equipment selection, operations sequence, and shop practice.
 Therefore, the manual process plan is very much dependent on the skill, judgement and experience
of the process planner.
 That’s why, if different planners were asked to develop a process plan for the same part, they would
probably come up with different plans.
Advantages of Manual process Planning
 Manual process planning is very much suitable for small scale companies with few process plans to
generate.
 This method is highly flexible.
 This requires low investment costs.

Disadvantages of Manual process Planning

 Manual process planning is a very complex and time consuming job requiring a large amount of
data.
 This method requires the skilled process planner.
 More possibilities for human error because this method depends on the planner’s skill, judgement
and experience.
 It increases paper work.
 Inconsistent process plans result in reduced productivity.

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 2. COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING (CAPP)
 In order to overcome the drawbacks of manual process planning, the computer-aided process
planning (CAPP) is used.
 With the use of computer in the process planning, one can reduce the routine clerical generate
rational, consistent and optimal plans.
 In addition, CAPP provides the interface between CAD and CAM.
Benefits of CAPP
The benefits of implementing CAPP include the following:
1. Process rationalization and standardization: CAPP leads to more logical and consistent process
plans than manual process planning.
2. Productivity improvement: As a result of standard process plan, the productivity is improved (due
to more efficient utilization of resources such as machines, tooling, stock material and labour).
3. Product cost reduction: standard plans tend to result in lower manufacturing costs and high
product quality.
4. Elimination of human error
5. Reduction in time: As a result of computerizing the work, a job that used to take several days, is
now done in a few minutes.
6. Reduced clerical effort and paper work
7. Improved legibility: Computer-prepared route sheets are neater and easier to read than manually
prepared route sheets.
8. Faster response to engineering changes: Since the logic is stored in the memory of the computer,
CAPP becomes more responsive to any changes in the production parameters than the manual
method of process planning.
9. Incorporation of other application programs: The CAPP program can be interfaced with other
application program, such as cost estimating and work standards.

Quantity determination in batch production

INTRODUCTION
25. How production quantity is determined in batch production (Nov/Dec 2011, Apr/May 2015)
As discussed already, batch production falls between job shop production and mass production.
Batch production is required when a variety of products are to be made the volumes are not large enough to
demand a separate line for each product.
Batch production is necessary:
a. When the demand for a product is limited, or

24
 b. When the rate of production is higher than the rate of consumption.
 In batch production, the product is manufactured periodically in a quantity that will be sufficient to
satisfy the demand is resumed.
 In the interval between two production periods, the facility (plant and equipment) can be used for
the manufacture of a variety of goods in a similar fashion.
 Thus in batch production, a complete production cycle can be organized in such a way that each
product in turn is manufactured in quantities corresponding to the demand for it throughout the
cycle time.

26. What are the merits and demerits of Batch Production?

Merits
 It employs a process layout.
 In this, similar machines are grouped into a department.
 More flexibility than machines possible, consequently in machines.
 Better utilization of machines possible, consequently, fewer machines are required.
 Comparatively low investment in machines.
 Greater job satisfaction for the workers.
Demerits
 Since longer and irregular flow lines result, material handling is more expensive.
 Total production time usually longer.
 Comparatively large amount of WIP (work-in-process).
 High grades of skill are required

Planning for Batch Production

During the planning of batch production, there are two decisions have to be taken by operations manager.
They are:
(i) Determination of the batch size (the size of the production lot), and
(ii) Determination of batch scheduling.

27. Describe the details about STOCK CONTROL

Stock-control without buffer stock
 The following figure depicts a simple stock control model of batch production, in which the variations
in the level of the stock (Q) are plotted against time (T).

25
  In Fig, the line OA represents the production process, in which the stock is built up at the uniform rate
of p unit time. After the production period Tp, the level of stock reaches a point Q1, when production
stops.
 In Fig.3.8, the line AB represents the variation in stock due to consumption at the uniform period rate
of ‘d’ units per unit time. After the consumption period T c the level of stock would be zero, and hence
production starts again at point B.
 Thus the same cycle O-A-B can now be repeated. It may be noted that during the consumption period
Tc the facility (the equipment and the plant) can be utilised for manufacture of other products.
From triangle OAB in Fig 3.8, we can write
Q1 = p. Tp ....(i)
and Q1 = d. Tc ....(ii)
Dividing equating (i) by (ii), we get

T d
 
p

T p
c

where γ represent the ratio of production to consumption periods.

 The ratio of production to consumption is determined by the ratio of consumption to production rates.
 The ratio γ is the measure of the amount of time spent in any production cycle on one product.
 Higher value of γ, higher the production time.
 The highest value of γ is 1. γ will be 1, when rates of production and consumption are equal.
When γ =1, then batch type production becomes continuous production.
 The lowest value of γ is 0. It means, no required for production and the problem becomes
inventory problem.

Stock Control with buffer stock

In the simple stock shown in Fig.3.8, the following two unrealistic assumptions were made:
a. There is no consumption during production period.
26
 b. Buffer stock is also known as safety stock is not considered.
In practice, the consumption will be continuous and consumption will take place during production period
also.

 In Fig.3.9, at point B when the stock reaches to zero, no safety margin is left. Therefore in order to ensure
that stock level will never become zero, the warning indication should be given well in advance to start the
production, this will allow building up of the stock to a predetermined level at the completion of the
production period.
 Therefore the above two should be considered in the stock control model. Fig 3.9 shows the new stock
control pattern with buffer stock.
 From the Fig3.9, the following points may be noted:
 Instead of restarting production at point B, the production should start at point B'' in order to allow for
accumulation of stock as required at point C.
 At point B', the stock level is Q o, which represents the safety stock.The stock should not fall below Qo,
and for that production should start at point B''.
 During the production period, the stock of Qo continues to decrease to dwindle at a rate of ‘c’ units per unit
time, and a new stock (represented by the line B’’C) is built up a rate of ‘p’ units per unit time. The net
increase in stock level is given by the difference between these production and consumption rates.
 The net increase is shown by the line B’C in Fig.3.9. Thus the stock changes are represented by the lines
A-B’, B’-C, etc. It may be noted that this pattern is similar to that of Fig .3.8. except that the horizontal
axis is shifted upward by a distance of Qo from 0 to T.
The rate of increase in stock during the production period is given by
P’ = p –d ........(3.2)
The time interval available for utilizing the facilities for manufacturing other batches of products is
T = Tc – Tp –Ts .........(3.3)
Where Ts = Setup time required for preparing the machines before the production period T p
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 T = Ts-Tc γ -Ts [Tp/Tc= γ]
=Tc (1- γ)-Ts .......(3.4)
From triangle B’B’’B in Fig.3.9, we can write
Safety stock, Q0 = Tp.d ........(3.5)
Dividing equation (3.5) by (i), we get

Q d
 
p

Q p

28. How to determine batch sizes?

Two types of costs associated with lot manufacture are:
1. Setup costs: Batch production involves a setup cost, each time a batch is produced.
Setup cost is roughly equivalent to the ordering cost per order.
Setup cost includes:
(i) Cost of releasing work orders, shop orders, stores requisitions, tool requisition, etc.
(ii) Cost of first off inspection, cost of rejections till machine setup is ready for production run.
(iii) Machine setup cost for mounting accessories, tools, jigs and fixtures on the machine.
(iv) Cost of dismantling the setup after the production run.
2. Inventory carrying costs: These costs are incurred on the finished product from the time it is
manufactured until it is finally sold.
Inventory carrying cost includes:
(i) Cost of working capital tied in average inventory.
(ii) Cost of handling and storing the production parts.
(iii) Insurance charges and taxes.
(iv) Cost of spoilage and obsolescence, etc.

29. How to determine Trade-off Costs?

 A key trade-off in the determination of the lot size for an item is between setup costs and inventory
carrying costs.
 In batch production, if the stock level is kept too low (that is, a small batch is produced), then setup
costs per unit and the setup time would be high.
 Also it may not be possible to produce the required quantities of all items within the specified time
period if these small lot sizes are employed.
 To overcome this problem, larger lot sizes may have to be employed. However, if large batch is
production and stocked, high inventory carrying costs are incurred.
28
  Hence, it is necessary to compute economic batch quantity while maintaining feasibility in scheduling
batches of such lot sizes for the items to be produced.

30. What are the Factors affecting the Selection of batch sizes?
While determine the batch sizes, the following factors should be taken into consideration.
1. Setup costs of machines and other costs preparation for the run.
2. Consumption rate.
3. Production rate.
4. Interest charge per piece per unit time.
5. Average storage costs.
6. Sales price per unit.

31. What are the Criteria for Selection of batch sizes?

The four criteria for the selection of batch sizes are:
1. Minimum costs per piece.
2. Maximum profit for the batch.
3. Maximum ratio of profit to cost of production (also known as maximum return).
4. Maximum rate of return per unit time.
However, from our subject point of view the first criterion is important and is discussed below.
32. Explain how production quantity is determined in batch production (Nov/Dec 2011,2012,2014,2015,
April/May 2015). How will you determine minimum cost batch size. (April/May 2018)
The production costs per piece consist mainly of four factors:
1. Constant costs per piece (c):
It includes material costs, labour cost, and overheads.
C=M+L+O
Where M=Materials cost,
L=Labours cost, and
O=Overheads.
2. Setup costs per batch (S):
It includes costs of drawings, planning, setting-up of machines and equipment, etc.
3. Carrying cost (I):
It is the interest carrying costs paid on the invested in items kept in stock.
I = iC
Where I = Carrying cost per unit time,
i = Interest paid on the money invested, and
C= Constant cost per piece.

29
From Fig3.9, the average level of the stock during the consumption period Tc=1/2(Q+Qo).
Carrying costs for the stock for the consumption period T c = I(Q+Qo / 2 ) Tc
Substituting Tc = Q/d and dividing by Q, we get
Carrying costs per piece = I/2d Q (1+γ)
4. Storage carrying costs:
If the average storage costs per piece is B per unit time, then for the consumption period Tc,
Storage carrying cost = BTc = BQ/ d
Then total cost per can be written as
Y =Constant costs per piece + Preparation costs per batch + Interest carrying cost
+
Storage carrying cost
Y = C+ S/Q = Q/2d [I (1+ ) + 2B]
Fig.3.10 illustrates the relationship between the various cost associated with production.

The equation (3.12) can be rewritten as

Y = C+ S/Q + KQ
Where K Carrying costs factor = [I (1+ )+2B] / 2d
To find the point which the total costs piece are minimum,
dY/dQ=0
Differentiating equation (3.13) with respect to the Q and equating to zero, we get
-S/Q2+K = 0

Qm= Where Qm is known is known minimum cost batch size or economic batch size.

It is clear that Qm carrying cost per piece and preparation cost per piece are equal.
i.e S/Qm = K Qm.
Minimum total production cost per piece
Ym = C + S/Qm + K Qm
= C + + S/Qm + + S/Qm
Ym = C + 2S/ Qm

30
 Ym = C +2K Qm
Ym = C + [I (1+ )+2B/ 2d] Qm

Problem 1: A product is sold at a rate of 400 pieces a day and is manufactured at a rate of 2000 pieces a
day. The setup costs of the machines are Rs. 5000 and the storage costs are found to be Rs.0.015 per unit per
day. Labour charges are Rs.120, materials Rs. 80, and overhands Rs. 160 per piece. If the interest charges
are 13% per cent, find the minimum-cost batch size and the costs of the production run. Assume 300
working days in a year.

Given Data: Demand rate d = 400 pieces/ day; Production rate, p = 2000 pieces/ day;
Set up cost S = Rs. 5000, storage costs = Rs.0.015 per unit per day, Labour cost, L = Rs. 120, Materials
cost, M = Rs.80 Overhead, O = Rs. 160; Interest charge, i = 13%.

To find: (i) Minimum-cost batch size (Qm), and

(ii) Cost of the production run.
Solution:
(i) Minimum-cost batch size (Qm):
We know that, = 400/2000 = 0.2

The given annual interest rate (i) has to be converted into interest charges per day, taking 300 working days
in a year.
i.e i= 13% = 13/100 per year
= 13/100 x 1/300 = 4.33 x10-4per day
We know that,
Constant costs, C = L + M +O
=120 + 80 + 160 = Rs.360 per piece
Carrying costs, I = iC
=4.33x10-4 x 360
= Rs. 0.156 piece per day.
We know that the minimum- cost batch size,

2dS
Qm 
I (1   )  2 B

2  400  5000
Qm 
0.156(1  0.2)  (2  0.015)

=4291.42 units≈4292 units

31
 (ii) Cost of production run
We know that the total production costs per piece,
2S
Ym  C 
Qm
2  5000
Ym  360 
4292
=Rs.362.33 per piece

Production costs per production run = Ym x Qm

=362.33X4292
=Rs.15,55,120

Problem 2: Machine components supplied to the assembly shop are production in a plant at the rate of
125piece/day. A cost analysis showed that the constant production costs per piece, including labor, material,
and overhead, amount to Rs.210 per piece, and the storage costs are Rs. 0.025 per piece per day. If the
preparation and machine setup costs for a production run amount to Rs. 2000 and the assembly bay is using
50 pieces per day. Find the minimum- cost batch size and the length of the production run. Also estimate
the production cost per production run. Assume interest charges are 15 per unit and 300 working days in a
year.
Given Data: Production rate, p = 125 pieces/day; Constant cost per pieces, C = Rs.210; Storage cost, B =
Rs. 0.025 per piece per day; Setup cost, S = Rs.2000; Demand rate , d = Rs.50 pieces per day; i = 15%.

To find:
(i) Minimum –cost batch run (Qm),
(ii) Length of the production run (Tp), and
(iii)Production cost per production run.

Solution:
(i) Minimum-cost batch size (Qm):
We know that, = 50/125 = 0.4

The given annual interest rate (i) has to be converted into interest charges per day, taking 300 working days
in a year.
15
I = 15% = per year
100

32
 15 1
=  =5 X10-4 per day
100 300

Carrying costs, I =iC

=5 X10-4X210 =0.105 per piece per day
We know that the minimum- cost batch size,

2dS
Qm 
I (1   )  2 B

2  50  2000
Qm 
0.105(1  0.4)  (2  0.025)

=1007.58 ≈ 1008 units

(ii) Length of the production run (Tp):

We know that the length of the production run (excluding setup time),
Qm
Tp 
p
1008
Tp  = 8.064 days
125

(iii) Production run

We know that the total production costs per piece,
2S
Ym  C 
Qm
2  2000
Ym  360 
1008

=Rs.213.97 per piece

Production costs per production run = Ym x Qm

=213.97X1008
=Rs.2, 15,680

33
Machine capacity
Introduction
So far we have determined the production quantities either by definite orders or through batch-size
calculations in case of batch production. Also the process planning details are already obtained through the
operations route sheets. Now let us focus on the next activity of PCC-machine loading and scheduling.
33. What is meant Machine Loading? (May/Jun 2012)
 Machine loading is the process of assigning specific jobs to machines, men or work centers based
on relative priorities and capacity utilization.
 Obviously, machines have to be loaded according to their capability of performing the given task
and according to their capacity.
 Machine loading should be carried out in accordance with routing so that smooth workflow can be
ensured.
 Machine loading should ensure maximum possible utilisation of production facilities and should try
to avoid bottlenecks in production.
 In machine loading, appropriate allowance for setup of machine process adjustments and
maintenance overtime have to be made.

34. What are the informations required for Machine Loading?

The various information’s required for machine loading and scheduling which are derived from
the operations/route sheet include:
(i) Number and identification of work order.
(ii) Symbol and/or identification of a part/product.
(iii)Number of parts in each lot.
(iv) List of operations to be performed.
(v) Sequence in which these operations are performed.
(vi) Specifications of machines and equipment required.
(vii) Necessary toolings, jigs, and fixtures.
(viii) Estimated or processing times of each operations for the whole order or batch.
(ix) Information about the dates on which the part should be finished.
The above information are usually presented using the master production program and machine loading
chart.
35. List the Master production program and machine loading chart.
Master production program
The informations required for machine loading and sequence are usually present in a graphical form
known as a master production program.
Fig. 3.11 depicts a typical master production program used for machine loading.

34
Machine loading chart
Machine loading chart, also known as machine loading card, is a display of the available
capacity of a machine or workstation along with information whether it is overloaded or under loaded.
The machine loading chart contains information about the basic capabilities and specifications of
the machine, data about its details about commitments already assigned to the machine.

35
36. Distinguish between Machine output Vs cycle time
It is understood that machine output is inversely proportional to the cycle time.
In other words, lower the cycle time higher the machine output and vice versa.
Let T = Cycle time in minutes, and
Qth= Theoretical output per machine.
Qth= 60/T units/hour .....(3.17)
Fig. 3.13 represents the relationship between machine output and cycle time graphically.

 The cycle time is determined by the total activity time.

 Here it may be noted that whenever activities are carried out concurrently, there time for only one
activity should be taken into account.
 Thus in order to increase the machine capacity/machine output, one needs to find the ways to
reduce the cycle time.

37. Distinguish between Actual Machine output (Q) Vs Theoretical Machine Output (Qth)
 The equation (3.17) gives us the theoretical machine output. But in practice, the actual output Q
tends to fall below the theoretical machine output value Qth.
 This is because always there will be some time loss in delays between cycles, adjustments, repairs,
breakdowns, etc.
Therefore we can write
Q = α Qth
 Here is a coefficient that describes quantitatively the discrepancy between the theoretical are actual
machine output values. Also the value will be in between 0 and 1.
 The coefficient is dependent on the cycle time T, as shown in

36
 36. List the Methods to reduce cycle Time. (May/Jun 2011)
Some commonly used methods to reduce the cycle time to a minimum are given below.
Method 1: Reduce/eliminate idle time
Idle time refers that one partner is waiting, of the other complete his task. The idle time in the bottleneck
activity may be reduced / eliminated by:
(a) Changing the sequencing of operations.
(b) Eliminating delays at end of cycles.
Method 2: Reduce the independent activity time
Independent activity is performed by one of the partners without need for services of another partner. The
independent activity time can be reduced by:
(a) Increasing the running speeds, feeds, etc.
(b) Selecting a better machine for the job.
(c) Transferring a part of the operations to another machine or another operator.
Method 3: Reduce the concurrent activity time
Concurrent activity is nothing but the activity undertaken by several partner. The concurrent activity time
can be reduced by:
(a) Using better methods and jigs for feeding the work to the machine for loading and setting.
(b) Setting the work and carrying out most of the preparatory tasks while the machine is running.
(c) Ejecting automatically the finished work the machine.

Illustration 1: Reduction in cycle time by changing the sequence of operations

Consider a multi activity chart (man-machine chart) shown in Fig 3.15 (a). Let us calculate the machine
output Qth for the machine shown in Fig.3.15(a).

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 (a) Original work cycle
Cycle time, T = Unloading time +Inspection time+ Loading time+ Machine running time
= 0.5 + 1+1+2 = 4.5 min
Machine output, Qth = 60/T = 60/4.5 = 13.33 units per hour

(b) Improved work cycle

The machine output can be increased by reducing the cycle time.
The cycle time for Fig.3.1 can be reduced by transferring the task of inspection that is carried out
while the machine is running, as shown in Fig. 3.15 (b).
New cycle time, T = Unloading time+ Loading time + Machine running time.
= 0.5 + 1 + 2 = 3.5 Min
Machine outputs Qth = 60/T = 60/3.5 = 17.14 units per hour
Thus the cycle this can be reduce by changing the sequence of operations.

BALANCING (MACHINE BALANCING)

37. What is meant by Balancing? (Nov/Dec 2012)
What is machine balancing? (Nov/Dec 2018)
 Once the cycle times in the production line have been set, the production capacity of all work
centers must be adjusted to conform to those cycle times.
 The adjustment can involve (i) Increasing capacity at bottleneck operations; (ii) decreasing capacity
at non-bottlenecks; (iii) reconfiguring tasks at workstations.
 Balancing refers to the procedure of adjusting the times at work centres to conform as much as
possible to the required cycle time.

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  A balanced process is one where the actual cycle times at every stage are equal.
 Strictly speaking, the goal of achieving a completely balanced process is appropriate only in
processes that are paced, that is, where material moves on a conveyor or chain at a constant speed
past workstations. Such is the case of product layouts.
 In other processes that are similar to job shops and where many products and routings are involved,
the goal of a balanced process is inappropriate.
 Seeking to balance a process around one product or routing in such cases makes it more difficult to
adapt the operation to accommodate many routings and products.

Problems on machine balancing (Nov/Dec 2012)

1. Balanced Process
 Consider a product that undergoes a sequence of operations through five machines A, B, C, D as
shown in Fig.3.16. Here we can say that operations are done in five stages (i.e, in five machines).

 In Fig.3.16, let the operations time at all stages is same, say 1 min. This is also known as paced
production line.
 In such cases, the cycle time will be 1 min. That is at a time interval of 1 min, one unit of product
will be produced. Since the actual cycle times at every stage are equal, therefore this process is
known as balanced process. Thus we get perfect matching of the stages in the sequence.
2. Unbalanced process
 In actual practice, the operation time will not be same at all stages instead it will vary in length
across the line. Some machines may takes higher and some lower time.
 Consider the five-stage production line, as shown in Fig.3.17. This system is also known as
unplaced production line.

 In Fig.3.17, it may be seen that the operation time vary across stages. Here stage 1 requires 0.1 min,
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 stage 2 requires 0.3 min, stage 3 needs 0.1 min, stage 4 needs 0.5 min, and stage 5 needs 0.2 min.
Accumulation problem
 Now consider stages 3 and 4. Since the machine (at stage 3) has a higher output than the machine 4
(at stage 4), the semi- finished components at the end of stage 3 will be accumulated at the input to
the machine 4 and a queue will be formed. If the machine 3 goes on producing, the queue length
will constantly increase.
Waiting problem (or starving) problem
 On the order hand, consider stages 4 and 5. Since the machine 4 (at stage 4) is slower than the
machine 5, therefore there will not be any queue in front of the 5 th machine. Instead, the machine 5
is idle for some time and is waiting for the components to be released from machine 4.
Thus in the unpaced production line, we may be faced with accumulation and/or waiting problems
in between the stages. This mismatch is the problem of machines balancing.
In other words, the problem of machine balancing is that of equalizing the idle times at the different
stages on the line and matching or balancing, the output.
Effect of balancing on number of machines required (Nov/Dec 2018)
 The effect of balancing on number of machines required is better explained with the help of
following example problem.

Problem 3: A product has to undergo 10 stages in the production sequence. Table 3.3 shows the
preparation time and machine time for those 10 stages.
Table: 3.3:

Operation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.6
Preparation Time (min)

0.8
Machine Time (min) 9.6 0.4 0.9 1.3 4.6 2.2 2.6 2.4 3.0

i. Determine the total operation time cycle time, the output of the line and the efficiency of the actual
given production sequence.
ii. It is required that the cycle time to be reduced to 5 min. Explain how it can be accomplished.
iii. Also determine the output and efficiency of the new cycle.

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Solution:

Preparation Machine Time t2 Total operation time

Operation
Time t1 (min) (min) (t=t1+t2) (min)

1 0.2 0.8 1.0

2 0.4 9.6 10.0

3 0.2 0.4 0.6

4 0.1 0.9 1.0

5 0.1 1.3 1.4

6 0.2 4.6 4.8

7 0.2 2.2 2.4

8 0.2 2.6 2.8

9 0.2 2.4 2.6

10 0.6 3.0 3.6

Total 2.4 27.8 30.2

(i)To find
total operation time, cycle time, cycle output and efficiency of the current production line.
The total operation time can be calculated as shown in table below:

From the above table, the total operation time = 30.2 min Ans
The operation time for all the 10 stages are graphically represented in Fig 3.18
 In this unpaced production line, the production times vary at the various stages; from 0.6 min to
10.0 min (refer above table).
 It may be noted that the cycle time or the “pace” of production is determined by the slowest
operation (i.e., bottleneck operation) in the sequence. In this case, obviously, the machine at stage
2, which requires 10.0 minutes, is the bottleneck”.

We know that,
Then, Cycle output Qth = 60/T units per hour
Qth = 60/10.0 = 6 units per hours Ans

In general, the efficiency of a sequence of stations is determined by

Workcontent
Efficiency= 100
No.Workststions  cycletime

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In this case,
Efficiency= {(Total operation time}/(No.of machines X Cycle time)}X100
30.2
Efficiency=  100 =30.2%
10  10
To suggest a new so that to achieve the cycle time of 5 min:
The current cycle time of the line is 10 min but now our aim is to reduce it from 10 min to 5 min. In
order to speed up production, we have to assign another machine 2 to the stage 2 (i.e., duplicate machine 2,
which performs the bottleneck operation), as shown in Fig 3.18(b), with two machines at stages 2, now we
can produce two units per 5 minutes.
Thus the cycle time for the new line would be 5 minutes.

To find output and efficiency of the new line:

Total operation time of the new line = 30.2 min
Cycle time of the new line = 5 min
Output of the new line, Qth = 60/T = 60/5
= 12 units per hour Ans

 It may be noted that due to machine balancing, the line output has increased from 6 to 12 units per
hour.
Efficiency = {(Total operation time}/ (No. of machines X Cycle time)} X 100
Efficiency = 30.2 / 11 x 5 = 54.9%

 It can also be seen that due to machine balancing, the line efficiency has increased from 30.2% to
54.9%.
 In the same manner, the next bottleneck stage can be found, and then another machine can be
introduced at that stage. The same procedure may be continued till we meet the target cycle time.
 They can then continue the above problem with a target time 2.8 min.
 They can then determine and appreciate (i) number of new machines have to be assigned?: (ii)
increased in line output, and (iii) increase in line efficiency.

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ANANLSIS OF PROCESS CAPACITIES IN A MULTIPROCUCT SYSTEM
38. Explain analysis of process capabilities of multi product system. (Apr/May 2010, 2017, Nov/Dec
2009, 2012, 2014)
Estimating capacity
 We have considered the balancing of machines for the production of single product only. That is, we
have taken a single product which has undergone several stages for its manufacture. Now, we shall
discuss the balancing for the production of multiproduct.
 Using the various stages in the production sequence. The problem of matching the capacities of the
various stages in the production sequence for a multiproduct, system, is better explain with the help
of the example, given below.

Problem 4: Two products A and B are products in a plant which have to be process though five stages for
each, which employed for one product only, is given below.
Stage Product A (min/Unit) Product B (min/Unit)

I 0.3 0.5

II 0.4 0.4

III 0.6 -

IV 0.5 0.375

V - 0.3

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Assume 8 hours/day working. Describe graphically the maximum plant capacity for any combination of
quantities output A and B in the schedule.
Solution:
For 8 hrs/day working we have 8 x 60 = 480 min/day of working time. Using this, maximum output of
each stages can be calculated as below.
Stage Product A (Units/Day) Product B (Units/Day)

I (480min/day)/ (0.3 min/unit) = 1600 480/0.5 = 960

II 480/0.4 = 1200 480/0.4 = 1200

III 480/0.6 = 800 -

IV 480/0.5 = 960 480/0.3755 = 1289

V - 480/0.3 = 1600

Graphical representation of process capacity

 The capacity of stage I can be represented graphically, as shown in Fig.3.20, the output of product
Ais represented on the X-axis and the output B is represented on the Y-axis.
 When only product A is production, the maximum output of 1600 units is marked on the X-axis;
similarly, when only product B is production, the maximum output of 960 units is marked on the Y-
axis. Any combination of the two products, if stage I is employed at full capacity, is given by point
on the straight on the straight line indicated.

 Thus in Fig.3.20, the straight line represents the full capacity of stage I. The region above the full capacity
line refers to output values that cannot be achieved by stage I. The region/points below the full capacity
line refer to production below full-stage capacity.
 In the same fashion, process capacities of all the five stages can be drawn graphically, on a single graph, as

44
 shown in Fig.3.21.

 In Fig.3.21, stage III is represented by a vertical line since stage III is not employed for the manufacture of
product B.
 Similarly stage V is represented by a horizontal line as stage V is not required for product A.

Analysis
The graphical representation, shown in Fig.3.21, gives immediately which process limit the output.
Case 1:
For example, if we wish to production only product A, the limiting process is given by stage III,
along the line 1-2 in Fig.3.21. Here stage III is the bottleneck as it involves the longest operation time per
unit and the maximum output is 800 units/day. But at the same time all the other stages will be idle for
atleast some time (in fact, stage will be idle through). We can increase our total output by using some of
the available machine time for producing product, B and for a while this will not affect the output of A,
since stage III is not at all required for product B. The maximum output for B can be achieved maintaining
the A’s output at 800 units level. This is shown by point 2 in Fig.3.21, which is the point of intersection of
the line representing stage III with that of stage IV.

Now let us find the value of xA and xB at point 2:

Let xA = Amount produced of product A, and
xB = Amount produced of product B.

Equation for stage III (Fig.3.21) is given by

xA = 800
and equation for stage IV (Fig.3.21) is given by
xA / 960 + xB / 1280 = 1

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 xA + 0.75 xB = 960
Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get
Value of xA at point 2, (xA)2 = 800 units and
Value of xB at point 2, (xB)2 = 214 units

Case (ii)
For example, if we want to products only product B, the limiting process is given by stage I, along
the line 2-3 in Fig.3.21. As the amount for product B increases, that for product A decreases. The
maximum total output is at the point 3, which is the point od intersection of line representing the stage I
and with is the point of intersection of line representing the stage I and with that of stage IV,
The value of xA and xB at point 3 can be obtained as below:
xA / 1600 + xB / 960 = 1
xA + 1.67 xB = 1600
Equation for stage I (Fig.3.21) is given by
And equation for stage IV is given by
xA + 0.75 xB = 960

On solving equation (ii) and (iii), we get

Value of xA point 3, (xA)3 = 438 units
I Value of xB at point 3, (xB) = 696 units
Case (iii):
Further increases in product B is limited by stage IV along the line 3-4.

Conclusions:
 Thus conditions of maximum capacity is given by the broken line 1-2-3-4, different processes/ stages being
the limiting factor, depending on the ‘mix’ or balance the amounts for the two products.
 Any point inside the region 0-1-2-3-4 indicates that the plant will not be operating at maximum capacity.
 It may be noted that stages II and V do not impose any restrictions on the maximum output because at no
point on the line 1-2-3-4 are these two stages fully employed.
 Therefore it would be useless to spend money and increase the capacity of these two stages, as the
restriction lies in the other processes.

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Machine Time Efficiency

 It is necessary to compute the machine time efficiency. When the maximum capacity of a machine or a
process is given in the figure and the machine is operating at point P, the time utilisation is denoted by the
intercept of a parallel line through point P(if this time is measured by output of product A)

It the same manner, efficiency at point P

Machine Time Efficiency at point P = 1250/ 1600 x 600 = 78.12 %
Machine Time Efficiency at point Q = 1000/1600 x 100 = 62.5 %
In the same manner, machine- time efficiencies for all the five stages (show in Fig, 3.21) at various points
can be obtained.

Multiproduct Analysis
 The Production of balancing of one product is a one-dimensional model. In this, the condition for full
capacity of the processes is represented by a series of points on a straight line.
 The problem of balancing of two products is analysed by a two dimensional model. In this the condition
for full capacity is represented by straight lines. For any given ratios between the amounts required for two
products, a point of full balance can be determined.
 A three- product balance problem can be analyzed by a three dimensional model. In this case, the
conditions for full capacity are being represented by planes.

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Illustration of a three-product problem

Process I Process II

Product A 50 units/ hr 70 units/ hr

Product B 80 units/ hr 50 units/ hr

Product C 20 units/ hr 50 units/ hr

Consider a three- product system, for which there are two processes, and their maximum outputs are given
below.
Let xA = Amount of product A,
xB = Amount of product B, and
xC = Amount of product C.
The maximum capacity of process I is given by
xA / 50 + xB / 80 + xC / 20 =1
and the maximum capacity of process II is given by
xA / 70 + xB / 50 + xC / 50 =1

 These two equations are shown graphically as two planes, as shown in Fig.3.23. The intercepts of
these planes at the axis nothing but the maximum output values denotes in the table.
 In Fig.3.23, the following points may be noted:
 Maximum capacity for process I is described by the plane 1-3-7-1.
 Maximum capacity for process II is described by the plane 2-6-8-2.
 Therefore the maximum capacity of the processes would be given by the ‘lower’ plane the plane
2-4-1-3-5-2.

48
  The point below this surface would correspond to operation below full capacity. The line 5-4
indicates the intersection of the two planes of processes I &II.

n-Product system
 In case of n-product system (i.e when we have more than three products), it is very difficult to present the
n- dimensional system in a graphical form.
 The analysis of n- product system is also basically the same as that for two- or three- product system.
But the capacity restrictions are expressed by linear equations in the following form:

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 +........ an xn A
b1 x1 + b2 x2 + b3 x3 +........ bn xn B
c1 x1 + c2 x2 + c3 x3 +........ cn xn C
and so on.

where x1 = Amount of product 1

x2 = Amount of product 2
x3 = Amount of product 3
xn = Amount of product n

A = Capacity of process1
B = Capacity of process2
C = Capacity of process3
The inequality symbol indicates that capacities cannot exceed the maximum values on the right.

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