The Impact of COVID 19 On The Construction Industry and Lessons Learned A Case of Sri Lanka

International Journal of Construction Management
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The impact of COVID-19 on the construction

industry and lessons learned: a case of Sri Lanka
Nayana Niroshana, Chandana Siriwardana & Ravindu Jayasekara
To cite this article: Nayana Niroshana, Chandana Siriwardana & Ravindu Jayasekara (2022):
The impact of COVID-19 on the construction industry and lessons learned: a case of Sri Lanka,
International Journal of Construction Management, DOI: 10.1080/15623599.2022.2076016
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2022.2076016
The impact of COVID-19 on the construction industry and lessons learned: a case
of Sri Lanka
Nayana Niroshana, Chandana Siriwardana and Ravindu Jayasekara
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Katubedda, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The Sri Lankan construction industry has experienced rapid development in the post-war era due to new Construction industry;
trends in the country. Currently, the construction industry in the country is experiencing difficulties due COVID-19; workforce
to the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Even before the pandemic, the industry has been struggling management; health and
safety; emergency
due to issues that affect its productivity, such as lack of skilled labourers and low levels of health and preparedness; dengue
safety in sites. In such a context this paper aims at identifying and evaluating the challenges posed by
the pandemic. Seventy responses were obtained from officials in the top and middle levels of manage-
ment in different construction companies in the country through an online survey. Challenges and solu-
tions have been identified and analysed under four key areas namely, workforce management, health
and safety, welfare facilities, and emergency preparedness. The findings of the study can aid construction
professionals with shaping up construction projects beyond COVID-19. Accordingly, the industry needs
several efforts in regard to legislative enactments, administrative support, education and training, and
review and evaluation.
Introduction nature of work at these sites, labourers often have to work

closely, share tools, attend to hard work, attend pocket meetings
The post-war era in Sri Lanka has urged the government and
and adhere to common meals or tea breaks. These working con-
both local and foreign private sectors to invest copiously in mega
ditions heighten the potency of epidemics to spread rapidly
development projects. (Silva et al. 2015). New trends in the Sri
among construction workers (CIDA 2020a). Illustrating an
Lankan real estate sector such as the government’s infrastructure
example from Singapore, the second wave of the COVID-19 out-
development projects and luxury apartments and hotels have
break in the country originated from migrant labour dormitories
become major reasons for the growth in the construction indus-
where living conditions are extremely poor (Tan et al. 2020).
try (Jayalath and Gunawardhana 2017). The share of construc-
tion activities to the GDP in Sri Lanka was recorded as 7.5% in Furthermore, construction labour productivity in Sri Lanka is
2019 (Department of Census and Statistics 2019). According to considered low compared to other countries in the region (CEIC
the Department of Census and Statistics (2020), 693,205 persons Data 2020).
are employed in construction, electricity, gas, steam and air con- Amidst these issues, the COVID-19 pandemic has posed its
ditioning supply, water supply, sewerage, waste management, unprecedented impacts on the construction industry. Around the
and remediation activities currently in Sri Lanka (Department of time of commencing this study, Sri Lanka was facing the second
Census and Statistics 2020). However, the Sri Lankan construc- wave of the pandemic with a count of over 23,000. Around 500
tion industry has been recently plagued by issues such as short- new cases were reported daily urging the authorities to impose
age of labourers, high construction costs, and low construction strict containment measures (Epidemiology Unit 2020a). The
productivity (Wijeratne 2019). degree of impact on the construction industry has varied due to
By its nature, the construction industry is highly vulnerable to factors such as the severity and timing of the pandemic and gov-
external shocks and stresses such as economic downfalls since ernment measures (RICS 2020). In Sri Lanka, the COVID-19
the entire process of the construction sector crosses all sectors of pandemic had resulted in the temporary closure of almost all
the economy of a country (Pheng and Hou 2019; Pheng and construction sites including those run by both public and private
Zheng 2019). The crisis in the construction industry after the sectors since the second week of March 2020 (CIDA 2020a).
Easter Sunday Attack 2019 has evidenced this dependency. As a PWC has ranked the construction industry among the five
result of this tragic event, experts claimed that the Sri Lankan industries which are at comparatively more risk than others in
construction industry has experienced a huge shock due to the Sri Lanka (PWC 2020). Even without the impacts of crises like
slow economic growth in the country (Daily News 2019). COVID-19, the performance of the construction industry is con-
Furthermore, the construction industry is considered a complex sidered inadequate due to reasons such as the low level of occu-
field due to the risk, dynamic environment, and challenges pational health and safety and productivity. Therefore, major
(Wood and Gidado 2008). In the Sri Lankan context, occupa- shifts are needed in the industry. It is anticipated that the
tional health and safety have become a major concern since it is impacts and trends of COVID-19 will pace up the required
a neglected aspect in many construction sites. According to the changes radically (McKinsey and Company 2020). For instance,
CONTACT Chandana Siriwardana [email protected]

ß 2022 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 N. NIROSHANA ET AL.
construction companies have started to focus more on offsite Occupational health and safety in Sri Lankan
construction, distant work, renewable energy, health and sanita- construction sites
tion, etc. (Jones et al. 2020; Kaklauskas et al. 2021). Furthermore,
The construction industry is considered as one of the most dan-
identifying and prioritizing the needs of clients in the construc-
gerous industries due to the risky working conditions that char-
tion industry is needed in post-disaster situations (Aliakbarlou acterize them. Construction labourers are three times more likely
et al. 2021). to die at sites and two times more likely to be injured than
In such a context, this study has aimed at answering the ques- labourers in other fields (Pinto et al. 2011; Sherratt et al. 2013).
tion of what are the challenges posed by COVID-19 on the Sri With new trends towards complex construction projects, the
Lankan construction industry. This paper consists of an analysis number of accidents in construction sites has risen considerably
of results obtained through a questionnaire survey that covered (Anfas et al. 2017). Especially in developing countries, the
the top and middle management levels in the Sri Lankan con- reported number of construction accidents and deaths associated
struction industry. The challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic with them is considerably high (Durdyev et al. 2017; Nawaz
were analysed under four key areas in construction projects et al. 2020). The frequency of accidents in construction sites in
namely, workforce management, health and safety, welfare facili- Sri Lanka is also considered relatively high. Annually, 2,500-
ties, and emergency preparedness. Additionally, this paper 3,000 accidents are reported to the Labour Department in the
includes recommendations in mitigating the identified impacts of country and 40% to 60% of these accidents are considered fatal
the pandemic. The outputs of the study can be utilized in shap- (Darshana 2017). Lack of funds, poor knowledge and training,
ing up the construction industry to the new normal, COVID-19. and poor attitude of workers are identified as major reasons for
the low level of health and safety at construction sites in Sri
Lanka (Siriwardana and Wickramasinghe 2018).
According to a study conducted by De Silva et al. (2018),
Literature review 80% of fatal accidents in Sri Lankan construction sites have not
been reported effectively. Therefore, the unavailability of reliable
Sri Lankan construction industry and its vulnerabilities data on accidents due to improper recording has become a major
Being the fourth highest industry in Sri Lanka next to services, reason behind the increasing number of construction accidents
manufacturing, and agriculture in terms of Gross Domestic in the country. Furthermore, unavailability of health and safety
Product (GDP), the construction industry has been vested with a policies, outdated guidelines, lack of training for workers on
pivotal role in the country’s economy (CBSL 2019). But the con- health and safety, poor risk assessment can be recognized as
struction industry is experiencing difficulties due to several severe issues characterizing the current construction field in the
country (Darshana 2017). The need for heightening the interest
causes such as crises in the country, skilled labour shortage, and
of professionals to actively engage in safety management and
low productivity. The demand for skilled labourers in the coun-
awareness programmes has been greatly highlighted in past stud-
try is currently much higher than for unskilled labourers
ies (Vitharana et al. 2015). Especially, conducting training on the
(Pathirana 2021). The ageing skilled labour force is one of the
use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is considered para-
main reasons behind this issue. Furthermore, factors such as mount (Galappaththi et al. 2013). Negligence of these problems
unattractive job titles, uncertainty, lack of worker-oriented career can increase the rate of accidents further, thus increasing the
paths and low salary scales have kept the young workforce away economic loss in projects. These facts call for the need for taking
from the industry (Pathirana 2021). The shortage of skilled immediate measures to enhance the level of health and safety in
labourers affects the level of productivity in the industry as well. the Sri Lankan construction industry.
Poor health and safety practices among labourers is another fac-
tor that disrupts the productivity of the industry (Rathnayake
and Ranasinghe 2020). Apart from hazardous working conditions The dengue epidemic in Sri Lankan construction sites
in sites, the construction workforce can easily become victims of The high number of Dengue-infected construction labourers
communicable diseases due to factors such as the presence of reported in Sri Lanka sets an example of poor health and welfare
migrant workers, poor sanitary facilities, and crowded living facilities within construction sites. Surveillance data from major
areas. For instance, the first introduced case of malaria after hospitals in Sri Lanka, as shown in Table 1 has made evident
6 years since the elimination of malaria in Sri Lanka was that a significant amount of construction workers is infected
reported in 2018 by a member of a group of 32 migrant labour- with Dengue (Epidemiology Unit 2021). Dengue is an acute
ers from India (Marasinghe et al. 2020). Furthermore, construc- arthropod-borne viral infection that affects many tropical and
tion labourers can be identified as a marginalized group because subtropical regions as the most frequent arboviral disease glo-
of discrimination due to lack of skill, low level of literacy, poor bally (Bhatt et al. 2013). In Sri Lanka, it has been a frequent epi-
health practices, and language and cultural differences demic outbreak that engulfs the healthcare system of the
(M€uller 2016). country. The worst dengue outbreak was reported in 2017 and
Table 1. Construction labourers with dengue fever reported from several major hospitals in Sri Lanka within December 2018.
Name of Hospital No. of construction labourers reported as dengue patients
National Hospital Colombo (NHSL) 65
Colombo South Teaching Hospital 12
National Institute of Infectious Diseases 03
District General Hospital, Nuwara-Eliya 07
Teaching Hospital Peradeniya 01
Provincial General Hospital, Badulla 03
Asiri Central, Colombo 08
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 3
Table 2. Average non-productive time for each trade. construction project (See Table 2). Excessive preparatory work,
Daily average poor material handling, waiting, lack of supervision, rework,
Trade Delay work percentage non-productive time (hrs) excessive personal time, and idling can be identified as the main
Tiling 35% 2.88 causes behind the excessive non-productive time (Karunarathna
Painting 26% 2.08
Plaster 32% 2.56
et al. 2019).
Block Work 29% 2.32 Furthermore, due to the shortage of labourers in the Sri
MEP Works 29% 2.32 Lankan construction sector, contractors have to dig into labour
Formwork 43% 3.44 pools of other contractors while bearing a huge cost (Seneviratne
Reinforcement 35% 2.88
et al. 2015; G. A. S. K. Silva et al. 2018; TVEC 2016). Currently,
most of the mega-scale infrastructure projects depend on foreign
the number of dengue positive cases crossed the 180,000 limit labours. Mainly Chinese construction companies tend to bring
within the year (Jayarajah et al. 2017; Epidemiology Unit 2021). labourers over from China for their major infrastructure projects
Recently, ongoing construction sites have been identified as a (Chatham House 2020). This issue has caused higher construc-
major reason for the rapidly increasing number of dengue cases tion costs as well (Oxford Business Group 2019). In addition to
because these sites contain high numbers of mosquito breeding that, the mass movement of migrant labours to Sri Lanka has
places (Jayarajah et al. 2017; Perera and Chandrasekara 2018). become a reason for introducing biological hazards to the coun-
According to the Epidemiology Unit of Sri Lanka, around 70% try (Marasinghe et al. 2020). Therefore, the existence of such
of construction sites in the Western Province have been found issues calls for the need for emulating new approaches for opti-
with potential mosquito breeding places. mum worker crew management, labour health and safety, and
Currently, the Construction Industry Development Authority welfare facilities in construction sites.
[CIDA] has initiated several measures to address these issues in
collaboration with the Ministry of Urban Development, Water
Supply and Housing facilities & Dengue Control Unit (DCU) Impact of COVID-19 on the Sri Lankan construction industry
(CIDA 2020c). With the impacts of COVID-19, CIDA has devel- Travel restrictions and social distancing imposed during the
oped and published a guideline on COVID-19, dengue, and health COVID-19 pandemic have disrupted almost all the industries
and safety. It mainly focuses on preventive hygiene practices at in the country. The degree of damage to the industry has var-
construction sites for COVID-19 and dengue. Furthermore, the ied from one to another based on the nature of work (Vithana
developers have considerably focused on welfare facilities. Last but et al. 2020). The construction industry has been recognized as
not least the critical importance of administering health and safety one of the industries in the country that are at more risk due
practices has been greatly highlighted in the guideline proving the to the impacts of the pandemic (PWC 2020). With the intro-
requirement for monitoring and evaluating such safety practices
duction of social distancing measures construction projects
(CIDA 2020a). This suggests that even before the outbreak of
have been delayed or cancelled worldwide (RICS 2020). In Sri
COVID-19 in Sri Lanka, the construction industry in the country
Lanka, COVID-19 has resulted in the closure of almost all
had the need for improvements in its health and welfare facilities
construction sites including those that operate in both public
and relevant monitoring processes.
and private sectors since the second week of March 2020
(CIDA 2020a). Even before the imposition of lockdown meas-
Labour productivity in the Sri Lankan construction industry ures, the construction industry experienced negative impacts
since migrant employees went back to their homelands in fear
Productivity plays a major role in the construction industry since of lockdown measures (Siriwardana and Jayasekara 2020).
it decides the growth of the industry (Dey et al. 2017; Hamza Although lockdown measures were lifted after a couple of
et al. 2022). It encourages the effective use of resources and cost months, the timely return of construction workers has been
savings (Tahir et al. 2015). By its nature, the construction indus-
identified as a major challenge due to factors such as uncer-
try is extremely labour intensive (Pheng and Zheng 2019).
tainty and fear of getting infected.
Therefore, the productivity of the industry mainly depends on
Furthermore, construction supply chains have been severely
labour performance (Durdyev et al. 2017). Various definitions
affected due to travel restrictions and it is predicted that a
have been introduced for labour productivity by researchers
longer process would be needed for recovery (McKinsey and
from time to time. Generally, labour productivity in construction
Company 2020). Apart from that, a decrease in new invest-
can be defined as the quantity of output per man-hour (Jarkas
2016). It mainly depends on factors such as labour experience, ments has been recognized as an alarming threat to the well-
political situations, delays in payment, errors in planning and being of the industry (Vithana et al. 2020). Labour health has
designing, etc (Alaghbari et al. 2019; Rajasinghe et al. 2019). become a major concern in the construction field while main-
During a study conducted in Sri Lanka by Karunarathna and taining social distancing measures in sites has given rise to
Siriwardana (2018), 68 factors that affect the labour productivity several challenges. Agencies such as the World Health
in Sri Lankan construction projects have been identified under 8 Organization (WHO) and Occupational Safety and Health
categories; plant and equipment; material; management; motiv- Administration (OSHA) have published health guidelines to
ational; manpower; technical; project; and others. The degree of be followed in preparing workplaces for COVID-19 (WHO
impact on labour productivity varies from one category to the 2020; OSHA 2020). Adhering to the global guidelines, public
other. The loss of productive time due to these factors is consid- health authorities and relevant construction authorities in Sri
erably high in most of the areas of work. A study conducted by Lanka issued health guidelines to the Sri Lankan context
Karunarathna et al. (2019) using the method of activity analysis stressing aspects such as workforce management, health and
in Sri Lankan construction sites reveals that more than 2 hours safety of labourers, welfare facilities and preparedness for
are wasted for non-productive activities in each trade of a emergencies (CIDA 2020a; Epidemiology Unit 2020b).
Table 3. Key areas of a construction project to be explored during the study.

Focus area Description Key elements Reference
Workforce Management Past studies have highlighted the Number of workers (Wijekoon 2015; Manoharan et al.
need for focusing on workforce Satisfaction of level of workers 2020; Momade et al. 2020; CIDA
management practices to improve Composition of workers 2020b; Araya 2021)
the productivity of the industry. Termination and recruitment of
Experience and skills of labourers, new workers
motivation, optimum crew size, and
job security are some of the areas
which need more attention in
workforce management.
Health and Safety Since the construction industry is Workers & staff concerns on health, (Wesam Salah Alaloul et al. 2021;
hazardous by its nature, assurance safety & sanitary practices CIDA 2020b; De_ jus and
of occupational health and safety Use of PPE Antucheviciene_ 2013; Priyadarshani
at construction sites is paramount. Safety & Medical officers and their et al. 2013)
It connects with both the physical responsibilities
and psychological safety of Safety procedures and
labourers. Factors such as measures control measures
taken at the management level,
nature of projects, and individual
involvements should be considered
in this regard.
Welfare Facilities Welfare facilities enhance the morale Accommodation (Patel et al. 2017; Dok Yen et al. 2018;
of the labourers to work and thus Facilities inside Dormitories CIDA 2020c; Gyamfi et al. 2021)
improves the productivity and Shared facilities at sites
efficiency of the workforce. These Transportation
facilities for labourers include Meals
transport facilities, accommodation,
sanitary facilities, lunchroom and
canteen arrangements, etc. Welfare
facilities are categorized as
statutory and non-statutory
facilities.
Emergency Preparedness Preparing for emergencies that arise Dengue outbreak experience (Ma et al. 2020; CIDA 2020a; Bakeli
from hazards such as biological Awareness about COVID-19 and Adil Alaoui Hafidi 2021)
outbreaks is different from general Preparation for Pandemic Situations
construction site emergencies. Emergency guidelines
Therefore, each construction site
needs to plan to establish an
emergency plan to face such
emergencies.
Methodology of questions to cover these time phases. Respondents were

directed to answer the provided questions under each of these
As the initial step, a focus group discussion was conducted with time phases in order to compare how the impacts of the pan-
the objective of identifying the key focus areas and elements demic on the industry varied with time. The impacts of vaccin-
under them that have to be explored in analysing the impacts of ation were not incorporated in the questionnaire since
the COVID-19 pandemic on the Sri Lankan construction sector. vaccination for the general public in Sri Lanka started during the
The selected group of experts consisted of five (5) professionals first week of March 2021 (WHO 2021).
from the top level management of the construction industry. It Two pilot surveys were administered during the phase of
was decided to select participants from only the top level man- developing the questionnaire to achieve the best-expected out-
agement since they have a holistic view of changes that occurred comes from the survey instrument. Further details of the two
in each aspect of the field during COVID-19. The invited profes- pilot surveys are shown in Annex I.
sionals were presented with questions related to the impacts of
the pandemic on the construction industry in Sri Lanka. Based
on the findings from the focus group discussion and literature Data collection & analysis
review, the following key elements were identified under four
In this study, sampling was done according to the information
main focus areas as depicted in Table 3 to study the impacts of
collected by pilot surveys. From a database of nine hundred pro-
the COVID-19 on the Sri Lankan construction industry. fessionals working in the construction sector, a sample of 200
participants was selected under the following selection criteria.
Developing the questionnaire 1. Years of experience
As the next step, a questionnaire was developed under five main 2. Level of management (Top and Middle)
sections namely (1) General Information, (2) Workforce 3. The number of construction projects handled by the respect-
ive companies
Management, (3) Health and Safety Strategies, (4) Welfare
4. Locations of the construction sites (Companies which has
Facilities, and (5) Preparation for Emergencies. Based on the
island-wide construction sites were selected)
findings of the above-mentioned focus group discussion, the
questionnaire was designed to collect data related to different The sample was selected only from the top and middle levels
time phases as depicted in Table 4. The questionnaire consisted of management in construction companies since professionals
Table 4. Time phases used to collect data for the Questionnaire Survey.
Time Phase Time Duration Remarks
Before COVID-19 Before 20.03.2020 The Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL) imposed an
island-wide curfew to curtail the virus on the
20th of March 2020.
During Lock-down period From 21.03.2020 to 11.05.2020 GoSL lifted the lockdown restrictions on the 11th of
May 2020 almost after two months.
After the lockdown – phase I From 12.05.2020 to 11.08.2020 A period of three months was allocated for changes
in the construction industry based on the
findings of the focus group discussion.
After the lockdown – phase II From 12.08.2020 to 30.11.2020 The duration of the data collection ended on the
30th of November 2020. Therefore, the phase II-
after the lockdown was considered until the end
of data collection from the end of phase I.
from these levels are aware of changes in the overall process of

Table 5. Processing summary from IBM SPSS Software for Cronbach Alpha.
construction. The selected sample of professionals consisted of
Case processing summary
construction managers, quantity surveyors, and safety managers.
The developed questionnaire was distributed among the selected N (%)
participants through emails. Data were collected within the two Cases Valid 69 98.57
months from 01.10.2020 to 30.11.2020. Finally, seventy (70) fully Excluded 1 1.43
completed responses were received for the questionnaire survey Total 70 100.00
Cronbach alpha 0.95
with a response rate of 35%. Out of that 80% were male
respondents while more than 70% were above 40 years old.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences [SPSS] v.25 and on the type of companies, most of the respondents (29 out of 70
Microsoft Excel software platforms were used in analysing the [41.4%]) have been working as the main contractor in their proj-
data. Trends and impacts on the Sri Lankan construction indus- ects. Although there are respondents from companies in both the
try during COVID-19 were observed through the quantitative private and public sectors, it was decided based on findings of
analysis of data. The findings of the analysis were discussed with the focus group discussion to analyse data received from differ-
insights from literature already published on impacts on the con- ent types of companies together. Having similar conditions at
struction sector. Two types of literature, 1) literature that was the ground level under the selected four areas in both sectors is
already published before the pandemic and 2) literature that one reason behind this decision. Furthermore, the Construction
incorporates the impacts of the pandemic, were used in order to Industry Development Authority (CIDA) in Sri Lanka catego-
discuss the findings and derive the recommendations. rizes companies in both sectors under the same criteria. Figure 1
presents the categories of companies where the respondents are
employed based on the categorization used by CIDA (CIDA
Results
2015). According to the results, most construction companies are
General information categorized under the C1 type.
Despite the capacity, construction companies have been
The reliability of data was determined and verified using two closed down for a period of zero to 180 days. Based on the mean
reliability coefficients named Cronbach alpha and Krippendorff value of the data set, it can be calculated that construction sites
alpha (Kalpha) (Krippendorf 2011; Taber 2018). When the were under lockdown for approximately 52 days (see Table 7).
Cronbach alpha is less than 0.3, the data is considered not suit- As shown in Figure 2, the number of ongoing construction proj-
able for further analysis as the reliability level of data is consid- ects handled by respondents’ companies has dropped from 720
ered low. When the Cronbach alpha is more than 0.7, data is to 185 during the lockdown period. However, immediately after
considered suitable for further analysis as the reliability level is the lockdown period, the number of projects has started to rise
considered high (Taber 2018). If the Kalpha is greater than 0.8,
again gradually.
it can be considered that data is suitable for further analysis (De
Swert 2012). The Cronbach alpha for ordinal data in the results
was determined through IBM SPSS 22 software and the obtained Workforce management
value for Cronbach alpha was 0.95. The results obtained from
the software analysis are presented in Table 5. With regard to the size of the workforce in construction sites,
The value for Kalpha of nominal data in the results was more than 68% of respondents have stated that the workforce in
obtained as 0.81. The obtained results for the Kalpha calculation their construction sites was reduced after the island wide lock-
are shown in Table 6. Accordingly, data could be used for fur- down measures were imposed. As shown in Figure 2, results of
ther research analysis. the survey indicate that the numbers of local labourers and staff
According to the general information collected during the members have declined during the lockdown period compared
survey, the majority of respondents were from private sector to the number of foreign labourers and staff members. For
construction companies (33, 47.14%) while an equal number of instance, the average number of local labourers per site has
respondents were from government and semi-government com- dropped from 324 to 112 given the impacts of lockdown meas-
panies (16, 22.86%). There were 4 (5.71%) respondents from for- ures. However, as Figure 3 illustrates, the total workforce has
eign companies while one (1.43%) respondent was from ‘other’ started to increase smoothly consequent to the lockdown period.
category. Most of the respondents were project managers (39 out For instance, the average number of local workers has increased
of 70 [55.7%]), while 28.6% and 15.7% of respondents were to a value of 286 which is closer to the initial value (324), during
quantity surveyors and safety managers respectively. Elaborating Phase II after the lockdown. However, the top management of
Table 6. Processing summary from IBM SPSS Software for Krippendorff Alpha. construction companies has shown an interest in changing the
Case processing summary workforce composition after the lockdown period. Thirty
Units 70 respondents have expressed their willingness to increase the
Alpha 0.810 number of local labourers in their construction sites while only
eight respondents were expecting to increase the number of for-
eign labourers [see Figure 4].
Furthermore, the questionnaire has focused on the factors to
be considered in planning to decrease the size of the workforce.
Since there is a major concern about the difference in the prod-
uctivity of foreign and local labourers, a Likert scale [1- much
dissatisfied; 2- dissatisfied; 3- neutral; 4- satisfied; 5- much satis-
fied] was used to measure the level of satisfaction on the per-
formance of both types of labourers. According to the results,
the highest mean value of the satisfaction level has been obtained
by foreign labourers. Moreover, the survey has focused on factors
affecting decisions related to terminating jobs of labourers and
calling them back to work. Six factors were suggested in the
survey to be ranked on a Likert scale [1- not at all considered
Figure 1. Cross Section of respondents (Company Grade). 2- slightly considered 3- somewhat considered, 4-moderately
considered, 5- highly considered]. These factors were identified
Table 7. Number of days which constriction sites were under lockdown. during the initially conducted focus group discussion. Figures 5
Fully lockdown days N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
and 6 show the illustrations of received results for factors that
70 0 180 52.13 30.617
Figure 4. Number of respondents who plan to change the workforce compos-

ition in future.
Figure 2. Number of construction projects handled by companies.
Figure 3. Variation of the average number of workers per site with time.
Figure 5. Factors that were considered when terminating labour jobs during the lockdown period. (a): Concern on Basic Salary to terminate jobs. (b): Concern on per-
formance to terminate jobs. (c): Concern on health to terminate jobs. (d): Concern on age limit to terminate jobs. (e): Concern on experience to terminate jobs.
Figure 6. Factors that were considered when calling labours back to work after the lockdown period. (a): Concern on Basic Salary to call back to work. (b): Concern
on performance to call back to work. (c): Concern on health to call back to work. (d): Concern on age limit to call back to work. (e): Concern on experience to call
back to work. (f): Concern on ‘distance from home’ to call back to work.
were considered in terminating jobs and calling back to work labourers back to the job. These factors suggest that retaining
respectively. According to the results shown in Figure 5 follow- the optimum size of labour crew with maximum productivity
ing factors were considered in terminating jobs of labourers: has become the major concern in terminating jobs and recruiting
level of performance, health conditions, age limit, and working labourers back.
experience. Basic salary and distance from home to sites were Moreover, the change in construction methods and strategies
not largely considered in terminating jobs. As shown in Figure 6, related to workforce management was evaluated during the
in addition to factors considered in terminating jobs of labourers study. A paired sample T-test was performed to identify and
during the lockdown period, distance between labourers’ homes compare the concern on construction methods and strategies
and the construction sites was taken into consideration in calling used before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. These methods
Figure 7. Key roles and responsibilities of safety officers.
and strategies were identified based on the findings of the initial have been abided by. Table 8 details the extent to which those
focus group discussion. Annex II contains the results of the procedures have been practised in construction.
paired sample T-test. According to the results, concern on out- Results suggest that health screening and temperature moni-
sourcing/subcontracting of the labour force after COVID-19 has toring have been implemented satisfactorily for both labourers
become lower in comparison with the situation before COVID- and staff members at sites. However, the levels of practising
19. Concern for other methods and strategies has increased after compulsory isolation [52.9%], carrying out PCR tests [31.9%],
the lockdown period. and avoiding contacts after self-quarantine [30%] among labours
have been comparatively low. This issue highlights the need for
increasing the level of practising such procedures among labour-
Health and safety ers without discrimination to enhance the level of health and
safety at construction sites. Furthermore, results reveal that the
The level of concern for health and safety among the construc-
concept of distance work has been promoted among staff mem-
tion workforce has risen considerably during the lockdown
bers through online communication, limited working days, and
period due to the impacts of the pandemic. The questionnaire the work from home concept.
has assessed the level of responsibilities of safety officers in con-
struction sites using a Likert scale from 1 to 5 [1 - not at all
responsible, 2 – slightly responsible, 3 - moderately responsible, Welfare facilities
4 – highly responsible 5 – very highly responsible]. The results
revealed that the level of responsibility of safety officers on pre- Welfare facilities of labourers are diverse, and they can be divided
paring safety and health plans out of the suggested responsibil- into statutory and non-statutory facilities. It is compulsory to pro-
vide statutory facilities for labourers to provide for labourers and
ities has reached the maximum level (5) during the Phase I-after
employers do not have any right to neglect providing these facili-
the lockdown period [see Figure 7].
ties. Drinking water, seating facilities, first aid, lavatory and uri-
Furthermore, Figure 8 illustrates the fluctuation of the usage
nals, and canteen facilities are a few of such statutory facilities.
of PPE by labourers at construction sites. The usage of PPE was
Non-statutory facilities are not compulsory to provide but are pro-
assessed using a 5 -point Likert scale [1- very low, 2 – low, 3 –
vided based on the employer’s attitude. Personal healthcare,
moderate, 4 – high, 5 - very high]. It is evident that except for
worker assistance programmes, and maternity and adaptation
face masks, usage of other PPE by labourers has varied similarly leaves are a few of such non-statutory facilities (Patel et al. 2017;
throughout the four (4) periods. However, face masks have been Gyamfi et al. 2021). As mentioned in Table 3, labour accommoda-
worn more often than other items during the lockdown period. tions and their conditions, sanitary facilities, transport facilities,
In addition to the use of PPE, the variation of sanitary practices and supplying meals were selected out of statutory and non-statu-
in construction sites was explored during this study using a 5-point tory welfare facilities for analysis in this study, based on the avail-
Likert scale [1 – not concerned, 2- slightly concerned, 3 – moder- ability of welfare facilities in the Sri Lankan construction industry.
ately concerned, 4 – highly concerned, 5 – extremely concerned]. As According to the findings, the number of labourers who are
shown in Figure 9, a significant increase was observed in all of the accommodated in dormitories located within construction sites
sanitary practices which were indicated in the questionnaire. For has decreased from 15,438 to 5,929 during the lockdown period
instance, wearing face masks in public areas and avoiding touching, (see Figure 10). However, it has increased to 13,742 during phase
handshaking and hugging were evaluated as slightly concerning sani- II- after the lockdown which has a shortage of 1,696 compared
tary practices before the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic. to the period before the COVID-19 pandemic. A similar pattern
However, their level of concern has increased to a level between of variation was observed in the number of workers who are
moderate and high during the lockdown period. accommodated in company-owned dormitories that are located
Furthermore, this study has evaluated the extent to which a outside construction sites as well but, the number of workers has
selected set of health and safety procedures are applicable for increased to 6,752 during the period: “phase II-after the lock-
labours and the staff of construction sites after returning to work down”, which is slightly higher than the number before the
Figure 8. Use of PPE in construction sites.
Figure 9. Variation of the level of concern on sanitary practices among workers at sites and dormitories.
Table 8. Responses on level of practising health and safety procedures.

Labourers Staff members
Procedure Uncertain (%) No (%) Yes (%) Procedure Uncertain (%) No (%) Yes (%)
Health screening and Temperature monitoring 7.1 0.0 92.9 Health screening and Temperature monitoring 2.9 1.4 95.7
Compulsory Isolation 35.7 11.4 52.9 Restrict public transport 17.1 21.4 61.5
First PCR 52.1 11.4 31.5 Work from home concept 24.3 7.1 68.6
Second PCR 61.4 5.7 32.9 Online Communication 12.9 21.4 65.7
Avoiding contacting after self-quarantine 50.0 20.0 30.0 Limiting working days 22.9 15.7 61.4
Applying entry and exit restriction 2.9 10. 87.1 Shift work 31.4 18.6 50.0
COVID-19 pandemic (see Figure 11). However, a significant Figure 13, more than 30 companies have provided cooked meals
variation can be observed in the number of workers who have showing an increase of nearly 50% compared to the period
been accommodated in dormitories that are not owned by con- before COVID-19. However, there is a decrease in this number
struction companies; an increase of nearly 145% can be observed during the time periods after the lockdown where the number
during the lockdown compared to the period before COVID-19. becomes as low as the number reported before COVID-19.
Although this number has decreased with time after the lock- Furthermore, results of the survey depict that the number of
down, it was nearly 100% higher relative to the stage before companies that have provided transport and meal allowances
COVID-19 (see Figure 12). and transport facilities to their workers who are not accommo-
The number of companies that provide cooked meals to dated in dormitories has decreased during the lockdown period.
workers who are accommodated in dormitories owned by com- For instance, although 45 companies out of 70 respondents have
panies has increased during the lockdown period. As shown in provided transport facilities for workers who do not have
Figure 10. Providing Accommodation facility inside the site.
Figure 11. Providing Accommodation facility outside the site.
Figure 12. Number of workers who are accommodated in dormitories that are not owned by companies.
accommodations near the sites, the number has reduced to 12 the lockdown period compared to transport facilities. Results
during the lockdown period [see Figure 14]. However, after the depict that the number of companies that provide cooked meals
lockdown period, the number of companies who provide trans- and meal allowances after the lockdown period is lower com-
port facilities has increased to 55, showing a considerable pared to the period before COVID-19.
growth. However, no significant increase can be observed in Elaborating on the physical conditions of labour accommoda-
other facilities such as cooked meals and meal allowances after tions, the number of labourers per room has been reduced from
Figure 13. Facilities Provided for workers in dormitories located inside the Sites.
Figure 14. Facilities provided who do not have dormitory.
8 to 3 (more than a 50% decline) with the occurrence of the first the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic before it hit the country.
outbreak of COVID-19. Furthermore, as the graph in Figure 15 Respondents who have heard of the COVID-19 outbreak before
illustrates, the average number of facilities such as tables, chairs, (52.14% of total respondents) have mostly used TV/Radio news
fans and beds has been increased by nearly 50% after the lock- and social media (more than 50%) to get information about the
down period. Moreover, the number of labourers who share facili- pandemic. Furthermore, a paired sample T-test was used to iden-
ties inside dormitories such as washrooms, dining area, washing tify the impact of lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic
area has been reduced considerably during the lockdown and it on preparation for emergencies. The rate of concern on emer-
has increased again immediately after construction sites began to gency preparedness before and after the pandemic was compared
return to normal. However, numbers have stopped at a lower level using the paired sample T-test (with a one-tailed significance value
currently, compared to the period before the COVID-19 outbreak. of 0.05). There were 10 concerns that are related to emergency
preparedness in sites and selected based on the findings of the ini-
tial focus group discussion. Results of the T-test revealed that con-
Preparedness for emergencies cern for all the selected preparedness strategies has increased after
Findings of the study highlight that the level of experience with the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the period before the pan-
past dengue outbreaks of labourers is considerably low. Only demic [see Annex III for results].
25.71% of respondents have experienced any dengue outbreak in
their sites during their working period. Before the advent of
Discussion
COVID-19 in Sri Lanka, 78.57% of respondents had not
expected this kind of a pandemic in the country. Furthermore, This study has aimed to identify and evaluate the challenges
42.86% of respondents have stated that they were not aware of posed by the COVID-19 pandemic on the construction industry
Figure 15. Physical facilities provided for workers in dormitories.
taking Sri Lanka as a case in point. Island-wide curfew measures countries. Furthermore, the findings show that construction
imposed by the government have halted activities in the con- companies have attempted to increase the number of local
struction industry. Results depict that the number of construc- employees compared to foreign employees. Although the require-
tion projects handled by companies has declined significantly ment is met in terms of numbers, this can pose a greater threat
after the declaration of country-wide lockdown. This has been a to the productivity of the construction industry in Sri Lanka.
common phenomenon around the globe since a considerable because the findings also prove that the productivity of foreign
amount of ongoing construction projects terminated onsite work employees has been higher than that of local employees. Even
abruptly due to lockdown measures (Inoue and Todo 2020). before the COVID-19, the Sri Lankan construction industry has
However, with the ease of lockdown, a considerable number of been experiencing a scarcity in the skilled local labour force
construction projects resumed onsite work while adhering to (Pathirana 2020).
strict health guidelines. Although construction projects were are Furthermore, results highlight that when companies were
resumed, there is a greater need for reshaping conventional con- recruiting employees for resuming work, they have mainly con-
struction practices in workforce management, health and safety, sidered factors such as health, age, performance, distance from
welfare facilities, etc. due to the effects on construction product- home, and experience of workers with the objective of employing
ivity (Thapa and Shrestha 2021). Even before the pandemic, the those who are the most productive. In a context, where a reduc-
construction industry in Sri Lanka has experienced downfalls tion in migrant labourers is anticipated globally due to the will-
due to external shocks such as the Easter Attack 2019, emphasiz- ingness of people to work closer to their hometown (Kovacs-
ing the need for looking into resilient and more productive Ondrejkovic et al. 2021), the Sri Lankan construction industry
approaches (Siriwardana and Jayasekara 2020). The present study must rethink increasing the performance of local labourers to
also highlights that severe impacts have been posed by the pan- maximize productivity. Although the results show that compa-
demic in those areas of the construction field. nies have recruited experienced local labourers to increase prod-
Results of the survey depict that the number of employees in uctivity, it is a short-term strategy. Therefore, authorities should
the construction industry considerably dropped with the enforce- focus more on attracting younger people and training them and
ment of lockdown measures. Most of the construction companies enhancing the level of skills of current labourers. Sound legal
that are included in the present study have resorted to reducing platforms for job security, frequent training, close supervision,
the number of employees. It shows that construction companies labour motivation, etc are some of the long-term strategies high-
in Sri Lanka have also experienced an economic downfall which lighted by past studies to increase labour productivity
was reported globally across hundreds of industries. However, in (Halwathura 2015; Karunarathna and Siriwardana 2018). In add-
most cases, governments in many countries have supported the ition to these approaches, modular construction, system form-
industries by amending strict policies and rules to ease the finan- works, work shift management (Biswas et al. 2021), virtual site
cial burden. The challenges related to workforce management in touring, and remote meetings (Jones et al. 2020) can be used to
construction sites have increased significantly due to the impacts reduce the labour intensiveness of the industry.
of COVID-19. These challenges have become more severe since The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have showcased the
workers are not returning to work in a timely manner. consequences of neglecting the health and safety of construction
Most importantly the results highlight that the decline in the sites. Ignorance and negligence of COVID-19, lack of compliance
number of local employees is more significant compared to that with social distancing measures, and poor supply of PPE for sites
of foreign employees. With impending lockdown measures, local have become emerging challenges in sites. The results of the pre-
employees working in cities have rushed to their hometowns sent study show that the level of concern for health and safety
even before the lockdown period (Siriwardana and Jayasekara measures has increased due to the pandemic. Accordingly,
2020). Furthermore, due to international travel restrictions, responsibilities of safety officers, sanitary practices, restrictions
migrant workers were not allowed to move to their home on entries to sites, and the use of face masks and dust masks
have increased just after the recommencement of work during (Habbas 2020). Therefore, in the Sri Lankan context, the admin-
COVID-19. However, there are two important aspects to be con- istration of construction companies must take necessary actions
sidered in this regard. Firstly, the increased level of concern has related to the supply of meals and allowances to their employees.
gone down after the easing of lockdown measures. Secondly, At the same time, it is important to consider the additional
although the use of masks has increased, no significant increase financial burden on construction companies in increasing these
was noted in other PPEs which are used in construction sites. welfare facilities.
Past studies show that health and safety conditions in Sri As the final focus area, this research has explored the impacts
Lankan construction projects were considerably low due to rea- of COVID-19 on emergency preparedness in construction proj-
sons such as lack of concern, inadequate use of PPEs, lack of ects in Sri Lanka. The results of the study highlight that con-
knowledge, etc. (Darshana 2017; Siriwardana and struction workers have not well prepared for a biological
Wickramasinghe 2018). The present study also reveals that outbreak that affects the industry. Even though dengue as an
although there has been an instant increase in concern on health infectious disease has become a frequent biological hazard in the
and safety practices it has not been stable. Furthermore, the use industry (Jayarajah et al. 2017), the level of experience related to
of PPEs still remains at a lower stage although face masks and preparing for a biological hazard was observed considerably low
dust masks have been used more often to avoid virus transmis- among workers during the present study. A majority out of the
sions. These conditions highlight the need for a paradigm shift respondents who represent management levels in construction
in construction health and safety practices in Sri Lanka. companies have not expected disruptions to the industry by the
Currently, at the global level, awareness-raising, promoting a pandemic. The study reveals that before the pandemic, emer-
healthy and hygienic work environment (Alaloul et al. 2020; gency preparedness of the construction industry for biological
OSHA 2020; Stiles et al. 2021), implementing policies to account hazards is considerably low. However, the results reveal that the
for health and safety procedures(Assaad and El-adaway 2021), concern on emergency preparedness strategies has increased due
housekeeping (Jones et al. 2020), and health and safety training to the impacts of the pandemic considerably compared to the
(OSHA 2020) have been identified as best practices in general. period before COVID-19.
Although it is not considered a general condition, construc- Accordingly, construction authorities have paid more atten-
tion authorities are supposed to be prepared for containment tion to developing emergency action plans and conducting pre-
measures for infectious diseases as well. Screening facilities, quar- paredness drills within construction projects. Furthermore,
antine strategies, restricted access, testing, etc are a few of such authorities have taken steps towards increasing facilities such as
strategies (Logie and Turan 2020; Pamidimukkala et al. 2021). rescue equipment, fire protection tools sirens, etc. that are
However, the present study reveals the inequalities in imple- required to control emergencies. However, the present study has
menting such measures between labourers and staff members at highlighted that awareness of COVID-19 and disease control
construction sites. With respect to this, the high cost required measures among construction employees should be improved
for such activities and negligence of construction authorities can further to sustain these preparedness enhancement measures.
be possible reasons. However, it highlights the need for sound The empowerment of construction workers to increase their pre-
rules and regulations for implementing such strategies. paredness for possible health emergencies will be more beneficial
This study has explored the impacts on a set of selected wel- in the long term run.
fare facilities at construction sites. According to the results, con- Accordingly, the following challenges and recommendations
struction officials have paid attention to accommodating workers can be summarized with regard to reshaping the construction
predominantly in dormitories located outside the sites. The lim- industry to COVID-19 and future pandemics [see Table 9].
ited space within sites might have urged companies towards this
step since the average number of workers per room has been
Conclusions and recommendations
reduced by nearly 50% in dormitories after a certain period from
recommencement of work. Neglecting the welfare of workers at The pandemic has affected almost every aspect of the construc-
dormitories has caused severe consequences in several countries tion industry in the country. This study has aimed at evaluating
during COVID-19. For instance, a severe outbreak was seen in the challenges posed by COVID-19 on workforce management,
Singapore among migrant workers who were accommodated health and safety, welfare facilities, and emergency preparedness
within inadequate housing facilities (Koh 2020). This study in the construction field. Accordingly, the findings of this study
reveals that company authorities have focused on increasing reveal several key aspects that construction authorities should
facilities such as sanitary items, furniture, fans, etc. inside labour rigorously pay attention to. Construction authorities have faced
accommodations during COVID-19. However, the reduction in the challenge of maintaining or increasing worker productivity
the supply of these facilities after the recommencement of work after recommencing the work, due to various reasons such as
emphasizes the need for maintaining this status in the future lack of foreign labours, lack of unskilled local labourers, lack of
as well. young construction workers, and uncertainty of employment.
Recent studies carried out globally have identified public The study has revealed a set of short-term strategies that have
transport usage by workers as a severe challenge faced amidst been followed by construction authorities. However, long-term
the pandemic (Amoah and Simpeh 2021). The present study evi- strategies such as changes in policies, rules, and plans and emu-
dence that authorities have addressed this issue. Accordingly, lating new construction technologies to reduce worker intensive-
transport facilities for people who are not accommodated near ness, ease financial burdens, enhance job security, and labour
the sites have been increased after the recommencement of work. training are needed to achieve sustainable goals in work-
However, construction companies covered by the present study force management.
have not paid adequate attention to the supply of cooked meals The prevailing impacts of COVID-19 have challenged the
and meal allowances to workers. In the global context, some gov- health and safety practices in the construction industry. The
ernments have mandated providing meals to constructions work- study highlights the need for sustainable strategies to address
ers especially those who have been quarantined in dormitories these occupational health and safety issues in the country.
Table 9. Challenges and suggested recommendations.

Focus Area Challenges Recommendations
Workforce Management Maintaining productivity of workers Use of research methods to find the optimum crew of
workers (size and composition)
Uncertainty of employment due to financial burdens Financial assistance from the government through new or
amended policies
Workers not timely returning to sites Recruitment of workers closer to construction sites
High labour intensiveness Use of less labour-intensive construction methods (modular
construction, precast concrete, etc)
Online project meetings and virtual site visits
Work shifts and roaster-based working
Low level of performance among local labourers Starting training programmes for unskilled labourers
Implementing systems for motivation such as rewarding
Lack of young workforce Increase the job security of labourers through laws
and policies
Implementing career paths for workers
Close supervision of workers
Introduce rewarding systems for motivation
Health and Safety Lack of compliance with health guidelines Implementing and updating company policies to account for
health guidelines
Frequent training for workers regarding health practices
Changing attitudes of labours towards health &
safety practices
Implementation of a system monitor the compliance with
health guidelines
Conduct frequent training for officers
Issues with the use of PPE Continuous supply of required PPE
Awareness-raising on use of PPE
Infections among workers Use of more face masks, dusk masks, and gloves
Apply entry and exit restrictions
Impalement and update policies for managing
sick employees
Improve personal hygiene
More attention on containment measures (Ex;
Isolation, testing)
Promote the concept of distant work among staff members
Restrict the use of public transport methods and provide
company-owned transport facilities
Poor sanitary practices at sites Increase the availability of resources (Ex; washroom, soap,
hand washing areas, etc.)
Providing clean drinking water
Housekeeping (Ex; marked areas for walking, cleaned
washrooms, etc.)
Entry of infected outsiders Reduce sub-contracting and outsourcing
Screening and testing
Use of engineering controls for separation of workers
Welfare Facilities Infections within accommodations Reduce the number of workers per room
Provide accommodations outside the site
Implement and update methods of managing sick employees
Lack of sanitary facilities at accommodations Provide more beds, fans, chairs, etc.
Increase number of washrooms (reduce workers
per washroom)
Continuous supply of clean water
Exposure of workers during traveling Select places which are closer to sites as dormitories
Increase transport facilities for non-accommodated workers
Providing transport allowances for private
transportation modes
Issues with meals of labours Develop canteen facilities and resting areas
Provide meal allowances for workers who are not
accommodated in dormitories
Provide cooked food
Emergency preparedness Lack of awareness in emergency response Conduct awareness & training camps
Develop and disseminate SOPs to be followed in
an emergency
Develop and practice emergency plans and drills
Low level of compliance Conduct emergency drills
Develop and disseminate SOPs to be followed in
an emergency
Lack of facilities for emergencies Ex; Firefighting Increase number of equipment required in an emergency
Continuous training for officers
Proper maintenance
Poor Risk Assessment/disease surveillance Continuous risk assessments for multi-hazards
Implementing proper reporting systems
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Annex I. Details of the pilot surveys conducted.

Pilot Survey No. Description Objectives Number of Participants Outcomes
01 A semi-structured I. to verify the appropriateness 5 (purposive sampling method The average time (40 mins)
questionnaire (70 of the questions to the was used to select taken to fill the
questions) was developed larger research population participants from a pool of questionnaire was high.
at the initial stage. II. to rule out any incompatible construction industry Nonconsistency of the
The survey was conducted results, professionals) questionnaire since a set of
through Google Forms. III. to have a clear view of the questions were not
outlines of the research structured properly.
IV. to ensure the effectiveness The interface of the survey
of the type of survey platform was not
selected for the study user friendly.
02 Based on the outcomes of the To verify the consistency of the 5 (purposive sampling method The average time taken to fill
first pilot survey, the initial updated questionnaire was used to select the questionnaire was
questionnaire was updated. To verify the user-friendliness participants from a pool of 20 minutes
The number of questions of the survey platform construction industry Answering options were
was reduced to 46. professionals excluding the further simplified based on
Lime Survey was used as respondents of the first comments received from
the online platform for pilot survey) the respondents
the survey
Annex II. Results of the paired sample T-test for construction methods and strategies.
Pair Variables P-value
1 Outsourcing/Subcontracting - Before Covid-19 0.300
Outsourcing/Subcontracting - After Covid-19
2 Using more Precast Elements in Construction - Before Covid-19 0.000
Using more Precast Elements in Construction - After Covid-19
3 Using System formworks for Construction - Before Covid-19 0.000
Using System formworks for Construction - After Covid-19
4 Increasing Efficiency and productivity of workers - Before Covid-19 0.000
Increasing Efficiency and productivity of workers - After Covid-19
5 Restructuring Workforce Management - Before Covid-19 0.000
Restructuring Workforce Management - After Covid-19
6 Training workers regularly - Before Covid-19 0.000
Training workers regularly - After Covid-19
7 Introducing Shift work arrangement - Before Covid-19 0.000
Introducing Shift work arrangement - After Covid-19
8 Introducing less labour-intensive construction methods - Before Covid-19 0.000
Introducing less labour-intensive construction methods - After Covid-19
Annex III. Table 10: Output of paired sample T-test for each emergency preparedness strategy.
Pair Variables P-value
1 Availability of Emergency action plan - before Covid-19 0.000
Availability of Emergency action plan - after Covid-19
2 Enhancing workers’ awareness about the emergency - before Covid-19 0.000
Enhancing workers’ awareness about the emergency - after Covid-19
3 Allocating key personnel for emergency control - before Covid-19 0.000
Allocating key personnel for emergency control - after Covid-19
4 Establishing Emergency escape routes - before Covid-19 0.000
Establishing Emergency escape routes- after Covid-19
5 Availability of Siren for an emergency - before Covid-19 0.000
Availability of Siren for an emergency - after Covid-19
6 Availability of Fire protection and firefighting facilities - before Covid-19 0.000
Availability of Fire protection and firefighting facilities - after Covid-19
7 Availability of Emergency rescue equipment - before Covid-19 0.000
Availability of Emergency rescue equipment - after Covid-19
8 Preparing Risk assessments and safe work procedures - before Covid-19 0.000
Preparing Risk assessments and safe work procedures - after Covid-19
9 Displaying emergency contact numbers - before Covid-19 0.000
Displaying emergency contact numbers - after Covid-19
10 Conducting safety drills regularly - before Covid-19 0.000
Conducting safety drills regularly - after Covid-19

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International Journal of Construction Management

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjcm20

The impact of COVID-19 on the construction

Nayana Niroshana, Chandana Siriwardana & Ravindu Jayasekara

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2022.2076016

Published online: 23 May 2022.

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Introduction nature of work at these sites, labourers often have to work

CONTACT Chandana Siriwardana [email protected]

Table 3. Key areas of a construction project to be explored during the study.

Methodology of questions to cover these time phases. Respondents were

from these levels are aware of changes in the overall process of

Figure 4. Number of respondents who plan to change the workforce compos-

Figure 7. Key roles and responsibilities of safety officers.

Figure 8. Use of PPE in construction sites.

Table 8. Responses on level of practising health and safety procedures.

Figure 10. Providing Accommodation facility inside the site.

Figure 11. Providing Accommodation facility outside the site.

Figure 14. Facilities provided who do not have dormitory.

Figure 15. Physical facilities provided for workers in dormitories.

Table 9. Challenges and suggested recommendations.

Annex I. Details of the pilot surveys conducted.

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