Mathp 2
Mathp 2
Mathp 2
of Logic
Submitted by
Siddhant Sah
Roll No: 42
Section: D6
Under Supervision:
Mr. Jay Ram Subedi (JRS)
Lecturer, KMC Bagbazar,
Declaration
I Hereby declare that the report presented in this project report has been
done by myself under the supervision of Mr. Jay Ram Subedi (JRS), and
has not been submitted elsewhere for any examination.
All sources of the information have been specifically acknowledged by
references to authors or institutions.
Teacher Recommendation
Signature:
Siddhant Sah
Section: D6
Roll No: 42
Science
Endorsement
Signature Signature:
(Name of HOD) (Name of principle)
Department of Math: Principal:
Mr. Chiranjivi Gyawali Dr. Nagendra Bahadur Aryal
Date: Date:
Table of Contents
Logic .......................................................................................................................... 1
Historical Background ............................................................................................. 1
Concept of Logic .................................................................................................. 2-4
Logical Connectives ...................................................................... ……………4-12
Negation …………………………………………………………………6-7
Conjunction ………………………………………………………………7-8
Disjunction ……………………………………………………………….8-9
Conditional………………………………………………………………9-10
Biconditional …………………………………………………… ….10-11
Tautology ………………………………………………………………..11
Contradiction ……………………………………………………………11
Law of Logic …………………………………………………………………13-14
Summary of Logic .................................................................................................15
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………16
Logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It is derived from the Greek word logos
which means reason. It is one of the powerful tools of systematizing and precising
all our thoughts and refining our language of expression. Solid understanding of
logic is necessary in order to be able to understand mathematical proofs and, in
general, mathematics as it is today.
But many definitions of logic focus on formal logic because it is the paradigmatic
form of logic. In this narrower sense, logic is a formal science that studies how
conclusions follow from premises in a topic-neutral way.
The study of logic is essential for work in the foundations of mathematics, which is
largely concerned with the nature of mathematical truth and with justifying proofs
about mathematical objects, such as integers, complex numbers, and infinite sets.
Historical Background
Logic was developed independently in several cultures during antiquity. One major
early contributor was Aristotle, who developed term logic in his Organon and Prior
Analytics. In this approach, judgements are broken down into
propositions consisting of two terms that are related by one of
a fixed number of relation. Inferences are expressed by means
of syllogisms that consist of two propositions sharing a
common term as premise, and a conclusion that is a
proposition involving the two unrelated terms from the
premises.
In logic, we use symbols for words, statements and their relations to get the
required result. Hence, logic is known as mathematical logic or symbolic logic.
Statements
An assertion expressed in words or symbols, which is either true or false but not
both at the same time, is known as a statement. Some examples of statements are
given below:
ii) 2+4=6
(i), (ii) and (iii) are statements as (i) and (ii) are true but (iii) is false.
The sentences of the following type are not the statements because they do not
declare the truth or falsity.
All the sentences considered above ((i), (ii) and (iii)) are closed and hence are
statements.
ii) x+3=5
Simple Statement
A statement which declares only one thing is known as a simple statement. That is,
sentence that cannot be divided into two or more sentences is known as a simple
statement.
ii) 2×3-6
Compound Statement
i) Nepal is in Asia and Mt. Everest is the highest peak in the world.
ii) 3-2-1 and 5 > 6.
A truth or the falsity of a statement is known as its truth value. T or F is the truth
value of a statement according as it is true or false.
The truth value of a simple statement depends upon the truth or falsity of the given
statement. But in a compound statement, its truth value depends not only on the
truth or falsity of the component statements but also on the connectives (defined
below) with which the component statements are combined.
A table presenting the truth values of the component statements together with the
truth values of their compound statement, is known as the truth table. The truth
table consists of a number of rows and column. Some of the initial columns contain
the possible truth values of the component statements and then the truth values of
the compound statements formed from the given simple statements using suitable
connective.
Logical Connectives :
Logical connective In logic, a logical connective (also called a logical operator) is
a symbol or word used to connect two or more sentences (of either a formal or a
natural language) in a grammatically valid way, such that the sense of the compound
sentence produced depends only on the original sentences.
The most common logical connectives are binary connectives (also called dyadic
connectives) which join two sentences which can be thought of as the function's
operands. Also commonly, negation is considered to be a unary connective.
Logical connectives along with quantifiers are the two main types of logical
constants used in formal systems such as propositional logic and predicate logic.
Natural language
The words and and so are grammatical conjunctions joining the sentences (A) and
(B) to form the compound sentences (C) and (D). The and in (C) is a logical
connective, since the truth of (C) is completely determined by (A) and (B): it would
make no sense to affirm (A) and (B) but deny (C). However so in (D) is not a logical
connective, since it would be quite reasonable to affirm (A) and (B) but deny (D):
perhaps, after all, Jill went up the hill to fetch a pail of water, not because Jack had
gone up the Hill at all.
Various English words and word pairs express logical connectives, and some of
them are synonymous. Examples (with the name of the relationship in parentheses)
are:
• "and" (conjunction)
• "or" (disjunction)
• "either...or" (exclusive disjunction)
• "implies" (implication)
• "if...then" (implication)
• "if and only if" (equivalence)
• "only if" (implication)
• "just in case" (equivalence)
• "but" (conjunction)
• "however" (conjunction)
• "not both" (NAND)
• "neither...nor" (NOR)
The word "not" (negation) and the phrases "it is false that" (negation) and "it is not
the case that" (negation) also express a logical connective – even though they are
applied to a single statement, and do not connect two statements.
Connective Words Connective Symbol Connective Name
Not ~ Negation
And ^ Conjunction
Or V Disjunction
If....then → Conditional or
Implication
If and only if ↔ Bi-conditional or
equivalence
Examples:
Written as:
p ~p
T F
F T
The negation of the words "all", "some", "some not" and "no" are "some
not", "no" "all" and some respectively.
Examples:
If both its component parts p and q are true then truth value of Conjunction
is true i.e.𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 is true.
p Q 𝒑∧𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Examples:
P: Devkota is a doctor.
Q: Devkota is a poet.
If both of its component parts p and q are false then Truth value of
disjunction is false i.e.𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 is false.
Examples:
P: ABCD is a quadrilateral.
Q: ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360°.
Examples:
(i) If two triangles are congruent then their corresponding sides Equal i.e. p
⟹ q.
(ii) If corresponding sides of two triangle are equal then the two triangles are
congruent i.e. p ⟹ q
Rule to be noted while Determining Truth Table of Biconditional or
Equivalence:
If both its component parts have same truth value the Truth value of
biconditional is true i.e. p ⇔ q is true.
Following table gives the truth values of the compound statement formed with
different connectives when the different truth values of the component statements
are given;
Let us see the following example. Let p be a statement. t and c are the tautology
and the contraction.
b) Law of tautology
c) Law of contradiction
d) Law of involution
∼(∼p)≡p ∼(∼p)≡p
The negation of negation of a statement is logically equivalent to a given
statement. The law is also known as the law of double negation.
e) Law of syllogism
(p⇒q)∧(q⇒r)⇒(p⇒r) (p⇒q)∧(q⇒r)⇒(p⇒r)
f) Law of contraposition
(p⇒q)≡((∼q)⇒(∼p)) (p⇒q)≡((∼q)⇒(∼p))
The conditional and its contrapositive are logically equivalent.
g) Inverse law
(∼p)⇒(∼q)≡q⇒p (∼p)⇒(∼q)≡q⇒p
1. Idempotent law
a) p ˄ p ≡ p b) p ˅ p ≡ p
2. Commutative law
a) p ˄ q ≡ q ˄ p b) p ˅ q ≡ q ˅ p
3. Associative law
a) p ˄ (q ˄ r) ≡ (p ˄ q) ˄ r b) p ˅ (q ˅ r) ≡ (p ˅ q) ˅ r
4. Distributive law
a) p ˄ ( q ˅ r ) ⇔ ( p ˄ q ) ˅ ( p ˄ r ) b) p ˅ ( q ˄ r ) ⇔ ( p ˅ q ) ˄ ( p ˅ r )
5. De-Morgan’s law
a) ∼( p ˄ q ) ≡ ( ∼ p ˅ ∼q ) b) ∼( p ˅ q ) ≡ ( ∼ p ˄ ∼q )
Summary of Logic:
Logic is the study of reasoning. In the middle of the 19th century Boole
and others started to study logic with mathematical methods, e.g.
Boolean algebra, which gave rise to formal logic. The treatment of logic
as a mathematical subject is indispensible in computer science, and
opens the possibility for automatizing many intellectual tasks, even
mathematical reasoning itself.
Thank you......
References by website:
Logic – Wikipedia
Slideplayer.com/Slideshare.com
Logic – coursehero.com
Golbal.oup.com
Birtannica.com
References by books:
Foundation of Mathematics
Basic Mathematics
Buddha Publication Mathematics.