CEN 346 Steel Structures

Assoc.Prof. Tahir Kemal Erdem

1
Topics include
Introduction: Historical perspective of steel, principles of design and design
procedure, standards and specifications.

Material properties, design process: design loads, Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) approaches,

Use of steel in structural design, advantages/disadvantages of steel structures.

Tension members: Rods, bars, and cables, structural shapes, strength, effective
area, stresses and failure modes in tension members.

Compression Members: Strength, column theory, local stability, effective length.

Beams: Introduction, elastic and plastic moments, flexural analysis, biaxial bending,
torsion of beams, lateral buckling and deflections.

Beam-Columns: Members in braced frames, design simple connections, stress

calculation under combined axial load and flexure

Simple Connections: Bolts, bolted connections.

Simple Connections: Welded connections; design of eccentric connections

2
References:
• W.T. Segui, “Steel Design”, Cengage Learning, 5th Edition (ISBN-10:
1111576009)
• Abi O. Aghayere, Jason Vigil. “Structural Steel Design” 3rd Edition, Mercury
Learning and Information.
• Çelik Yapı Tasarımı, Uygulamaya Yönelik Bir Yaklaşım, İkinci Baskıdan Çeviri,
2018, Abi Aghayere and Jason Vigil, Nobel Yayınevi (Çevirenler: Prof. Dr. Bülent
Akbaş ve Prof. Dr. O. Özgür Eğilmez)
• AISC Steel Construction Manual (14th Edition)
• Eurocode 3 - Design of Steel Structures
• ASCE 7-10 – Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures•
• ÇELİK YAPILARIN TASARIM, HESAP VE YAPIM ESASLARINA DAİR YÖNETMELİK

3
Turkish Standards:
TS 498: Yapı Elemanlarının Boyutlandırılmasında Alınacak Yüklerin Hesap Değerleri
TS 648: Çelik Yapıların Hesap ve Yapım Kuralları, Building Code for Steel Structures
TS 910: Sıcak haddelenmiş I ve H kesitler, Hot Rolled I and H sections
TS 912: Çelik u-Profilleri-Sıcak haddelenmiş yuvarlak köşeli - Hot Rolled Steel
Channels With Round Edges
TS 3357: Çelik Yapılarda Kaynaklı Birleşimlerin Hesap ve Yapım Kuralları-Building Code
for the Design and execution of Welded - Connections in Steel Structures

4
Buildings must be designed accoording to some provisions (structural safety, fire
safety and etc.). All these requirements are included in the related legal documents,
codes. Building codes do not give design procedures. They do specify the design
requirements and constraints that must be satisfied.

5
Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material
Steel exhibits desirable physical properties that makes it one of the most
versatile structural material in use.
Its great strength, uniformity, light weight, ease of use, and many other
desirable properties makes it the material of choice for numerous structures
such as steel bridges, high rise buildings, towers, and other structures.

Beijing Stadium Birds Nest Petronas Towers

6
Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material
High Strength: It means that the weight of structure that is made of steel will be
small.
Uniformity: Properties of steel, which is an isotropic material, do not change
depending on the direction of the load (compression-tension) as oppose to concrete,
Elasticity: Steel follows Hooke’s Law very accurately.
Recyclability: Once the service life of the structure ends the steel material can be
used again.

Bayonne Bridge, New Jersey Goldengate Bridge

7
Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material
Ductility: A very desirable of property of steel in which steel can withstand
extensive deformation without failure under high tensile stresses, i.e., it gives
warning before failure takes place.
Toughness: Steel has both strength and ductility. It can absorb a lot of energy
up to failure
Modifications on Existing Structures: New parts can be added to existing
frame buildings, and steel bridges may easily be widened.

Eiffel Tower Factory Building Construction Phoneix Media Center 8

Dis-advantages of Steel as a Structural Material
Although steel has all these advantages as a structural material, it also has
several disadvantages that make reinforced concrete as a replacement for some
construction projects.
Buckling: Steel columns sometimes cannot provide the necessary strength
because of buckling, whereas R/C columns are generally sturdy and massive,
i.e., no buckling problems occur in RC columns. As the length and slenderness
of a compressive column is increased, the danger of buckling increases.
Maintenance Cost: Steel structures are susceptible to corrosion when exposed
to air, water, and humidity. They must be checked and painted periodically.

9
Dis-advantages of Steel as a Structural Material
Fireproofing Cost: Steel is incombustible material, however, its strength is
reduced tremendously at high temperatures due to fire. During a fire the
temperature can be as high as 1000 oC.
Brittle Fracture: Under certain conditions steel may lose its ductility, and
brittle fracture may occur at places of stress concentration. Fatigue type
loadings and very low temperatures trigger the situation.
Cost: Cost of steel construction is higher compared to RC

10
The History of Steel Construction
1777-1779: Metal as a structural material began
with cast iron, used on a 30-m arch span, which
was built in England.
1780–1820: A number of cast-iron bridges were
built during this period.
1846-1850: The Brittania Bridge over Menai Strait
in Wales was built.
The Brittania Bridge
Cast iron is iron that has been melted, poured into a
mold, and allowed to cool.

The Iron Bridge, Coalbrookdale, UK (1779). The Brittania Bridge

11
The History of Steel Construction
1840: Wrought iron began replacing cast iron (Wrought iron is iron that has
been heated and then worked with tools. In fact, the term “wrought” derived from
the past participle of the word “worked.”)
1855: Development of the Bessemer process, which helped producing steel in
large quantities and at cheaper prices.
Cast iron structural frameworks with load-bearing infill were being used in English
mills and warehouses by the turn of the 19th century.
1883: First steel frame building, Home Insurance, Chicago. First iron framed
skyscraper (10 stories), destroyed in 1931.

The Crystal Palace (UK) 1851 The Home Insurance Building12

The History of Steel Construction
1886: Rand McNally Building, Chicago. First all-steel frame building,
commercial high rise construction in the US, 10 stories, cost 1 million USD,
demolished in 1911.
1889: Eiffel Tower in France, 325 m, 7300 t
1906: Ritz Hotel, the first steel building in London

Rand McNally Building The Ritz Hotel The Eiffel Tower

13
The History of Steel Construction
1931: Empire State Building, New York, 381 m, 60,000 t steel (16%)
1989: Steel sections having yield strength of 165 Mpa to 700 Mpa were
produced.
1995: Tower42 (NatWest Tower) Built in 1980, refurbished in 1995, 183 m,
30000 t steel.

Empire State, New York The Tower42 , UK 14

The History of Steel Construction
2004: The Gherkin- Swiss Re Building, London, 180 m, 41 Stories, 10,000 tons
of steel (2500 t in the frame), 24000 m2 glass.
2009: Burj Khalifa, Dubai. 818 m high, 120 stories, the highest building in the
world. 39,000 t steel

The Gherkin- Swiss Re Building Burj Khalifa 15

Design Objectives
Stucture
Safety: The engineer must make sure that the structure will Initial Design
not fall down under the action of prescribed forces (wind, Geometry

earthquake, traffic)
Serviceability: It shows how well the structure performs in Capacity
Load
terms of appearance and deflection Self Weight Control of
Earthquake Sections
Economy: Efficient use of materials and construction labor

Truss Elements
Provided that external loads are
applied at the joints only, the truss
members are two-force membes
(either tension or compression)

16
Continuous Rigid Frames
The members which are subjected to bending primarily
are called beam
The members subjected only to axial compression are
called as column
The members which are subjected to both bending and
axial load are called as beam-column.

beam beam

beam-column

beam-column
column
17
Loads
Dead Loads: The loads which are permanent, including the self weight of the structure. Dead loads also
include the weight of the non-structural components (e.g. Floor coverings, partition walls, suspendend
ceilings.
Live Loads: The loads which are not permanent. They may or may not be acting on the structure at a
given time. Weight of the furniture, equipment, occupants of the building. Since their locations may also
change, the structure should be analyzed for several combinations to find the most critical combination.
Static loads: If a load is applied slowly and if it is not removed and re-applied an excesive number of
times, this load can be considered as a static load
Cyclic loading: If the load is applied and removed many times over the life time of the structure, these
loads are called as cyclic loads where fatigue stresses become very critical.
Wind load: Wind exerts a pressure or suction on the outer surfaces of a building, because of its
transient response it can be described as a live load but since it has a very complicated nature, it can be
considered in a separated category.
Earthquake loads: Earthquake loads are horizontal loads trying to overturn the structure. These loads
are proportional to the selft weight of the structure
There are also some other types such as snow loads, hydrostatic loads, soil pressure and etc.

18
Material Properties of Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon. The carbon content may be as high as 2.1%
of its weight. The carbon presence in the steel controls its qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and
tensile strength. Depending on the carbon content steel can be investigated in 4 different groups.
Mild-Low carbon steel <0.3 %
Medium carbon steel 0.3 – 0.6 %
High carbon steel 0.6 – 1.0 %
Ultra high carbon steel 1.0 – 2.0 %

Mild Low carbon steel <0.3 %

Steel containing carbon up to 0.3 % is called as low carbon steel
MS is strong but has relatively lower strength than high carbon steels
It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed, for example as structural steel
Used as rolled structural sections, like I-section; T-section; channel Section; angle irons
Used as reinforcement in R.C, round bars
M.S. tubes are used in structures
Plain and Corrugated M.S. Sheets are used in roofing
Ductile & malleable
Difficult to harden and temper
Easily forged, welded & riveted
Withstands shocks & impacts well
Corrodes quickly
19
Material Properties of Steel
Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 - 0.6 %
Granular structure
Easier to harden & to temper
More difficult to forge and to weld
Stronger in compression than in tension or in shear
For making tools such as drills, files, chisels
Used for tools that are hard, tough and durable and capable of withstanding shocks and vibrations

20
High Carbon Steel 0.6-1.0 %
Very strong,
Used for springs, swords, and high-strength wires
In reinforcing pre-stressed concrete structures
Increased tensile strength
Resists corrosion better
More brittle and less ductile than mild steel

Ultra High Carbon Steel 1.0-2.0 %

Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose)
knives, axles or punches.
Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy 21
Stress Strain Curve for Mild Steel (Ductile Steel)

Strain Hardening
At a strain of approximately 12 times the
strain at yield, strain hardening begins
Additional load (and stress) is required to
cause additional elongation (and strain)C
Necking
A maximum value of stress is reached, after
which the specimen begins to “neck down”.
The cross section is reduced during necking.
If the original cross sectional area is used in
stress calculation. The obtained stress is
called as engineering stress.
If the original length is used to compute
strain the obtained strain is called as
engineering strain.

22
23
Stress Strain Curves for Mild and High Strength Steels

Mild Steel (Ductile Steel) High Strength Steel

If the elastic limit is exceeded, there will be a residual strain, or permanent set, after
unloading.
The yield stress can sometimes be defined as the stress at the point of unloading
that corresponds to a permanent strain of 0.002, and this method of determining the
yield strength is called the 0.2% offset method.

24
Steel Cross Sections
One of the most important objectives of the design is the selection of the appropriate cross
sections for the individual members.
this selection will require choosing a standard cross-sectional shape that is widely available
rather than requiring the fabrication of a shape with unique dimensions and properties
The selection of an “off-the-shelf ” item will always be the most economical choice, even if it
means using slightly more material, wider cross sections.

Hot Rolling Cross Sections

Molten steel is taken from a furnace and poured into a

continuous casting system
The steel solidifies but is never allowed to cool completely
The hot steel passes through a series of rollers that
squeeze the material into the desired cross-sectional shape
Rolling the steel while it is still hot allows it to be deformed
with no resulting loss in ductility (in contrast to cold-working)

25
Steel Cross Sections W Shape: Wide-flange-shape
W18x50:
18: the depth (in inches) ∥ web
50: weight pounds/ foot

S Shape: Sloped (shorter flange)

Sdepth x weight pound/foot
S18 x 70

Tee shape
WT: Tee shape (cut from W)
ST: Tee shape ( cut from S)
WT18x105:Upper Half of W36x210
ST10x33: Upper half of S20x66

MC10x25: Miscellaneous Channel

Angles
L length of leg1-length of leg2- thickness
L 6 x 6 x 3/4 L 6 x 4 x 5/8

Channel Section
Cdepth x weight pound/foot
C9 x 20
26
Bars and Plates
Bars can have circular, square, or rectangular cross sections
If the width of a rectangular shape is 8 inches or less, it is classified as a bar
If the width is more than 8 inches, the shape is classified as a plate
Both bars and plates are shown by the abbreviaition PL
PL -the thickness in inches - the width in inches- and the length in feet and inches
PL 3⁄8 × 5 × 3′-2 ″

Hollow Structural Sections

Hollow sections can be produced either by bending plate material into the desired shape and
welding the seam or by hot working to produce a seamless shape.
Square and Rectangular Sections
HSS – width-height-thickness
HSS 7 × 5 × 3⁄8.
Circular Sections
Square HSS Rectangular HSS Circular HSS HSS – diameter-thickness
HSS 5 × 3⁄8.
27
Built Up Sections
If the standard shapes do not satisfy design requirements, a built-up section may be needed.
a standard shape is augmented by additional cross-sectional elements, as when a cover plate is
welded to one or both flanges.

Cold Formed Sections

Structural shapes are created by bending thin material such as sheet steel or plate into the desired
shape without heating. Only relatively thin material can be used, and the resulting shapes are suitable
only for light applications.
Cold-working increases the yield point of the steel but causes a reduction in ductility.
Because the cross-sectional elements are very thin, instability problems may be encountered.

28
Strong Column- Weak Beam
While designing a building we try to guarantee that it will not collapse during an earthquake.
However, there is always an uncertainty related to the loads. If there happens a very severe
earthquake (much stronger than expected) all structures may collapse.
Although we can not determine the loads (earthquake) very accurately we can control how the
structure will behave or even collapse. Since we can adjust the capacities of structural elements we
can control how it will collapse
If beams are strong and columns are weak we expect to have a pancake collapse mechanism. If
the columns fail first, the storeys just fall over each other and cause a failure pattern which looks
like a pancake. Since there is no space between storeys very few people can survive in this type of
failure

If columns fail first we see pancake failure pattern

Strong Column- Weak Beam

Strong Beam Strong Column

If the collapse is unavoidable, beams must fail first

Strong Column- Weak Beam

Strong Column

Strong Beam
Design Philosophies
Structural design, in the simplest form, can be described as the selection of a cross section that
will safely and economically resist the applied loads. Economy means selection of a section with;

Minimum cost Minimum weight Minimum material Smallest section

1) Allowable Stress Design (ASD) (Emniyet Gerilmeleri Yöntemi)

2) LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) (Taşıma Gücü Yöntemi)

32
Allowable Stress Design (ASD) (Emniyet Gerilmeleri Yöntemi)

In ASD service loads (real loads) are used. The maximum stress due to service loads must be
less than or equal to the capacity of the section.

Max Stress (due to service loads) ≤ Allowable Stress 𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅

For safety the nominal capacity (the nominal strength/stress- the real physical capacity of the
system) is reduced by a factor. Allowable stress is defined by;

𝐍𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
𝐀𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚
𝐒𝐚𝐟𝐞𝐭𝐲 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫

Service loads: The real load that will be applied on the system
Factored Loads: real loads are amplified by a factor (≥1)
Nominal capacity: the real physical capacity of the system. It may refer to moment
capacity, shear capacity or axial force capacity

33
ASD (Allowable Strength / Stress Design) Ra: Required Strength
In allowable stress design the relation between loads and Rn: Nominal Strength
strengths can be expressed as follows:
Ω: Safety Factor
𝑅
𝑅 ≤ Rn / Ω: Allowable Strength
Ω
The required strength is the sum of service loads. Similar to LRFD, some load cases and
combinations must be considered. These combinations, as presented in the AISC Steel Construction
Manual (AISC 2011a), are

Combination 1: D D : Dead Load

Combination 2: D + L L : Live Load
Combination 3: D + (Lr or S or R) Lr = roof live load
Combination 4: D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
S = snow load
Combination 5: D ± (0.6W or 0.7E)
R = rain or ice load
Combination 6a: D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
Combination 6b: D + 0.75L ± 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S W = wind load
Combination 7 and 8: 0.6D ± (0.6W or 0.7E) E = earthquake

The coefficients shown in the combinations are not load factors used to amplify the loads. These
coefficients are ≤ 1. They do not increase but decrease the loads to show that the maximums of
different loads cannot be reached at the same time.
1.5
Ω=1.67 for yielding and buckling Ω=2 for rupture limit state Ω≤ 34
𝜙
35
36
LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) (Taşıma Gücü Yöntemi)

Load factors are applied to the service loads and the loads are amplified.
In addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of a resistance
factor.

Increased Loads ≤ Reduced Strength

Loads x Load Factor ≤ Resistance x Resistance Factor

Load Factor Resistance Factor

Each load is multiplied by its own load factor. The factored loads are the loads that bring the
structure or member to its limit. Therefore this approach is also known as limit state design.
Failure means that the structure does not satisfy the design objectives anymore. So it does not
always correspond to total collapse. Excessive deformations can also prevent the structure from
functioning properly.
There are 2 different limit states
The Safety limit: the limit is related to failure such as yielding, rupture or buckling.
The Serviceability limit, maximum acceptable deflection or vibration levels.
Safety limit state (collapse) is a more serious problem therefore uses a higher safety coefficient.

37
LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design)
How to Calculate Required Strength due to Increased (Factored) Loads
The worst case scenario is obtained by considering several load cases. In each case service
loads are amplified for their own factors and then added.  
Ru: Required Strength = sum of factored (amplified) load effects 𝑅 = 𝛾𝑄
 
AISC Specification says to use the load factors and load combinations prescribed by the governing
building code. If the building code does not give them, then ASCE 7 (ASCE, 2010) should be used.
The load factors and load combinations in this standard are based on extensive statistical studies
and are prescribed by most building codes.
D : Dead Load
Combination 1: 1.4D L : Live Load
Combination 2: 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) Lr = roof live load
Combination 3: 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5W) S = snow load
Combination 4: 1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) R = rain or ice load
Combination 5: 1.2D + 1.0 E + L + 0.2S W = wind load
Combination 6: 0.9D ± 1.0W E = earthquake
Combination 7: 0.9D ± 1.0E
 
∅ 𝑅 is also called as ∅ = 0.90 for yielding and compression buckling
𝛾𝑄 =𝑅 ≤∅𝑅
design strength 𝑅 ∅ = 0.75 for Rupture analysis
 
38
• Only downward-acting loads should be substituted in load
combinations 1 through 5.
• For load combinations 6 and 7, upward wind or seismic loads
should be considered
39
Example: A column (compression member) in a building is subject to the following loads
Dead load: 484 kN compression
Floor live load: 204 kN compression
Roof live load: 84 kN compression
Snow: 89 kN compression
a. Determine the controlling load combination for LRFD and the corresponding factored loads.
b. If the resistance factor 𝜙 is 0.90, what is the required nominal strength?
c. Determine the controlling load combination for ASD and the corresponding required service load strength.
d. If the safety factor Ω is 1.67, what is the required nominal strength based on the required service load
strength?

LRFD
C 1: 1.4D C 1: 1.4 (484)=677 kN
C 2: 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) C 2: 1.2 (484) + 1.6 (204) + 0.5( (84) or (89) or R)= 951 kN
C 3: 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5W) C 3: 1.2 (484) + 1.6((84) or (89) or R) + ((204) or 0.5W)= 927 kN
C 4: 1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) C 4: 1.2 (484) + 1.0W + (204) + 0.5((84) or (89) or R)=829 kN
C 5: 1.2D + 1.0 E + L + 0.2S C 5: 1.2 (484) + 1.0 E + (204) + 0.2 (89)=802 kN
C 6: 0.9D ± 1.0W C 6: 0.9 (484) ± 1.0W=435 kN
C 7: 0.9D ± 1.0E C 7: 0.9 (484) ± 1.0E=435 kN
 

𝛾 𝑄 =𝑅 ≤∅𝑅 951 0.9Rn Rn=1056 kN

 

Increased Loads ≤ Reduced Strength

Loads x Load Factor ≤ Resistance Factor x Nominal Strength 40
 c. Determine the controlling load combination for ASD and the corresponding required service load strength.
d. If the safety factor Ω is 1.67, what is the required nominal strength based on the required service load
strength?

ASD
C 1: D C 1: (484)=484
C 2: D + L C 2: (484) + (204)=684
C 3: D + (Lr or S or R) C 3: (484) + ((84) or (89) or R)=573
C 4: D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R) C 4: (484) + 0.75 (204) + 0.75((84) or (89) or R)=703.8
C 5: D ± (0.6W or 0.7E) C 5: (484) ± (0.6W or 0.7E) =484
C 6a: D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R) C 6a: (484) + 0.75 (204) + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75((84) or (89) or R)=703.8
C 6b: D + 0.75L ± 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S C 6b: (484) + 0.75 (204) ± 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75 (89)=703.8
C 7 and 8: 0.6D ± (0.6W or 0.7E) C 7 and 8: 0.6 (484) ± (0.6W or 0.7E)=290.4

𝑅
𝑅 ≤ 703.8 ≤ → 𝑅 =1174 kN
.
Ω

41
 Standards for Loads
TS 498,
TS ISO 9194,
TS EN 1991

42
43