INTRODUCTION.

1. Need For Structure

Structures are one of mankind’s basic needs next to food and clothing, and are a hallmark of civilization.
Man endeavours to protect himself from the harsh elements of nature and from his own kind, to bridge
streams, to enhance a ruling class and for religious purposes go back to the dawn of mankind.
Fundamentally, structures are needed for the following purposes:
 to enclose space for environmental control;
 to support people, equipment, materials etc. at required locations in space;
 to contain and retain materials;
 to span land gaps for transport of people, equipment etc.
The prime purpose of structures is to carry loads and transfer them to the ground.
2. Classification Of Structures
Structures may be classified according to use and need. A general classification is:
 residential—houses, apartments, hotels;
 commercial—offices, banks, department stores, shopping centres;
 institutional—schools, universities, hospitals, gaols;
 exhibition—churches, theatres, museums, art galleries, leisure centres, sports stadia, etc.;
 Industrial—factories, warehouses, power stations, steelworks, aircraft hangers etc.
 Other important engineering structures are:
 bridges—truss, girder, arch, cable suspended, suspension;
 towers—water towers, pylons, lighting towers etc.;
 Special structures—offshore structures, car parks, radio telescopes, mine head frames etc.
The structural engineer adopts a classification for structures based on the way the structure resists loads, as
follows.
1. Gravity masonry structures—loadbearing walls resist loads transmitted to them by floor slabs. Stability
depends on gravity loads.
2. Framed structures—a steel or concrete skeleton collects loads from plate elements and delivers them to
the foundations.
3. Shell structures—a curved surface covers space and carries loads.
4. Tension structures—cables span between anchor structures carrying membranes.
5. Pneumatic structures—a membrane sealed to the ground is supported by internal air pressure.
Steel-framed structures .may be further classified into the following types:
1. single-storey, single- or multibay structures which may be of truss or stanchion frames or rigid frame of
solid or lattice members;
2. multistorey, single- or multibay structures of braced or rigid frame construction.
3. Space structures (space decks, domes, towers etc
4. Tension structures and cable-supported roof structures;
5. Stressed skin structures, where the cladding stabilizes the structure.
These structures are shown in figure 1 while figure 2 shows the illustration of some framed steel structures
3. Structural Materials:
Each of the structures listed above can be constructed using a variety of materials, structural forms or
systems. Though we are talking about steel structures, steel is not used in isolation from other structural
materials. For instance, all steel structures must rest on concrete foundations, concrete shear walls are used
for stability in multi storey buildings. Steel is combined with concrete for floor decks in composite
construction. Steel frames can be enclosed with sandcrete blocks or with glass for aesthetic purposes. Some
individuals can prefer wooden purlins to steel purlins in construction of trusses for cost reduction.
From earliest times, naturally occurring materials such as timber, stone and fibres were used structurally.
Then followed brickmaking, rope-making, glass and metalwork. From these early beginnings the modern
materials manufacturing industries developed.
The principal modern building materials are masonry, concrete (mass, reinforced and prestressed), structural
steel in rolled and fabricated sections and timber. All materials listed have particular advantages in given
situations, and construction of a particular building type can be in various materials, e.g. a multistorey
building can be loadbearing masonry, concrete shear wall or frame or steel frame. One duty of the designer
is to find the best solution which takes account of all requirements — economic, aesthetic and utility.
The principal uses, types of construction and advantages of the main structural materials are as follows.
• Masonry—loadbearing walls or columns in compression and walls taking in-plane or transverse loads.
Construction is very durable, fire resistant and aesthetically pleasing. Building height is moderate, say to 20
storeys.
• Concrete—framed or shear wall construction in reinforced concrete is very durable and fire resistant and is
used for the tallest buildings. Concrete, reinforced or prestressed, is used for floor construction in all
buildings, and concrete foundations are required for all buildings.
• Structural steel—loadbearing frames in buildings, where the main advantages are strength and speed of
erection. Steel requires protection from corrosion and fire. Claddings and division walls of other materials
and concrete foundations are required. Steel is used in conjunction with concrete in composite and
combined frame and shear wall construction.
Figure 1: Examples of Structures
 Fig. 1.2 Examples of steel-framed structures.

4. Steel As a Construction Material

Iron has been produced for several thousands of years but it was not until the eighteenth century
 that it began to be used as a structural material. However, it was not until 1898 that the first steel-framed
building was constructed. Nowadays most construction is carried out using steel which combines the best
properties of cast and wrought iron.
Structural steels are alloys of iron, with carefully controlled amounts of carbon and various other metals
such as manganese, chromium, aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum, neobium and copper. The carbon
content is less than 0.25%, manganese less than 1.5% and the other elements are in trace amounts. The
alloying elements control grain size and hence steel properties, giving high strengths, increased ductility
and fracture toughness. The inclusion of copper gives the corrosion resistant steel Cor-ten. High-carbon
steel is used to manufacture hard drawn wires for cables and tendons.
The production processes such as cooling rates, quenching and tempering, rolling and forming also have
an important effect on the micro structure, giving small grain size which improves steel properties. The
modern steels have much improved weldability. Sound full-strength welds free from defects in the thickest
sections can be guaranteed.
Table 1.1 below gives the strength of different steel used in construction and their strengths.

5. Stress – Strain Behavior of Steel

If a rod of steel is subjected to a tensile test as shown in Fig. 2a, and the stress in the rod (load/cross
sectional area in N/mm2) is plotted against the strain (change in length/original length), as the load is
applied, a graph similar to that shown in Fig. 2b would be obtained. Note that the stress-strain curve
is linear up to a certain value, known as the yield point. Beyond this point the steel yields without an
increase in load, although there is significant ‘strain hardening’ as the bar continues to strain towards
failure. This is the plastic range. In the elastic range the bar will return to its original length if unloaded.
However, once past the yield point, in the plastic range, the bar will be permanently
strained after unloading. Fig. 2c shows the idealised stress-strain curve for structured steelwork
which is used in the design of steel members.The slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic
range is referred to as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus and is denoted by the letter E. It
indicates the stiffness of the material and is used to calculate deflections under load. Structural steel
has a modulus of elasticity of 205 kN/mm2.
Fig. 2: Stress–strain curves for structural steel: (a) schematic arrangements of test; (b) actual stress-strain
curve from experiment; (c) idealised stress-strain relationship.

6. Structural Steel Sections

Structural steel is manufactured in three basic grades: S275, S355 and S460. Grade S460 is the
strongest, but the lower strength grade S275 is the most commonly used in structural applications,
In this classification system ‘S’ stands for structural and the number indicates the yield strength of the
material in N/mm2. Figure 3 shows in end view a selection of sections commonly used in steel design
together with typical applications. Depending on the size and the demand for a particular shape, some
sections may be rolled into shape directly at a steel rolling mill, while others may be fabricated in a
welding shop or on site using (usually) electric arc welding.These sections are designed to achieve
economy of material while maximising strength, particularly in bending. Bending strength can be
maximised by concentrating metal at the extremities of the section, where it can sustain the tensile and
compressive stresses associated with bending. The most commonly used sections are still Universal
Beams (UBs) and Universal Columns (UCs). While boxes and tubes have some popularity in specialist
applications, they tend to be expensive to make and are difficult to maintain, particularly in small sizes.
The geometric properties of these steel sections, including the principal dimensions, area, second moment
of area, radius of gyration and elastic and plastic section moduli have been tabulated in a booklet entitled
Structural Sections to BS4: Part 1:1993 and BS EN10056: 1999 which is published by Corus
Construction and Industrial.

Fig. 3: Standard rolled steel sections.

 7. Types of Steel Structures
As stated earlier, steel as a construction material has gained popularity worldwide. Among structures that
can be built with steel wholly or in combination with other construction materials like concrete, glass,
wood are:
 Warehouses
 Roof Trusses for large roof spans
 Telecommunication masts
 Pylons
 Buildings
 Off shore structures
 Canopies
 Water retaining structures
 Water tank stand
 Pile foundations
 Staircases
 Lightning towers
 Radio telescopes
 Bridges


8. Design Process
The foundation of any steel project begins with the client who has need for such a project, who is the
financier that will contact an architect in case of building structures or the Engineer directly in case of
purely engineering structure like bridges and power stations.
The role of the structural engineer who will work with other team members includes:
 Planning
 Design
 Preparation of drawings
 Preparation of tender documents
 Supervision of construction
The Engineer is expected to recommend acceptance of tenders, inspects, supervises and approves
Fabrication and construction. He/she has an overall responsibility for safety and must ensure that the
consequences of failure due to accidental causes are limited in extent.
The designer’s work, is one part of the structural engineer’s work. The aim of the structural designer is to
produce the design and drawings for a safe and economical structure that fulfils its intended purpose. The
steps in the design process are as follows.
1. Conceptual design and planning. This involves selecting the most economical structural form and
materials to be used.
2. Preliminary designs are often necessary to enable comparisons to be made. Preliminary design methods
shall be discussed later.
3. Detailed design for a given type and arrangement of structure, which includes:
 idealization of the structure for analysis and design;
 estimation of loading;
 analysis for the various load cases and combinations of loads and identification of the most severe
design actions;
 design of the foundations, structural frames, elements and connections;
 Preparation of the final arrangement and detail drawings.
The materials list, bill of quantities and specification covering welding, fabrication erection corrosion
protection and fire protection may then be prepared. Finally the estimates and tender documents can be
finalized for submission to contractors.
The structural designer uses his/her knowledge of structural mechanics and design, materials, geotechnical
engineering codes of practice and combines this with his/her practical experience to produce a satisfactory
design. He/she takes advice from specialists, makes use of codes, design aids, handbooks and computer
software to help him/her in making decisions and to carry out complex analysis and design calculations.

Conceptual design in the structural engineering sense is the function of choosing a suitable form or system
or framing arrangement to bring the architectural solution into being. The building layout, limits and
parameters have been determined solely by the architect. In such cases the structural engineer may not be
able to select the optimum structural solution. Ideally, conceptual design should result from a team effort,
where architect, structural engineer and service engineers contribute to the final solution. Modern
architectural practices take this multidisciplinary approach.
The architectural decisions are based on functional, aesthetic, environmental and economic considerations.
Any of these factors may control in a given case. For example, for an industrial plant it is the functional
requirement, whereas for an exhibition building it is the aesthetic aspect. Financial control is always of
paramount importance and cost over-runs lead to many legal and other problems.
Planning may be described as the practical expression of conceptual design. The various proposals must
be translated from ideas and stretches into drawings consisting of plans and elevations to show the layout,
functions and perspective views to give an impression of the finished concept. Computer drafting software
is now normally used for this task. Simulation with views possible from all directions gives great
assistance in the decision-making process. A scale model of the complete project is often made to show
clearly the finished form. The preparation and presentation of planning proposals are very important
because the final approval for a scheme often rests with non-technical people such as city officials or
financiers.
The engineer must also consider construction in any of the major materials—masonry, concrete, steel or
timber, or again some combination of these materials for his/her structures, and then make the appropriate
selection. A list of factors that need to be considered at the conceptual and planning stage would include:
1. Location of the structure and environmental conditions;
2. Site and foundation conditions;
3. Weather conditions likely during construction;
4. Availability of materials;
5. Location and reputation of fabrication industry;
6. Transport of materials and fabricated elements to site;
7. Availability and quality of labour for construction;
8. Degree of supervision needed for construction;
9. Measures needed to give protection against corrosion and fire;
10. Likelihood of damage or failure due to fatigue or brittle fracture;
11. Possibility of accidental damage;
12. Maintenance required after completion;
13. Possibility of demolition in the future.
The final decision on the form and type of structure and construction method depends on many factors and
will often be taken on grounds other than cost, though cost often remains the most important.

Preliminary designs to enable comparisons and appraisals to be made will often be necessary during the
planning stage in order to establish which of the possible structural solutions is the most economical.
Information from the site survey is essential because foundation design will affect the type of
superstructure selected as well as the overall cost.
Arrangement drawings showing the overall structural system are made for the various proposals. Then
preliminary analyses and designs are carried out to establish foundation sizes, member sizes and weights
so that costs of materials, fabrication, construction and finishes can be estimated. Fire and corrosion
protection and maintenance costs must also be considered.
However, it is often difficult to get true comparative costs and contractors are reluctant to give costs at the
planning stage.
Nowadays, design of structural elements are optimized by the use of mathematical techniques to obtain
the most economical design for a given structure.
The aim is usually to determine the topology of the structure, arrangement of floors, spacing of columns or
frames or member sizes to give the minimum weight of steel or minimum cost. Though
The design of individual elements may be optimized, e.g. plate girders or trusses. However, with optimum
designs the depths are often some 50% greater than those normally adopted and the effect of this on the
total building cost should be considered.
The aim of the design comparison is to enable the designer to ascertain the most economical solution that
meets the requirements for the given structure. All factors must be taken into consideration. A misleading
result can arise if the comparison is made on a restricted basis. Factors to be taken into account include:
1. Materials to be used;
2. Arrangement and structural system and flooring system to be adopted;
3. Fabrication and type of jointing;
4. Method of erection of the framework to be used;
5. Type of construction for floor, walls, cladding and finishes;
6. Installation of ventilating/heating plant, lifts, water supply, power etc.
7. Corrosion protection required;
8. Fire protection required;
9. Operating and maintenance costs.
Aesthetic considerations are important in many cases and the choice of design may not always be based on
cost alone. Most structures can be designed in a variety of ways. The possible alternatives that may be
used include:
1. The different methods of framing that will achieve the same structural solution;
2. Selection of spacing for frames and columns;
3. Flooring system to be used, e.g. in situ concrete, precast concrete or profile steel sheeting
4. The various methods that may be used to stabilize the building and provide resistance to horizontal
loading;
5. The different design methods that may be applied to the same structural form, e.g. simple design or
semi rigid design, or rigid design using either elastic or plastic theory.
6. Design in different materials, e.g. mild steel or high strength steels. The weight saving may be offset by
the higher cost of the stronger material.
It should be noted that often no one solution for a given structure ever appears to dominate to the
exclusion of all other alternatives. Though the rigid pinned base portal has almost entirely replaced the
truss and stanchion frame for single-bay buildings, lattice girder roofs are often used in many single-storey
multi bay buildings.
STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
1.0 Development of Design/Design Experience
The specific aim of structural design is, for a given framing arrangement, to determine the member sizes
to support the structure’s loads. The historical basis of design was trial and error. Then with development
of mathematics and science the design theories — elastic, plastic and limit states were developed, which
permit accurate and economic designs to be made. Over the years, safe proportions for members such as
depth/thickness, height/width, span/depth etc. were determined from experience and formulated into rules.
In this way, structural forms and methods of construction such as beam-column, arch-barrel vault and
domes in stone, masonry and timber were developed, as well as cable structures using natural fibres. Very
remarkable structures from the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, Rome and the cathedrals of the
middle ages survive as a tribute to the ingenuity and prowess of early professionals using this design basis.
The results of the trial-and-error method still survive in our building practices in this present generation
while experimental design method is still included in the steel code.
The design theories: Elastic, Plastic and Limit state design are discussed thus:

2.0 Elastic theory

Elastic theory was the first theoretical design method to be developed. The behaviour of steel when loaded
below the yield point is much closer to true elastic behaviour than that of other structural materials. All
sections and the complete structure are assumed to obey Hooke’s law and recover to their original state on
removal of load if not loaded past yield.
Design to elastic theory was carried out in accordance with BS 449, The Use of Structural Steel in
Building. For design the structure is loaded with the working loads that is the maximum loads to which it
will be subjected during its life. Statically determinate structures are analysed using simple theory of
statics. For statically indeterminate structures, linear or first-order elastic theory is traditionally used for
analysis. The various load cases can be combined by superposition to give
the worst cases for design. In modern practice, second-order analysis taking account of deflections in the
structure can be performed, for which computer programs and code methods are available. In addition,
analysis can be performed to determine the load factor which will cause elastic instability where the
influence of axial load on bending stiffness is considered. Dynamic analyses can also be carried out.
Elastic analysis continues to form the main means of structural analysis.
In design to elastic theory, sections are sized to ensure permissible stresses are not exceeded at any
point in the structure.
The permissible stresses are obtained by dividing the yield stress or elastic critical buckling stress where
stability is a problem by a factor of safety. The one factor of safety takes account variations in strengths of
materials, inaccuracies in fabrication, possible overloads etc. to ensure a safe design.

Note: A statically determinate structure is a structure that is stable and all unknown reactive forces can be
determined from equations of Static Equilibrium alone. While a statically indeterminate structure is one
that is stable but contains more unknown forces than available equations of Static equilibrium
The Equations of Static Equilibrium are:
ΣFx = 0
ΣFy = 0
ΣMz = 0

3.0 Plastic theory

Plastic theory was the next major development in design after Elastic theory. This resulted from work at
Cambridge University by Lord Baker, Professors Horne, Heyman etc. The design theory is discussed
below:
When a steel specimen is loaded beyond the elastic limit the stress remains constant while the strain
increases, as shown in
Figure 2b. For a beam section subjected to increasing moment this behaviour results in the formation of a
plastic hinge where a section rotates at the plastic moment capacity.
Plastic analysis is based on determining the least load that causes the structure to collapse. Collapse occurs
when sufficient plastic hinges have formed to convert the structure to a mechanism. The safe load is the
collapse load divided by a load factor.
In design the structure is loaded with the collapse or factored loads, obtained by multiplying the working
loads by the load factor, and analysed plastically. Methods of rigid plastic analysis have been developed
for single-storey and multistory frames where all deformation is assumed to occur in the hinges. Portals
are designed almost exclusively using plastic design.

4.0 Limit state theory and design codes

Limit state theory was developed by the Comitée Européen Du Béton for design of structural concrete and
has now been widely accepted as the best design method for all materials. It includes principles from the
elastic and plastic theories and incorporates other relevant factors to give as realistic a basis for design as
possible. The following concepts are central to limit state theory.
1. Account is taken in design of all separate conditions that could cause failure or make the structure unfit
for its intended use. These are the various limit states.
2. The design is based on the actual behaviour of materials in structures and performance of real structures
established by tests and long-term observations. Good practice embodied in clauses in codes and
specifications must be followed in order that some limit states cannot be reached.
3. The overall intention is that design is to be based on statistical methods and probability theory. It is
recognized that no design can be made completely safe; only a low probability that the structure will not
reach a limit state can be achieved.
However, full probabilistic design is not possible at present and the basis is mainly deterministic.
4. Separate partial factors of safety for loads and materials are specified. This permits a better assessment
to be made of uncertainties in loading, variations in material strengths and the effects of initial
imperfections and errors in fabrication and erection. Most importantly, the factors give a reserve of
strength against failure.

The limit state codes for design of structural steel now in use are BS 5950 and Eurocode 3.
BS 5950 is divided into the following nine parts:
Part 1: Code of practice for design – Rolled and welded sections.
Part 2: Specification for materials, fabrication and erection – Rolled and welded sections.
Part 3: Design in composite construction – Section 3.1: Code of practice for design of simple and
continuous composite beams.
Part 4: Code of practice for design of composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting.
Part 5: Code of practice for design of cold formed thin gauge sections.
Part 6: Code of practice for design of light gauge profiled steel sheeting.
Part 7: Specification for materials, fabrication and erection – Cold formed sections and sheeting.
Part 8: Code of practice for fire resistant design.
Part 9: Code of practice for stressed skin design.
Part 1 covers most of the material required for everyday design. Our focus in this course shall be on part 1
of BS 5950.
5.0 BS 5950 – 1 2000 Outlook
General principles
As stated earlier, BS 5950 is based on limit state philosophy. BS 5950 states in Clause 2.1.1.1
That: The aim of structural design should be to provide, with due regard to economy, a structure capable
of fulfilling its intended function and sustaining the specified loads for its intended life. The design should
facilitate safe fabrication, transport, handling and erection. It should also take account of the needs of
future maintenance, final demolition, recycling and reuse of materials.
The structure should be designed to behave as a one three-dimensional entity. The layout of its constituent
parts, such as foundations, steelwork, joints and other structural components should constitute a robust and
stable structure under normal loading to ensure that, in the event of misuse or accident, damage will not be
disproportionate to the cause.
The aim of structural design is to provide with due regard to economy a structure capable of fulfilling its
intended function and sustaining the design loads for its intended life.

Limit State Concept:

According to clause 2.1.3,
Structures should be designed by considering the limit states beyond which they would become unfit for
their intended use. Appropriate partial factors should be applied to provide adequate degrees of reliability
for ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states. Ultimate limit states concern the safety of the whole
or part of the structure. Serviceability limit states correspond to limits beyond which specified service
criteria are no longer met.
limit states relevant to steel structures are given in Table 1. In design, the limit states relevant to that
structure or part should be considered.
• Ultimate limit states govern strength and cause failure if exceeded;
• Serviceability limit states cause the structure to become unfit for use but stopping short of failure.
In this course while designing the structural elements we will be concentrating on the ultimate limit state
of strength, and the serviceability limit state of deflection. Concerning Stability, the structures must be
robust enough not to overturn or sway excessively under wind or other sideways loading. Fatigue is
generally taken account of by the provision of adequate safety factors to prevent occurrence of the high
stresses associated with fatigue. Brittle fracture can be avoided by selecting the correct grade of steel for
the expected ambient conditions. Avoidance of excessive vibration and oscillations are aspects
of structural dynamics and are beyond the scope of the course at this level. Corrosion can be a serious
problem for exposed steelwork, but correct preparation and painting of the steel will ensure maximum
durability and minimum maintenance during the life of the structure. Alternatively, the use of weather
resistant steels should be considered.
Although BS 5950 does not specifically mention fire resistance, this is an important aspect that
fundamentally affects steel’s economic viability compared to its chief rival, concrete. Exposed structural
steelwork does not perform well in a fire. The high conductivity of steel together with the thin sections
used causes high temperatures to be quickly reached in steel members, resulting in premature failure due
to softening at around 600°C. Structural steelwork has to be insulated to provide adequate fire resistance
in multi-storey structures. Insulation may consist of sprayed treatment, intumescent coatings, concrete
encasement or boxing with plasterboard. All insulation treatments are expensive. However, where the
steel member is encased in concrete it may be possible to take structural advantage of the concrete,
thereby mitigating some of the additional expenditure incurred.
Guidance on the design of fire protection for members in steel framed buildings can be found in Part 8 of
BS 5950.

Methods of Design:
The design of steel structures may be made to any of the following methods set out in Clause 2.1.2 of BS
5950:
 simple design
 Rigid or Continuous design;
 Semi rigid or Semi-continuous design;
 Experimental verification.
In choosing a method, the clause states that: the details of members and connections should be such as to
realize the assumptions made in design without adversely affecting other parts of the structure.

1. Simple design.
The structure is regarded as having pinned joints, and significant moments that can adversely affect the
member or structure are not developed at connections. The structure is analysed, assuming that it is
statically determinate with pinned joints and is prevented from becoming a mechanism. In a multistorey
beam-column frame, bracing or shear walls acting with floor slabs are necessary to provide stability and
resistance to horizontal loading. This apparently conservative assumption is a very popular method of
design.
2. Continuous design.
The joints in the structure are assumed to be able to fully transfer the forces and moments in the members
which they attach. Analysis of the structure may be by elastic or plastic methods, and will be more
complex than simple design. However the increasing use of micro-computers has made this method more
viable. In theory a more economic design can be achieved by this method, but unless the joints are truly
rigid the analysis will give an upper bound (unsafe) solution.
Either elastic or plastic analysis may be used.
For elastic analysis the joints should have sufficient rotational stiffness to justify analysis based on full
continuity. The joints should also be capable of resisting the moments and forces resulting from the
analysis.
For plastic analysis the joints should have sufficient moment capacity to justify analysis assuming plastic
hinges in the members. The joints should also have sufficient rotational stiffness for in-plane stability.

3. Semi - Continuous design.

In Semi-continuous design, the joints in the structure are assumed to have some degree of strength and
stiffness but not provide complete restraint as in the case of continuous design. The actual strength and
stiffness of the joints should be determined experimentally.

4. Experimental verification
The code states that: Where design of a structure or element by calculation in accordance with any of the
preceding methods is not practicable, or is inappropriate, the strength, stability, stiffness and deformation
capacity may be confirmed by appropriate loading tests in accordance with Section 7 of the code.

Loads, Actions and Partial Factor of Safety:

The main purpose of the building structure is to carry loads over or round specified spaces and deliver
them to the ground. All relevant loads and realistic load combinations have to be considered in design.
Clause 2.2.1 of the code states that:
All relevant loads should be considered separately and in such realistic combinations as to comprise the
most critical effects on the elements and the structure as a whole. The magnitude and frequency of
fluctuating loads should also be considered. Loading conditions during erection should receive particular
attention. Settlement of supports should be taken into account where necessary.
BS 5950 classifies working loads into the following traditional types.
1. Dead loads due to the weight of the building materials. Accurate assessment is essential. Use BS 6399
part 1 as a guide.
2. Imposed loads due to people, furniture, materials stored, snow, erection and maintenance loads. Refer
to BS 6399 part 3
3. Wind loads. These depend on the location, the building size and height, openings in walls etc. Wind
causes external and internal pressures and suctions on building surfaces and the phenomenon of periodic
vortex shedding can cause vibration of structures. Wind loads are estimated from maximum wind speeds
that can be expected in a 50-year period. They are to be estimated in accordance with BS 6399: Part 2.
4. Dynamic loads are generally caused by cranes. The separate loads are vertical impact and horizontal
transverse and longitudinal surge. Wheel loads are rolling loads and must be placed in position to give the
maximum moments and shears. Dynamic loads for light and moderate cranes are given in BS 6399: Part 1.
For overhead travelling cranes, the vertical and horizontal dynamic loads and impact effects should be
determined in accordance with BS 2573-1. The values for cranes of loading class Q3 and Q4 as defined in
BS 2573-1 should be established in consultation with the crane manufacturer.
5. Earth and ground-water loading
The earth and ground-water loading, should be taken as the worst credible earth and ground-water loads
obtained in accordance with BS 8002. Where other earth and ground-water loads are used, such as
nominal loads determined in accordance with CP2, the value of the partial factor of safety should be taken
as 1.4. When applying partial factor of safety to earth and ground-water loads, no distinction should be
made between adverse and beneficial loads. Moreover, the same value of partial factor of safety should be
applied in any load combination.

Load factors/partial safety factors and design loads

Load factors for the ultimate limit state for various loads and load combinations are given in Table 2 of BS
5950.
In checking the strength of a structure, or of any part of it, the specified loads should be multiplied by the
relevant partial factors γ given in Table 2. The factored loads should be applied in the most unfavourable
realistic combination for the part or effect under consideration. The load carrying capacity of each
member and connection, as determined by the relevant provisions of this standard, should be such that the
factored loads would not cause failure.
In limit state design,
Design loads = characteristic or working loads GK or QK or WK x partial factor of safety γ
Where GK = Dead Load
QK = Live Load and
WK = Wind Load
To obtain design loading at ultimate limit state for strength and stability calculations the characteristic
load is multiplied by a load factor obtained from Table 2 of BS 5950.Generally, dead load is multiplied
by 1.4 and imposed vertical (or live) load by 1.6, except when the load case considers wind load also, in
which case, dead, imposed and wind loads are all multiplied by 1.2.

Load Combinations
Clause 2.4.1.2 Buildings without cranes
In the design of buildings not subject to loads from cranes, the following principal combinations of loads
Should be taken into account:
— Load combination 1: Dead load and imposed load (gravity loads);
— Load combination 2: Dead load and wind load;
— Load combination 3: Dead load, imposed load and wind load.

2.4.1.3 Overhead travelling cranes

The γf factors given in Table 2 for vertical loads from overhead travelling cranes should be applied to the
dynamic vertical wheel loads, i.e. the static vertical wheel loads increased by the appropriate allowance
for dynamic effects,. Where a structure or member is subject to loads from two or more cranes, the crane
loads should be taken as the maximum vertical and horizontal loads acting simultaneously where this is
reasonably possible. For overhead travelling cranes inside buildings, in the design of gantry girders and
their supports the following principal combinations of loads should be taken into account:
— Crane combination 1: Dead load, imposed load and vertical crane loads;
— Crane combination 2: Dead load, imposed load and horizontal crane loads;
— Crane combination 3: Dead load, imposed load, vertical crane loads and horizontal crane loads.
Further load combinations should also be considered in the case of members that support overhead
travelling cranes and are also subject to wind loads

Design strengths (Py)

Design strength is given by:

In BS 5950 no distinction is made between characteristic and design strength. In effect the material
safety factor γm = 1.0. Structural steel used in the UK is specified by BS 5950: Part 2, and strengths
of the more commonly used steels are given in Table 9 of BS 5950. As a result of the residual stresses
locked into the metal during the rolling process, the thicker the material, the lower the design strength.
BS 5950 covers the design of structures fabricated from structural steels conforming to the grades
and product standards specified in BS 5950 -2. If other steels are used, due allowance should be made for
variations in properties, including ductility and weldability.