MTHISTO100

Semi-Finals – Lesson 2: Respiratory System

PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 1. Nares

- Nostrils
- Provides for exchange of O2 and CO2 to
- Include sweat glands, sebaceous glands,
and from the blood
and coarse, moist vibrissae
- Organs include:
2. Vibrissae
o Lungs
- Hairs
o Branching system of bronchial tubes
- Filter out particulate material from
– link sites of gas exchange with
inspired air
external environment
3. Nasal Septum
- Ventilating mechanism include:
- Separates the nasal cavities as two
o Thoracic cage
cavernous chambers lying within the
o Intercostal muscles
skull
o Diaphragm
4. Conchae
o Elastic components of lung tissue
- Turbinate bones
Anatomical Division - Three bony shelf-like projections
- Epithelium on the middle and inferior
1. Upper Respiratory conchae is respiratory epithelium
Tract - Superior conchae is covered with
- Nose or nostrils, specialized olfactory epithelium
nasal cavity, mouth,
pharynx, and larynx Respiratory Epithelium
2. Lower Respiratory
- Mucosa having ciliated pseudostratified
Tract
columnar epithelium
- Trachea, bronchial
- Five major cell types:
tubes, and lungs
1. Ciliated columnar cells
Functional Division - Most abundant
- 250 – 300 cilia on the
1. Conducting Portion apical surface
- Cleans and humidifies inspired air and 2. Goblet cells
provides conduits for air movement to and - Numerous and
from alveoli predominate in some
- Supported by cartilage, collagen and elastic areas
fibers, and smooth muscle - Basal nuclei and
- Consists of the nasal cavities, pharynx, apical domains filled
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and with granules of
terminal bronchioles mucin glycoproteins
2. Respiratory Portion 3. Brush cells
- Where gas exchange occurs - Less numerous,
- Consists of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar columnar cell type
ducts, and alveoli - Small apical surface
➢ Alveoli – cellular site for the exchange bears sparse, blunt
of O2 and CO2 between inspired air and microvilli
blood; small air-filled, saclike structures - Chemosensory
which make up most of the lungs receptors resembling
Nasal Cavities gustatory cells, with
- Composed of the left and right nasal cavities, similar transduction
which have two components: components and synaptic contact with
o External, dilated vestibule afferent nerve endings on their basal
o Internal nasal cavity surfaces
4. Small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells)
- Difficult to distinguish in routine
preparations but possess numerous
 MTHISTO100
Semi-Finals – Lesson 2: Respiratory System
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

dense core granules 100-300 nm in - Columnar, with narrow bases and broad,
diameter cylindrical apexes containing the nuclei
- Similar to enteroendocrine cells of the and extending microvilli into the fluid
guts layer
- Part of the diffuse neuroendocrine - Well-developed junctional complexes
system bind the supporting cells to OF cells
- Represent only about 3% of the cells in - Supportive role is not well understood,
the respiratory epithelium but express abundant ion channels,
5. Basal cells which help maintain a microenvironment
- Mitotically active stem and progenitor cells conducive to olfactory function and
that give rise to the other epithelial cell types survival
3. Basal cells
Olfactory Epithelium
- Small, spherical, or cone-shaped cells
- Where the olfactory chemoreceptors are near the basal lamina
located - Stem cells for the other two types,
- Specialized region of the mucous membrane replacing olfactory neurons every 2-3
covering the superior conchae at the roof of months and support cells less frequently
the nasal cavity
- It is about 10cm2 in area and up to 100 um
in thickness
- Lamina propria possess large serous glands,
the olfactory glands (of Bowman) which
produce a constant flow of fluid around the
olfactory cilia and facilitating the access of
new odiferous substances
- Thick pseudostratified columnar epithelium
has three major cell types: Paranasal Sinuses
1. Olfactory Neurons
- Bipolar neurons - Bilateral cavities in the frontal, maxillary,
- Nuclei form an irregular row near the ethmoid, and sphenoid bones of the skull
middle - Lined with a thinner respiratory epithelium
- Apical pole is the dendrite end and has a having fewer goblet cells
knoblike swelling with about a dozen - Lamina propria contains only a few small
basal bodies, from which long cilia glands and is continuous with the underlying
project into the overlying aqueous layer periosteum
- Cilia are nonmotile axonemes and - Communicate with the nasal cavities through
collectively provide a large surface for small openings, mucus produced there is
transmembrane chemoreceptors moved into the nasal passages by the
o Receptors respond to odoriferous activity of ciliated epithelial cells
substances by generating an action PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
potential along the axons extending
from the basal ends of these neurons. Pharynx
- Axons leave the epithelium and unite in ▪ Nasopharynx
the lamina propria as very small nerves - First part of the pharynx
that then pass to the brain through - Nasal cavities open posteriorly to this
foramina in the cribriform plate of the - Continuous caudally with the oropharynx
ethmoid bone - Lined with respiratory epithelium
o Form the olfactory nerve (CNI) and - Mucosa contains the medial pharyngeal
eventually synapse with neurons in tonsil and the openings of the two
the olfactory bulb of the brain auditory tubes which connect to each
2. Supporting cells middle ear cavity
 MTHISTO100
Semi-Finals – Lesson 2: Respiratory System
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

▪ Oropharynx (throat) ▪ Trachealis Muscle –bundle of smooth

- Posterior part of the oral cavity leading to muscle that bridge the cartilage rings to the
the larynx and esophagus esophagus
- Lined with stratified squamous – relaxes during swallowing to facilitate the
epithelium passage of food by allowing the esophagus
to bulge into the lumen of the trachea
Larynx
– strongly contracts in the cough reflex
- Short (4cm x 4cm) passage for air between
the pharynx and the trachea
- Rigid wall is reinforced by hyaline cartilage
(thyroid, cricoid, and inferior arytenoid) and
smaller elastic cartilages (epiglottis,
cuneiform, corniculate, and superior
arytenoid cartilages)
o Movements of these cartilages by
skeletal muscles participate in sound
production during phonation
▪ Epiglottis – flattened structure projecting
from the upper rim of the larynx; prevent Bronchial Tree & Lung
swallowed food or fluid from entering that ▪ Primary Bronchi
passage - Enter each lung at the hilum, along with
– Lingual surface = stratified squamous arteries, veins, and lymphatic vessels
– Laryngeal surface = ciliated ▪ Secondary (Lobar) Bronchi
pseudostratified columnar (respiratory) - Originated from primary bronchi
epithelium - Three in the right lung, two in the left lung
▪ Vestibular folds – upper pair covered with - Each supplies a pulmonary lobe
typical respiratory epithelium ▪ Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchi
▪ Vocal folds – have features important for - Divisions of the lobar bronchi
phonation or sound production ▪ Bronchopulmonary segment
– covered with nonkeratinized stratified - Constituted by segmental bronchi
squamous epithelium that protects the - 10-12% of each lung with its own
mucosa connective tissue capsule and blood
– vocal ligament supports the VFs, supply
composed of dense regular elastic - Facilitates the specific surgical resection
connective tissue of diseases lung tissue without affecting
– vocalis muscle allow each VF to be moved, nearby health tissue
composed of large bundles of striated fibers ▪ Bronchioles
▪ Rima glottidis – opening between the - Terminal branches of smaller bronchi
larynx that is narrowed during phonation due ▪ Terminal Bronchioles
to adduction (drawing together) - Smaller bronchioles inside a pulmonary
Trachea lobule (five to seven from larger
bronchioles)
- 10-12 cm long in adults, lined with typical
respiratory mucosa
- Lamina propria contains numerous
seromucous glands
- Dozen C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
between the submucosa and adventitia
reinforces the wall and keeps the tracheal
lumen open
 MTHISTO100
Semi-Finals – Lesson 2: Respiratory System
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

Bronchi - Saclike evaginations, each about 200um in

diameter, from the respiratory bronchioles,
- Primary bronchus branch into smaller
alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs
branches until it reaches 1-2mm in diameter
- Responsible for the spongy structure of the
- Mucosa is structurally similar to tracheal
lungs
mucosa
- Adult lung has 200 million alveoli with
- Most cartilage rings completely encircle the
internal surface area of 75m2
lumen but as the diameter narrows, cartilage
- Resembles a small rounded pouch open on
rings are replaced with hyaline cartilage
one side to an alveolar duct or alveolar sac
- Lamina propria has smooth muscle and
- Exchanges O2 and CO2 with the blood in
elastic fibers that are more prominent in
surrounding capillaries through thin alveolar
smaller bronchial branches
walls
Bronchioles ▪ Interalveolar septa – scattered fibroblasts
and sparse extracellular matrix, notably
- Intralobular airways with diameters of 1 mm elastic and reticular fibers, and connective
or less tissue
- Form after tenth generation of branching – arrangement of elastic fibers enables
- Lack mucosal glands and cartilage alveoli to expand with inspiration and
- Associated with dense connective tissue and contract passively with expiration
smooth muscle – reticular fibers prevent collapse and
- Decreases in height and complexity to distention of alveoli
become ciliated simple columnar or simple – vascularized with the richest capillary
cuboidal networks
▪ Mucociliary apparatus – important in ▪ Blood-Air Barrier – three components that
cleaning debris and mucus by moving it separate air in the alveoli from capillary
upward the bronchial tree and trachea blood; also called respiratory membrane
▪ Club cells – compose the cuboidal 1. Two or three highly attenuated, thin cells
epithelium of terminal bronchioles; also lining the alveolus
called the bronchiolar exocrine cells which 2. Fused basal laminae of these cells and
has the following functions: the endothelial cells of capillaries
o Secretion of surfactant lipoproteins and 3. Thin capillary endothelial cells
mucins ▪ Alveolar pores (of Kohn) – ranging 10-
o Detoxification of inhaled xenobiotic 15um in diameter; penetrates the
compounds interalveolar septa and connect neighboring
o Secretion of antimicrobial peptides and alveoli that open to different bronchioles
cytokines – equalize air pressure and permit collateral
▪ Brush cells – chemosensory circulation of air if a bronchiole becomes
▪ DNES small granule cells obstructed
▪ Stem cells – replaces other bronchiolar cell ▪ Hemoglobin – bind to erythrocytes as O2
types from the alveolar air diffuses through the BA
Respiratory Bronchioles barrier into the capillary blood
▪ Capillary endothelial cells – very thin, but
- Divisions of terminal bronchioles continuous; perinuclear organelles allows
- Include saclike alveoli the cell to become thin and demonstrate gas
- Represent the first part of the respiratory exchange; have numerous pinocytotic
region vesicles
- Mucosa resembles terminal bronchioles but ▪ Types of Alveolar Cells
have a few openings to alveoli where gas 1. Type I alveolar cells (type I
exchange occurs pneumocytes)
Alveoli o Constitute the alveolar side of the BA
barrier and make up 95% of the
alveolar lining
 MTHISTO100
Semi-Finals – Lesson 2: Respiratory System
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

o Thin (TEM is needed) and complexed iron (hemosiderin) from

o Organelles are grouped around the erythrocytes
nucleus to reduce the thickness of the - Most migrate into bronchioles where they
cytoplasm move up the mucociliary apparatus for
o Pinocytotic vesicles play a role in removal in the esophagus
turnover of surfactant and removal of - Others exit the lungs in the lymphatic
small particulate contaminants drainage
o Have tight junctions that prevent the
leakage of tissue fluid into alveolar air Regeneration in Alveolar Lining
space
2. Type II alveolar cells (septal cells) 1. Inhalation of toxic gases can kill type I and
o Cuboidal cells bulging into the air type II alveolar cells
space, interspersed among type I 2. Death of alveolar cells stimulates mitotic
alveolar cells, bound to them with activities in the remaining type II cells,
tight junctions and desmosomes progeny of which become progenitors for
o Often occur in groups of two or three both cell types.
at points where two or more alveolar 3. Normal turnover rate of type II cells is
walls unite estimated 1% per day
o Epithelial cells rest on the same basal ➢ Results in a continuous renewal of both
lamina and have the same origin as alveolar cells
type I cells 4. Increased toxic stress stimulate stem cells to
o Nuclei are more rounded and may divide and give rise to new alveolar cell
have nucleoli progenitors
o Cytoplasm is lightly stained with many
Lung Vasculature and Nerves
vesicles
▪ Lamellar bodies – vesicles in - Blood circulation in the lungs includes both
type II, membrane bound granules the pulmonary circulation, carrying O2-
containing closely stacked parallel depleted blood for gas exchange and
membrane lamellae bronchial circulation, carrying O2-rich blood.
– contain a variety of lipids, - Pulmonary arteries and veins are both
phospholipids, and proteins which relatively thin-walled as a result of the low
are secreted as pulmonary pressures (25 mm Hg systolic, 5 mm Hg
surfactant by spreading over the diastolic) within the pulmonary circuit.
entire alveolar surface. - The lymphatic vessels originate in the
connective tissue of bronchioles. They follow
the bronchioles, bronchi, and pulmonary
vessels and all drain into lymph nodes in the
region of the hilum
- Both parasympathetic and sympathetic
autonomic fibers innervate the lungs and
control reflexes regulating smooth muscle
contractions which determine the diameters
of the airways.
- General visceral afferent fibers, carrying
poorly localized pain sensations, are also
present.

▪ Alveolar macrophages (dust cells) Pleural Membranes

- Found in alveoli and in the interalveolar
septum - Serous membrane covering the lung’s outer
- Slightly darker than Type II pneumocytes surface and internal wall of the thoracic
because of dust content and carbon from air cavity
 MTHISTO100
Semi-Finals – Lesson 2: Respiratory System
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

▪ Visceral Pleura – membrane attached to 3. Sinusitis

the lung tissue - inflammatory process of the sinuses that
▪ Parietal Pleura – membrane lining the may persist for long periods of time, mainly
thoracic walls because of obstruction of drainage orifices
➢ Both layers are composed of simple 4. Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia
squamous mesothelial cells on a thin - Kartagener syndrome, an inherited genetic
connective tissue layer containing disorder characterized by defective ciliary
collagen and elastic fibers action
▪ Pleural cavity – narrow, lined with 5. Laryngitis
mesothelial cells producing a thin film of - Inflammation of the larynx accompanied by
serous fluid edema (swelling of the organ’s lamina
propria)
- Changes the shape of the vocal cords
6. Singer’s nodules
- Benign reactive polyps that are a result of
laryngitis
7. Coughing
- reflex action produced most often by viral
infection or other irritation of the trachea or
other region of the respiratory tract
8. Bronchiolitis
- Caused by measles virus or adenovirus
- Can lead to obliterative bronchiolitis
Respiratory Movements (complete or partial closure of airway lumen
due to fibrosis)
• Inhalation 9. Asthma
➢ Contraction of the external intercostal - common condition produced by chronic
muscles elevates the ribs inflammation within the bronchial tree of the
➢ Contraction of the diaphragm lowers the lungs.
bottom of the thoracic cavity - characterized by sudden constrictions of the
➢ Bronchi and bronchioles increase in smooth muscle in bronchioles called
diameter and length bronchospasms, or bronchial spasms
➢ Respiratory portion enlarges due to 10. Atelectasis
expansion of alveolar ducts - Obstruction of the air supply in bronchi due
➢ Individual alveoli enlarge slightly to excess mucus or to aspirated material can
• Exhalation lead to collapse of pulmonary lobules as
➢ Lungs retract passively because of circulating blood absorbs gases from the
muscle relaxation affected alveoli.
➢ Elastic fibers return to unstretched 11. Diffuse alveolar damage (adult
conditions respiratory distress syndrome)
- produced by various types of injuries to the
PATHOLOGY (MEDICAL APPLICATION) alveolar epithelial and the capillary
endothelial cells.
1. Squamous Metaplasia
12. Severe acute respiratory syndrome
- Immobilization of cilia leading to failure to coronavirus clade 2 (COVID-19)
clear mucus containing filtered material
- Targets type II pneumocytes
2. Precancerous cell dysplasia 13. Congestive Heart Failure
- Produced by the change from
- Lungs become congested with blood, and
pseudostratified ciliated columnar to
erythrocytes pass into the alveoli, where
stratified squamous epithelium
they are phagocytized by alveolar
macrophages.
 MTHISTO100
Semi-Finals – Lesson 2: Respiratory System
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

14. Emphysema
- chronic lung disease most commonly
caused by cigarette smoking, involves
dilation and permanent enlargement of the
bronchioles leading to pulmonary acini.
15. Pneumonia
- Local inflammatory condition produced by
any type of infection in the respiratory
regions
16. Pneumothorax
- a partially or completely collapsed lung
caused by air trapped in the pleural cavity,
typically resulting from blunt or penetrating
trauma to the chest and producing shortness
of breath and hypoxia
17. Pleuritis (pleurisy)
- Inflammation of pleura commonly caused by
an acute viral infection of pneumonia
18. Pleural effusion
- fluid buildup in the pleural cavity produces
shortness of breath and can be one result of
inflamed pleura
19. Lung cancer
a. Squamous cell carcinoma
- closely correlated with a history of
smoking, arises most often from
epithelial cells of segmental bronchi
b. Adenocarcinoma
- most common lung cancer in
nonsmokers, usually arises from
epithelial cells more peripherally, in
bronchioles and alveoli
c. Small cell carcinoma
- less common but highly malignant
form of lung cancer, develops after
neoplastic transformation of small
granule Kulchitsky cells in bronchial
respiratory epithelium