Chapter 2 Notes
Chapter 2 Notes
Chapter 2 Notes
Proof : We will only prove this statement for h2 , the rest is left as an exercise.
Note that this limit always exist. In case the sequence is not bounded above for every tail {ak | k ≥ n}
of terms, this will of course be an infinite limit. Furthermore, the sequence supk≥n an is non-increasing,
hence it is either ∞ or a real number.
We are interested in the following properties of lim sup. If lim sup an = L, then:
n→∞
(i) for each N and each ε > 0, there is some k > N such that ak ≥ N − ε
(ii) for each ε > 0, there is some some N ∈ N such that ak ≤ L + ε for each k ≥ N
(iii) lim sup can = cL if c is any non-negative constant.
n→∞
ple 2.3: Consider the sequences (an ) = (1, 0, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 0, . . . , ) and (bn ) = ((−1)n (1− n1 )) and (cn ), where cn = 1
n
if n is odd and cn = −1 otherwise.
1
1 1
(b) If L = ∞, then if z 6= 0, choosing ε = |z| , we must have |Ck | k > ε for infinitely many values of k.
If this was not the case, then supk≥n |Ck |1/k wouldbe bounded and L < ∞. We then immediately
have that |Ck z k | ≥ 1 for infinitely many k and hence can not converge. That the series converges
to 0 for z = 0 is rather trivial.
(c) Suppose 0 < L < ∞ and first assume |z| < R = 1/L. Let δ = 1−|z|L 2 , then |z| = R(1 − 2δ) and
1
since lim supk≥n (|Ck | k )|z| = L|z| = 1 − 2δ. It follows that |Ck |1/k |z| < 1 − δ for sufficiently large
n→∞
k and the series is absolutely convergent.
1
On the other hand, if |z| > R, or equivalently L > |z| for infinitely many k, hence Ck z k has
absolute value greater than 1 for infinitely many values, hence the series diverges.
rk 2.6: ∞ if L = 0
Note that R is called the radius of convergence of the series and is defined as follows: R = 0 if L = ∞
1/L if 0 < L < ∞
P∞
Furthermore, if k=0 Ck z k has radius of convergence P∞ R, then the series
P∞ converges uniformly in any disc
k k
smaller than the radius: Explicitly, ∀0 < δ < R: k=0 |C k z | ≤ k=0 |C k |R which also converges. It
follows that a power series is continuous inside a disc of radius R.
ple 2.7:
P∞
(a) The series n=0 nz n converges for |z| < 1 and diverges for |z| > 1 since lim sup |n|1/n = 1. For
n→∞
|z| = 1, we have that it diverges since the sequence an = nz n does not converge to 0.
P∞
(b) The series n=0 z n /n2 also has radius of convergence 1, but here it converges for all z with |z| = 1.
P∞ n
(c) The series n=1 zn converges for all |z| < 1 and also converges for all z with modulus 1, except at
Pk n
z = 1. It diverges for all |z| > 1. To see this, show that for each k ∈ N we have: (1 − z) n=1 zn =
Pn ∞ n
1
1 + k=2 ( n1 − n−1 )z k to conclude that 1 − z n=0 zn converges.
P
P∞ zn 1
(d) n=0 n! converges for all z since n→∞
lim n!1/n → 0.
P∞ n n n 1 n n
(e) n=0 [1+(−1) ] z has radius of convergence 2 , since lim supn→∞ [1+(−1) ] = lim sup (ak ) = 2.
n→∞ k≥n
Where does the above series converge and diverge?
P∞ n2
(f ) n=0 z has a radius of convergence 1.
P∞
(g) Any series n=0 Cn z n with Cn = ±1 for all n has radius of convergence 1.
P∞ n
P∞ n
(h) It
P can easily be nshown that the sum of two convergent power series n=0 an z + n=0 bn z =
(a
n=0 n + b n )z is convergent.
P∞
The Cauchy
Pn product, of the two abovementioned series, is defined as the series n=0 cn z n , where
cn = k=0 ak bn−k . In short, the sequence of partial sums is simply the product of the sequence of
partial sums of the two original series.