1 Metropolitan-Areas - 2020

2019
The Localization of the Global Agendas

How local action is transforming territories and communities
Metropolitan Areas
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2 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

The Localization
of the Global Agendas
How local action is transforming
territories and communities
The GOLD V Thematic Report

on Metropolitan Areas
Edited by
UCLG and Metropolis
GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 3

Content
00
Preliminary remarks
Editorial board
Credits
Abbreviations and acronyms
Foreword
Background: Why SDG localization?
01
Introduction:
the Metropolitan Areas
Page 15
02
The metropolitan
context and the SDGs
Page 18
2.1 Metropolitan governance

2.2 Institutional arrangements to foster
the implementation of the SDGs
2.3 Metropolitan areas and the Voluntary National Reports
03
Metropolitan actions
for the implementation
of the SDGs
Page 26
3.1 Metropolitan contributions to the achievement

of the SDGs
3.2 Addressing the main metropolitan challenges in
line with the 2030 Agenda
04
Conclusions and policy
recommendations: the state of SDG
localization in the Metropolitan Areas
Page 42
05
Policy recommendations
at the global level
Page 46
06
Notes
Page 54
Bibliography
Page 58

Editorial board Credits
Coordination Agustí Fernández de Losada, Senior Research
Edgardo Bilsky Fellow and Director of the Global Cities Programme at
Luc Aldon Barcelona Center for International Affairs (CIDOB), Spain
Anna Calvete Mariona Tomàs, Professor, Political Science
Andrea Ciambra Department, University of Barcelona, Spain
Ainara Fernández With the support of:
Jolie Guzmán Anna Calvete Moreno, Expert on governance
Emilie Huet and global agendas, Barcelona, Spain
Mathilde Penard Sue Bannister, Director, City Insight,
eThekwini-Durban, South Africa
Brian Roberts, Director, Urban Frontiers Ltd., Brisbane,
Policy advisory and Emeritus Professor, University of Canberra, Australia
Michael Sutcliffe, Director, City Insight,
Emilia Saiz, Secretary-General, UCLG
eThekwini-Durban, South Africa
UCLG Executive Bureau, 2016-2019
Eugeni Villalbí, Project Officer for the Metropolis
Observatory
Silvia Llorente, Project Officer for Metropolis Women
Secretary-Generals of UCLG sections
Lia Brum, Content Curator, Metropolis
·· Africa: Jean-Pierre Elong Mbassi, UCLG Africa Secretariat General
·· Asia-Pacific: Bernadia Tjandradewi, UCLG ASPAC
·· Eurasia: Rasikh Sagitov, UCLG Eurasia
·· Europe: Fréderic Vallier, CEMR
·· Latin America - CORDIAL: Sergio Arredondo,
FLACMA, Nelson Fernández, Mercociudades
·· Middle East and West Asia: Mehmet
With special inputs from networks involved in the
Duman, UCLG MEWA
Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments
·· Metropolis: Octavi de la Varga
(www.global-taskforce.org)
·· North America: Brock Carlton, FCM
UCLG World Secretariat
With special thanks for their contribution to

the Barcelona Provincial Council (International
Relations Directorate) and in particular to
Kontxi Odriozola and Ana Tapia.
With the support of:
metropolis
Special acknowledgements for the financial

and advisory support of:

Abbreviations and Acronyms
B M
BRT – Bus Rapid Transit MDG – Millennium Development Goal
C N
C40 – C40 Cities Climate Leadership NGO – Non-governmental organization
CEDAW – Convention on the Elimination of all Forms
of Discrimination Against Women O
CLGF – Commonwealth Local Government Forum OECD – Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
CO2 – Carbon dioxide Development
COP – Conference of the Parties
CSO – Civil society organization P
D PEP BA – Participative Strategic Plan Buenos Aires
2035
DG – Directorate General (European Commission) PPP – Public-Private Partnership
DRC – Democratic Republic of the Congo PPPP – Public-Private-People Partnership
G S
GCoM – Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and SDG – Sustainable Development Goal
Energy SDSN – United Nations Sustainable Development
GDP – Gross domestic product Solutions Network
GHG – Greenhouse gas SME – Small and medium-sized enterprise
GOLD – Global Observatory on Local Democracy and SNG – Sub-national government
Decentralization
GTF – Global Taskforce of Local and Regional T
Governments
TALD – Territorial approach to local development
H U
HLPF – United Nations High-Level Political Forum on UCLG – United Cities and Local Governments
Sustainable Development UNDESA – United Nations Department for Economic
and Social Affairs
I UNSG – United Nations Secretary-General
ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability
IDP – Integrated Development Plan V
IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change VLR – Voluntary Local Review
IT – Information Technology VNR – Voluntary National Review
K W
Km – Kilometre WCCD – World Council on City Data
WIEGO – Women in Informal Employment, Globalizing
L and Organizing
LGA – Local government association
LGBTQIA+ – Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,
queer/questioning, intersex, asexual and other gender
identities
LMTA – Lagos Metropolitan Transport Authority
LRG – Local and regional government

Foreword
For more than a decade, the reports of the I usually say that metropolitan spaces are
Global Observatory on Local Democracy the disruptive element in local and regional
and Decentralization (GOLD) have been governance, requiring political will, leadership
identifying the trends of our ever-changing and generosity. As global and metropolitan
world, and helping us to make sense of the challenges converge, sustainable development
transformations that affect our planet and the global agendas applied to large conurbations
human beings through the perspective of local have a decisive impact on policy making.
and regional governments, the ones which are Consequently, metropolitan areas are the
closest to citizens. setting where some of the planet’s most pressing
Looking back into the five editions of the problems can be solved.
GOLD reports and seeing that the chapter on This is the first time that the chapters of GOLD
metropolitan areas is a common feature to all of are released as stand-alone publications, and I
them, I see it as one of the most unique features am particularly grateful for this initiative. Crossing
of GOLD, not only because it reflects the diversity the inputs from different regions, the present
and complementarity of the constituency of publication reflects the collaboration between
World Organization of United Cities and Local all the sections of UCLG, and is the result of the
Governments (UCLG), but also because it shows strengthened joint work of the teams of the
how our metropolitan world has evolved so far. UCLG World Secretariat and of the Metropolis
The GOLD V Report highlights the involvement Secretariat General.
of local and regional governments in mechanisms This year, which marks the fifth anniversary
of coordination, monitoring and reporting to of the Montréal Declaration on Metropolitan
create a sense of collective responsibility for Areas, recalls us of the importance to analyze
the achievement of more equitable, fair and and monitor metropolitan phenomena across the
sustainable societies. Providing an up-to-date globe. The present publication serves as the first
global mapping of the processes of localization compass for this taskforce, offering Metropolis
of the global agendas, GOLD V indicates how and our more than 130 members invaluable hints
decentralization and multilevel governance, to make the Sustainable Development Goals and
especially in metropolitan areas, can contribute to the New Urban Agenda a reality.
these processes.
Octavi de la Varga
Secretary-General
World Association of the Major
Metropolis (Metropolis) /
Metropolitan section of UCLG

Background:
Why SDG localization?
In 2015 and 2016, world leaders came We currently stand at the end of the first
together to set a historic milestone in quadrennial cycle of implementation of the
multilateral cooperation with the adoption SDGs, which means that the worldwide state of
of global agreements towards sustainable implementation of each SDG has been evaluated
development. The 2030 Agenda and the 17 at least once. Consequently, the international
Sustainable Development Goals, the New community is taking this time to take stock of the
Urban Agenda, the Paris Agreement on progress made, the trends that have emerged
climate change, the Sendai Framework on and the challenges encountered over these past
Disaster Risk Reduction and the Addis Ababa four years, and these will be discussed at the
Action Agenda on Financing for Development
all showcased a global will to respond to
today’s global challenges through the Box 1
adoption of a firm rights-based approach.
Local and regional governments (LRGs)
have risen to the scale of the challenge, ‘Whole-of-government’
demonstrating their commitment to the and ‘whole-of-society’
realization of the global agendas by putting in
place elaboration, adoption and implementation
approaches
processes. From their perspective, the global
agendas are interlinked and cannot be achieved Multilevel and collaborative governance
in isolation: all sustainability actions to address frameworks that emphasize the need to
the highly interrelated challenges affecting our approach policy-making processes in an
territories and cities must be fully integrated integrated way, factoring in all government
and comprehensive. The 2030 Agenda has bodies and members of society. Adopting
been widely embraced across territories these approaches is critical for advancing
and represents a significant step forward in sustainable development, since they
terms of ambition, universality and complexity constitute the basis for policy coherence
with respect to the Millennium Development (see Box 7) by requiring policy-making to
Goals (MDGs). The interconnectedness of the happen in an integrated manner beyond
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provides, institutional siloes, promoting synergies
on the one hand, our best shot at tackling the and improving public accountability. Putting
multi-dimensional challenges facing our societies. governance frameworks in place requires
On the other, it requires a significant step up in the establishment of adequate coordination
policy-making efforts and the adoption of a truly and participation mechanisms that ensure
integrated approach that ensures that ‘no one that sub-national governments (SNGs) and
and no place are left behind’ — in other words, members of society take part effectively in
the UN ‘whole-of-government’ and ‘whole- policy design, implementation and monitoring
of-society’ approach to development (see Box processes at all levels of government.
1), encompassing a truly multilevel and multi-
Source: UNPAN; GTF, UCLG (2019), 'Towards the Localization of
stakeholder governance system that puts people the SDGs'.
at the centre of development (see Box 2).

SDG Summit in September 2019. According to how to promote integrated policies and actions
the UN’s quadrennial Global Sustainable Report that meet today’s challenges from the local and
and the UN Secretary-General 2019 Special regional perspective.
Report, positive trends have emerged at the The report highlights how, as part of their day-
aggregate global level, in particular regarding to-day responsibilities, LRGs are implementing
the implementation of SDGs 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11 and policies and carrying out actions which although
14.1 Extreme poverty, child mortality rates and not always officially ‘SDG-labelled’, have a direct
the share of the urban population living in slums impact on populations’ access to infrastructure,
continue to decrease, while progress has been services and life opportunities. As acknowledged
made with respect to health, certain gender by the UN General Assembly, the UNSG and the
equality targets and access to electricity in poor Habitat III consensus, the decarbonization of our
territories. However, the shift towards a new economies and ensuring access to energy, water,
sustainability paradigm is not taking place at the food, transport and infrastructure will ultimately
pace and scale required to trigger the necessary be achieved through project-level investments
transformation to meet the Goals by 2030. The that take place mostly at the sub-national level
incidence of hunger has continued to spread in and are led by LRGs.4 It is thus crucial to build up
2019, a trend observed since 2016. Greenhouse a critical mass of knowledge about how territories
gas (GHG) emissions, 70% of which cities are and cities are progressing towards sustainability,
responsible for, also continue to increase, while what initiatives are being put forward and what
the loss of biodiversity continues to accelerate obstacles are being encountered if we are to
dramatically as the intensity of climate change achieve the SDGs and other global agendas.
worsens.2 Despite the progress made in poverty One of the main transformations humanity
reduction, rising inequality continues to fuel the is experiencing is the rapid urbanization of
exclusion of discriminated and disadvantaged society, and in this respect LRGs find themselves
populations (such as the poor, women, youth, the increasingly at the centre of many crucial
elderly, people with disabilities, ethnic and sexual challenges. The percentage of the world’s
minorities, amongst others). Moreover, although population living in urban areas is expected
the means of implementation are progressing, to rise from 55% to nearly 70% by 2050 — an
finance for sustainable development remains increase of 2.3 billion urban dwellers likely to be
an ongoing issue. Institutions often depleted concentrated in low and lower middle-income
by territorial conflict are not robust enough to territories where urbanization is happening at
respond to the magnitude of the interrelated the fastest rate. Changes in population growth,
challenges they face. age composition and migration patterns heavily
As stressed by the UN Secretary-General impact urbanization pathways and those of the
(UNSG), the current social, economic and surrounding territories, cutting across a wide
environmental trends that are shaping the world range of SDGs — for example poverty eradication,
have a major impact on the realization of the access to food and water, health, gender equality,
SDGs and present a daunting challenge in terms economic growth and decent work, the reduction
of meeting the Goals in the mandated time. The of inequalities and promoting sustainable cities
UNSG identifies five such trends — urbanization,
demographic change, climate change, protracted
crises and frontier technologies.3 The interactions, Box 2
synergies and trade-offs between these trends
give rise to highly complex and interconnected
policy-making environments at local, national and Multilevel governance
international levels. One of the main objectives
of the GOLD V Report has been to examine how
A decision-making system based on coordination mechanisms that
LRGs are contributing to the achievement of the
allow the allocation of competences and responsibilities of government
global agendas in the face of such trends. These
both vertically and horizontally in accordance with the principle of
agendas — and the commitment of LRGs to
subsidiarity (see Box 6) and that respect local autonomy. This system
achieving them — are changing our societies and
recognizes that there is no optimal level of decentralization (see Box
promoting the evolution of good governance and
5) and that implementation and competences are strongly context-
citizen participation in highly diverse contexts all
specific: complete separation of responsibilities and outcomes in policy-
around the world. It is therefore critical to take this
making cannot be achieved and different levels of government are
time to better understand where LRGs stand with
interdependent. Multilevel governance necessitates all levels sharing
respect to SDG implementation, and to revisit
information and collaborating fully, so that every level can publicly and
policy-making processes in order to take full
accountably lead horizontal relations with respective stakeholders to
advantage of the mutually reinforcing potential of
optimize policy outcomes.
global agendas and local processes as catalysers
Source: UCLG (2016), 'Fourth Global Report on Local Democracy and Decentralization.
for change. The aim of the GOLD V Report is to Co-creating the Urban Future'.
contribute to such an endeavour, looking at

that are better articulated with their hinterlands warmed by 1°C above pre-industrial levels and, at
— which significantly influences the prospects the current rate of warming of 0.2°C per decade,
for SDG implementation. At the aggregate level, global warming will reach 1.5°C by 2030. This
world population growth has slowed compared report stresses the pivotal role played by cities
with ten years ago and stands at an annual growth in climate change mitigation and in reaching the
rate of 1.1%.5 However, such figures mask highly agreed goal of limiting climate change to 2°C,
heterogeneous demographic patterns between and if possible 1.5°C. Allowing global warming
regions and urban and rural territories. to reach 2°C will critically endanger natural and
While more than half the growth forecast human systems and will particularly affect the
between 2019 and 2050 (estimated at two billion most vulnerable populations and territories. Since
people) is expected to take place in Africa, Asia 1990, climate-related extreme disasters have
is expected to grow by 650 million people, Latin more than doubled. This, together with drastically
America by 180 million whilst Europe’s population changing weather conditions, is causing
is expected to decrease.6 Population growth unquantifiable suffering and loss of human life
will be concentrated in the least economically and the destruction of infrastructure, aggravating
developed regions, which will make it even resource scarcity and forcing the displacement
harder for those territories and cities to eradicate of populations. Existing tensions act as risk
poverty and hunger and improve the provision of multipliers for violence, putting additional
education, health and basic services. Moreover, pressure on often fragile political systems and
the number of persons aged over 60 is expected resources. Since 2010, state-based and non-
to rise to 1.4 billion by 2030, although the pace state-based conflicts have risen by 60% and
at which the population is aging varies greatly 125% respectively, while the number of globally
between world regions. By 2050, all regions of the displaced people has doubled over the past 20
world are expected to have more than 25% of their years to reach 65 million.7 The deterioration of
populations aged over 60 — with the exception global peace constitutes a fundamental threat
of Africa, which is expected to concentrate the to the rule of law and good governance and,
world’s largest share of population aged between consequently, to the cornerstones of sustainable
15 and 19. Aging territories and cities will face development.
increasing fiscal and political pressure to provide In the face of such challenges, it is imperative
the elderly with pensions and social protection. that we scale up and accelerate action before
At the same time, it will be critical for territories it is too late. In order to do so, we need to think
and cities with swelling youth populations to differently about development strategies and
provide adequate healthcare, education and job adopt an evidence-based approach to sustainable
opportunities to ensure the implementation of development that reflects the reality of today’s
the 2030 Agenda. world. Urbanization, the development of frontier
Climate and environmental challenges are technologies and connectivity are some of the
profoundly reshaping our territories and have defining features of our contemporary societies,
a direct impact on cities. According to the and although they pose challenges to governance,
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change they are also the key to achieving the SDGs and
(IPCC) 2018 Special Report, the world has already preserving life for future generations.
The Local and Regional

Governments’ Forum,
organized by the Global
Taskforce, during the United
Nations’ SDG Summit in New
York on September 24, 2019
(photo: UCLG-CGLU/Ege Okal,
bit.ly/2naVvsb).

Purposes and goals
of the report
The purpose of the GOLD V Report is to local processes. The transformational potential
propose how these ambitious Global Goals of a territorial approach to local development
and objectives can be met through policies, (TALD) is enormous (see Box 4). Yet, in order to
actions and initiatives designed and put in fully unleash it and ensure the implementation
place by the territories and communities of the global development agendas, important
that make up cities, towns and regions. challenges must be tackled. Significant efforts
The report suggests that this cannot be have been made since 2015 to implement the
done unless urban and territorial planning, 2030 Agenda’s provisions and advance towards
strategic design, institutional environments the achievement of the Goals. However, given the
and political roadmaps are fully embedded in multi-dimensional challenges our societies are
the territories, i.e. ‘territorialized’, taking full facing, the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs call for a
advantage of local potentialities, involving all move beyond narrow targeted policy-making
local stakeholders and building on local needs towards a review of governance culture and
and demands. In other words, these goals can
only be achieved through a fully-fledged, co-
owned and accountable process of localization
of the global agendas (see Box 3). Box 3
Territories and cities can lead transformational
processes that promote development models
that are both respectful of the environment and
Localization
put people first. Territorialized development
strategies based on integrated planning have The 2030 Agenda emphasizes the need
the power to transform cities and territories, for an inclusive and localized approach to
foster inclusion, reduce resource usage and GHG the SDGs. Localization is described as ‘the
emissions, and improve rural-urban linkages. process of defining, implementing and
When coupled with cutting-edge technologies, monitoring strategies at the local level for
the economies of scale facilitated by cities and achieving global, national, and sub-national
their ability to attract innovation become major sustainable development goals and targets.’
catalysts for the achievement of the SDGs, allowing More specifically, it takes into account sub-
for the development of alternative patterns of national contexts for the achievement of
production and consumption, decentralized the 2030 Agenda, from the setting of goals
renewable energy systems, individualized and targets to determining the means of
healthcare, natural disaster detection solutions, implementation and using indicators to
and stronger bonds between cities, towns and measure and monitor progress.
their hinterlands. The possibilities are endless.
As shown throughout the GOLD V Report, such Source: GTF, UCLG (2019), 'Towards the Localization of
the SDGs'; GTF, UNDP, UN-Habitat (2016), 'Roadmap for
localized development strategies, developed Localizing the SDGs: Implementation and Monitoring at Sub-
national Level'; UN Development Group (2014), 'Localizing
from and suited to local realities, also have an the Post2015 Agenda' (outcome of the global UN dialogue
impact on the global process of transforming process realized from June 2014 to October 2014).
development, which in turn reinforces sustainable

institutions. As discussed in the GOLD V Report, This is important for shedding light on a
existing national strategies and institutional number of related issues affecting (and changing)
frameworks for SDG implementation, as well as the development policy globally. As stated
state of decentralization and the means available previously, this study primarily aims to show the
for local implementation of the global agendas, state of progress of SDG achievement in the
determine the transformational strength that territories and emphasize its critical importance
local action can achieve (see Box 5). Questions for the realization of the global agendas. On
thus arise: can the SDGs both inspire local action the one hand, it is widely acknowledged that
and influence such institutional environments?; fulfilment of the 2030 Agenda requires the full
and can local action arising from the cities and engagement and commitment of all levels of
territories translate into global change? governance including LRGs, civil society and
local stakeholders such as the private sector,
social partners, academia and grassroots
organizations. On the other, territories and
Box 4 local communities are where implementation
is taking place. The key question addressed
Territorial approach to by the GOLD V Report is the extent to which
towns, cities, provinces and regions have been
local development (TALD) able — through their actions and initiatives — to
become part of the solution to the fundamental
National development policy that recognizes
and historic challenges they face. Analyzing the
local development as being endogenous,
progress that local governments are making
incremental, spatially integrated and multi-
in the implementation of the Goals and their
scalar, and which acknowledges the primary
‘localization’ — bringing them down to the local
responsibility of local authorities for plan-
level, rethinking and re-designing them so that
ning, managing and financing such local
they fit with the characteristics and demands of
development — in other words, development
citizens and territories — is an indication of how
that enables autonomous and accountable
well the SDG framework itself is developing, and
local authorities to leverage the contribution of
how much there is still left to do.
actors operating at multiple scales to produce
The GOLD V Report also aims to provide
public goods and services tailored to the local
an updated picture on the current state of
reality, which in turn brings incremental value
decentralization around the world. Achieving
to national development efforts.
the SDGs and the other global agendas at
Source: European Commission DEVCO (2016), the local level will not be possible unless
'Supporting decentralization, local governance and
local development through a territorial approach'.
territories, communities, and local authorities
at different sub-national levels are adequately
empowered, supported and funded. This implies
strengthening and improving decentralization of
Box 5 the political system, promoting the devolution
of competences and powers, ensuring respect
Decentralization for the principle of subsidiarity and making local
governments responsible and accountable (see
Box 6).
The existence of local authorities, as distinct from the state’s
This thematic report includes an analysis of
administrative authorities, to whom the legal framework allocates
national strategies for the implementation of the
powers, resources and capacities to exercise a degree of self-
2030 Agenda and how LRGs are being engaged
government in order to meet the allocated responsibilities. Their
in this process, whether the institutional
decision-making legitimacy is underpinned by representative,
framework enables LRGs to be proactive in the
elected local democratic structures that determine how power
implementation of these agendas, and the status
is exercised and make local authorities accountable to citizens in
of decentralization in the region. The report
their jurisdiction.
aims to answer questions on decentralization
The World Observatory on Subnational Government Finance
trends and the development of a truly multilevel
and Investment proposes the following definition: ‘decentralization
understanding of policy-making: are LRGs more
consists of the transfer of powers, responsibilities and resources
empowered and active than they used to be?;
from central government to sub-national governments, defined
have the SDGs and the other global agendas
as separated legal entities elected by universal suffrage and
driven any change in institutional relationships
having some degree of autonomy’.
and vertical/horizontal cooperation?; are national
planning and decision-making mechanisms and
Source: UN Habitat (2009), 'International Guidelines on Decentralisation and Access
to Basic Services'; UCLG (2008), 'Decentralization and Local Democracy in the systems more open, sensitive to and aware of
World,First Global Report on Local Democracy and Decentralization'; OECD-UCLG
(2019), 'World Observatory on Subnational Government Finance and Investments'.
LRGs and their unique potential within territories
and communities to effect change?

Looking at decentralization and providing up-
to-date mapping of how this trend has evolved Box 6
are all the more essential in studying territorial
and municipal authorities, given that rapid (and Subsidiarity
often uncontrolled) urbanization has become
a worldwide phenomenon and a fundamental
The principle according to which public responsibilities should
challenge facing local governance. Urbanization
be exercised by those elected authorities closest to citizens.
has had a crucial impact on several dimensions
The central authority should have a subsidiary function,
of local and regional governance: from urban
performing only those responsibilities or tasks which cannot be
and territorial planning, to the provision of basic
performed at a more local level. Subsidiarity requires that local
public services; from socio-economic equality to
governments have adequate financial, managerial and technical
marginalization and informality in housing and
and professional resources to enable them to assume their
work; from the inevitable impact of climate change
responsibilities to meet local needs, carrying out a significant
to the creation of new social and cross-cutting
share of public expenditure. Local governments should be
alliances to improve democracy, transparency and
granted the authority and power to raise local resources in
the quality of life in cities and territories. However,
line with the principle that authority be commensurate with
advances in these fields raise fundamental
responsibility as well as the availability of resources. The principle
questions of sustainability and viability. The
of subsidiarity constitutes the rationale underlying the process
global agendas were agreed with the expectation
of decentralization.
that LRGs would act as accelerators and catalysts
in the process, but how is this pressure altering
the political balance? What room is there for LRGs Source: UN Habitat, 'International Guidelines on Decentralisation and Access to
Basic Services' (2009); UCLG (2013), 'Third Global Report on Local Democracy
to see their competences, powers, capacities, and Decentralization. Basic Services for All in an Urbanizing World'.
financial and human resources grow and improve,
making them more aware, responsible and
able to play an active role in the global quest
for sustainability, prosperity and inclusiveness? and the global agendas a reality, with positive
What kind of financial autonomy is really granted effects on the quality of life of territories, cities,
to local and regional governments? There are communities and society? Can the SDGs trigger
plenty of financial and management instruments a new model of development — urban, territorial,
(climate and green bonds, Public-Private-People social, economic and human — which starts at the
Partnerships — PPPPs — and remunicipalizations, local level? This thematic report provides inputs,
amongst many others) that are changing the way answers and critiques of these points, as well as
actors are empowered at all levels to become exploring other relevant issues. The conclusions
drivers of change and leaders in policy-making. In and policy recommendations provide a common
what way are these new opportunities accessible vision and understanding of the way forward for
to local governments? And how can those that are LRGs.
more visionary and long-sighted fund and sustain
their policies and agendas in the long term?
The ability of LRGs to report on their policies
and actions is also problematic since it is currently
limited by a substantial lack of data, indicators Box 7
and measurement which historically has not been
devolved or disaggregated enough (with the Policy coherence
partial exception of larger and wealthier regions
and cities), hindering the capacity to grasp the
An approach to sustainable development that
huge potential at the local level for the localization
calls for the integration of economic, social,
and achievement of the Goals.
environmental and governance dimensions
Ultimately, the responsibilities that LRGs
in the policy-making process, acknowledging
are assuming in the localization of the SDGs
the critical interlinkages that exist between
and other agendas are raising fundamental
the SDGs. It aims to foster synergies, promote
questions of local democracy, accountability
partnerships and balance transboundary and
and transparency, representation and the place
intergenerational policy impacts in order to
occupied by the local level in the current global
identify and manage the relationships between
system. Can LRGs be catalysts for change in
SDGs in a way that limits and overcomes any
politics and development policy? Do LRGs have
potential negative impact resulting from their
the means and capacities to ensure that ‘no
implementation.
person or place is left behind’? Can effective
intergovernmental cooperation across all levels of
Source: OECD (2019), 'Policy Coherence for
governance improve performance, boost policy Sustainable Development 2019'.
coherence (see Box 7) and help make the SDGs

Metropolitan
Areas
Members of Metropolis, the Metropolitan section of UCLG
Africa Europe
Abidjan Beijing Jinan Athens La Habana
Accra Beyrouth Kaohsiung Barcelona La Paz
Addis Ababa Bhopal Karaj (metropolitan Medellín
Alexandria Bogor Kathmandu area) Minas Gerais
Antananarivo Busan Kuala Lumpur Barcelona (city of) Montevideo
Bamako Changchun Kunming Berlin Porto Alegre
Bangui Changsha Lahore Bruxelles Quito
Brazzaville Chengdu Male’ Bucharest Rio de Janeiro
Cairo Chongqing Mashhad Grand Lyon Rosario
Casablanca Colombo Nanjing Grand Paris San Salvador
Cotonou Daegu Nanning Greater Santiago de Chile
Dakar Daejeon New Delhi - NIUA Manchester São Paulo
Douala Dalian New Taipei Kazan Valle de Aburrá
Durban Diyarbakir Ramallah Lisboa
Gauteng East Kalimantan Seoul Madrid
Harare Faisalabad Shanghai Moscow North
Johannesburg Fuzhou Shenzhen Sarajevo America
Libreville Gaziantep Shiraz Sofia Atlanta
Marrakech Goyang South Tangerang Torino Ciudad de México
Niamey Guangzhou Surabaya Zagreb Guadalajara
Nouakchott Gujranwala Tabriz Monterrey
Rabat Gwangju Taichung Latin Montréal
Tunis Gyeonggi Taipei America Puebla
Victoria Haikou Tehran and the Tijuana
Yaoundé Hangzhou Tianjin Caribbean Toronto
Hanoi Ulsan Belo Horizonte
Harbin Wuhan Bogotá
Hyderabad Xi’an Brasília
Asia Incheon Xiamen Buenos Aires
Ahvaz Isfahan Yiwu Córdoba
Amman Istanbul Zhengzhou Guarulhos
Baghdad Jakarta Guayaquil Source: www.metropolis.org
Bangkok Jilin (August 2019).

01. Introduction:
The Metropolitan Areas
The accelerated expansion of metropolitan of emerging countries with more pronounced

regions is an increasingly visible phenomenon social and economic contrasts (e.g. Cairo, Delhi,
in the 21st century. According to United Nations Johannesburg, Manila).
(UN) data the urban population of the world has Globally, metropolitan cities are viewed as
grown rapidly, increasing from 751 million in places of innovation, wealth generation, culture
1950 to 4.2 billion in 2018. More than 1.8 billon and opportunity, accounting for 60% of the
people live in cities with more than 1 million world’s GDP.2 They are home to government
inhabitants (43% of the urban population and bodies, leading companies, universities,
24% of the total world population), while 556 research and cultural centers and key civil society
million (13% of the urban population) live organizations (CSOs), as well as a large proportion
in 33 megacities with more than 10 million of talent and creativity, technological innovation,
inhabitants. Tokyo is the world's largest city interconnectedness and artistic output worldwide.
with an agglomeration of 37 million inhabitants, However, the quality of life in many metropolitan
followed by Delhi with 29 million, Shanghai areas is increasingly threatened by congestion,
with 26 million, and Mexico City and São Paulo pollution, social and gender inequalities and
each with around 22 million inhabitants. Cairo, violence, amongst other socio-economic and
Mumbai, Beijing and Dhaka all have close to environmental problems. Metropolitan cities often
20 million inhabitants. By 2030, the world is have fragmented urban landscapes that range
projected to have 43 megacities, most of them from wealthy to marginalized (or even ghettoized)
in developing regions.1
Metropolitan areas, as defined in the GOLD IV
Report, are urban agglomerations with more than
one million inhabitants, including the physical Different types of metropolitan areas
contiguous urban area and the labor market.
However, different types of metropolitan areas co-
co-exist in the global system of
exist in the global system of cities, from globalized cities, from globalized ‘established’
‘established’ metropolises hosting the densest
concentrations of firms, capital and educated
metropolises hosting the densest
labor (e.g. Hong Kong, London, New York, Paris concentrations of firms, capital and
and Tokyo), through extended metropolitan
areas of low and middle low-income countries
educated labour, through extended
dominated by slums and informal economies metropolitan areas of low and middle
(e.g. Dhaka, Kinshasa, Lagos), with a group of
‘emerging’ world cities of large fast-growing
low-income countries dominated by
economies (such as Istanbul, Mexico City, São slums and informal economies.
Paulo and Shanghai) in-between, to metropolises

Figure 1
Population residing in urban areas (%) and urban agglomerations

by population size (2018)
Percentage urban 80-100% 60-80% 40-60% 20-40% 0-20% No data
City population 10 million or more 5 million to 10 million 1million to 5 million
Data source: World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 revision.
The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the secretariat of
the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not
yet been agreed upon by the parties. Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. A dispute exists
between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northem Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).
© 2018 United Nations, DESA, Population Division. Licensed under Creative Commons license CC BY 3.0 IGO.
neighborhoods, with core and peripheral areas. (right to gender equality, housing, mobility, safety,
The growth of metropolitan areas has given rise to basic services and culture), a principle supported
peripheral development spaces on the outskirts by organizations representing metropolitan cities
— or suburbs — which become peripheral to such as Metropolis,3 as well as the peripheral
the urban economy, main infrastructures or cities of metropolitan areas organized through the
institutional processes. In developing countries, UCLG’s Peripheral Cities Committee. The New
rapid urbanization has often seen the rise Urban Agenda, moreover, lays the groundwork
of extended informal settlements in these for initiatives that result in more democratic and
peripheries, home to hundreds of thousands of sustainable cities, within the framework of human
people with limited or no access to basic services rights. The inclusion in the New Urban Agenda
who are often more exposed to natural disasters. of women’s right to the city, in particular can
It is worth remembering that over 900 million become a tool to demand the fulfilment of these
people currently live in slums, most of them within commitments and monitor their implementation.
metropolitan areas. Indeed, the challenges facing metropolitan areas
Metropolitan areas have become a key show regional specificities.4
battleground for reducing inequalities, addressing The Asia-Pacific region dominates the global
climate change challenges and protecting human urban system, with around 326 cities with a
rights and, as specifically highlighted by the New population of over one million, of which 21 are
Urban Agenda, establishing the ‘right to the city’ megacities (predicted to rise to 27 by 2035). The

GDP growth of Asia-Pacific cities in recent years The countries of the Global North are home
has shown a strong positive correlation with to the remaining metropolitan areas (Europe,
urbanization. There are, nevertheless, important including Russia, and Northern America together
sub-regional differences. While big cities in East contain 111 cities of more than one million
Asia show high densities, many metropolitan inhabitants, with four megacities). As outlined
areas — particularly in the South and South-East in the Urban Agenda for the European Union
of the region — are growing at a faster rate than adopted in Amsterdam in May 2016, issues relating
population growth rates, leading to urban sprawl to social inclusion and sustainability are a priority
and a fall in population density. Disparities are for European urban areas. Four issues in particular
also growing between cities and countries across have been highlighted as key: a) environment
the region, hindering the achievement of SDG 10. (climate change mitigation and adaptation, aging
While the proportion of the urban population living infrastructure and densification); b) competitiveness
in slums has decreased, the number of people (jobs and new technologies, innovative territorial
living in slums is increasing, particularly in South competitiveness); c) transport and energy (mobility,
and South-East Asian sub-regions. As mentioned pollution reduction and energy efficiency); and
in the Asia-Pacific chapter of the GOLD V Report, d) social and territorial cohesion (migration and
Asia is home to more than half the world’s cities refugees, social participation).13 Gentrification has
most vulnerable to natural disasters such as rising also become a key issue in European metropolitan
sea levels as a result of climate change.5 areas, since it influences the price of housing at the
Latin America and the Caribbean region have metropolitan scale.
74 cities with more than one million inhabitants Northern American metropolitan areas are facing
(46% of the urban population) and six megacities. five main challenges with regards to sustainable
One of the main concerns here is security in development: a) institutional fragmentation within
metropolitan areas.6 The annual report on the 50 and between areas which prevents metropolitan
most dangerous cities6 finds that the majority are coordination; b) legacy technology (energy,
found in Latin America, except for three in South transportation, and water infrastructure in Northern
Africa and four in the United States. Inequalities, America are old and in need of renewal); c) the existing
environmental problems and the impact of natural car-oriented approach to land-use, transportation
disasters are also on the rise in urban areas. and housing; d) lack of a national framework for the
The New Urban Agenda aims to achieve implementation of the Sustainable Development
adequate shelter and secure tenure, particularly Goals and carbon reduction strategies, leaving it to
for people living in slums; promote a more lower levels of government (states and municipalities)
inclusive urbanism to reduce segmented to take the initiative on sustainable development;
urban spaces characterized by gentrified and e) income inequality and the precariousness of
neighbourhoods (gated communities, condos, housing in large metropolitan areas (in the United
etc.) and informal settlements (shanty towns, States for example, in spite of being one of the
slums, favelas, villas miseria, etc.); and promote wealthiest nations on the planet, there is 22% child
the right to the city for all.7 poverty).14
Africa’s population is expected to more than Finally, the impact of technology in large
double by 2050 to around 2.5 billion (25% of the cities around the world is also worth mentioning.
global population).8 During this period, the urban First, the efficient use of technology as part
population will increase threefold, from around of the ‘smart cities’ paradigm: acknowledging
587 million people to around 1.5 billion.9 The information and data to be a common good, but
region currently has 68 cities with more than one also respecting the rights of citizens to privacy,
million inhabitants (37% of all urban dwellers) and freedom of expression and democracy, which a
five megacities. Urban planning systems have not number of cities are already doing.15 Second, the
changed significantly since the colonial era, and impact of the shared economy in cities, especially
although some efforts have been made at reform, in sectors such as tourism and e-commerce, will
many master plans are outdated or not applied.10 be an important challenge to monitor.16
Moreover, economic growth does not generate One of the main purposes of this publication
sufficient employment options in the urban formal is to illustrate how metropolitan governance
sector, thus urban areas tend to have high rates of affects the implementation of the SDGs.17 The
unemployment and informal activities, particularly second section reviews the main challenges such
for youth. There are difficulties managing the pace as institutional fragmentation and the need for
of urban population growth which has contributed coordinated multilevel governance (MLG), while
to the development of informal settlements with the third section addresses how metropolitan
limited access to basic services. The proportion of areas are implementing the SDGs. Throughout, it
people living in informal settlements represents showcases examples of positive and less positive
40% to 58% of urban dwellers.11 Cities are also facing reforms and experiments from around the world.
environmental degradation and environmental risks Finally, the thematic report concludes with policy
such as flooding, hurricanes, etc.12 recommendations.

02. The metropolitan
context and the SDGs

Metropolitan governance and its broad climate change; and promote inclusive policies
institutional environment has a direct impact for housing, social services, gender equality and
on the implementation of the SDGs. The 2030 cultural heritage. Transversally, gender equality
Agenda must be translated into actions and should be mainstreamed within all such policies.
policies at different scales. Metropolitan In addition, metropolitan areas often have
governance is thus key to the success of limited fiscal autonomy: they mostly depend on
an integrated approach to sustainable transferences from other administrations, as well
development, as required in the implementation as on the national institutional framework and the
of the SDGs. While national political powers and resources devolved to them.23
commitment and leadership are vital, given The elements that shape the institutional
the governance structures of most countries, environment at a metropolitan scale for the
responsibility for actual implementation lies development of the SDGs are briefly reviewed in
with local institutions.18 A range of issues must the next section. The first section examines the
be factored in to the way in which metropolitan different models of metropolitan governance
areas approach implementation of the SDGs. and their relationship with the implementation of
As the process of reform and adjustment has SDGs, while the second considers the institutional
not kept pace with urban expansion, metropolitan environment and arrangements needed to
governance has not kept pace with the intensified facilitate actions. The last section is devoted to
demands made upon it. As highlighted in the analysis of references made to metropolitan areas
Montreal Declaration on Metropolitan Areas in the Voluntary National Reports (VNRs) of 2016,
approved in Montreal in October 2015 for Habitat 2017 and 2018.
The Habitat III thematic
III, in general metropolitan areas enjoy limited meeting in Montreal, in
political recognition.19 This results in metropolitan October 2015 (photo: ©
Metropolis/BenDesjardins).
spaces being institutionally fragmented: multiple
administrations and agencies oversee the
development of urban policies, creating problems
both of duplication and lack of responsibility. There
iare also issues of governance and leadership. In
a few cases, metropolitan areas have directly or
indirectly elected metropolitan governments. In
OECD countries,20 Northern America21 and Latin
America22 indirect election models predominate,
where those elected as political representatives
in their respective municipalities form part of the
metropolitan structure, with a direct impact on
metropolitan institutional legitimacy and visibility
from the citizen's perspective.
The Declaration stresses the need to promote a
new partnership with other levels of government to
strengthen metropolitan governance mechanisms
and implement financing mechanisms adapted
to metropolitan challenges; develop integrated
participatory planning to reduce sprawl, promote
the use of fully disaggregated data (by age, gender
and territory) on socio-demographic and economic
trends, and foster functionally and socially mixed
neighbourhoods; ensure safe and sustainable
mobility and environmental sustainability to fight

2.1 Metropolitan governance
As big cities have grown beyond their different types of metropolitan governance, this
historical, political and electoral boundaries, publication considers them in the context of
their governance has become more complex implementation of the SDGs. 26
and fragmented, comprising a series of local Different concepts are linked to the
governments, authorities, agencies and development of urban sustainable agendas and
interests that were not designed to address the model of metropolitan governance. The first
issues at the metropolitan scale. This results in model — metropolitan governments — does
them usually being governed by some form of not in itself guarantee effective implementation
power-sharing, with varying levels of legitimacy of the SDGs, especially when there is a lack of
and transparency. In fact there are many models binding mechanisms (often the case in the twotier
of metropolitan governance, with no one model).27 In other words, the absence of exclusive
model suitable for all. Each metropolitan area powers for these institutions in key areas is a
has its particularities and form of governance. weaknessin metropolitan arrangements.
As stated in GOLD IV and other reports,24 four Competence for key infrastructures such as
main models of metropolitan governance are highways, railways, ports and airports is typically in
generally recognized based on the type of the hands of national or sub-national governments
institutional arrangements in place, ranging (federated states and regions). Another obstacle
from hard to soft governance:25 is the lack of fiscal autonomy of metropolitan
• Metropolitan governments or structures institutions, which is especially problematic in
created expressly to deal with metropolitan light of the fact that municipal expenditures per
challenges (one-tier or two-tier). capita tend to be higher in metropolitan areas
• Sectoral metropolitan agencies to manage because of the nature of services (e.g. public
or plan single services (public transport, transportation and waste collection). In most
environment, police, etc.). cases, funding from metropolitan institutions
• Vertical coordination, where metropolitan comes from a mixture of sources, mainly transfers
policies are not carried out by a metropolitan from other levels of government and taxes.
body but de facto by other levels of Whilst in France, new métropoles have more
government that already exist (a region, a financial autonomy (own taxes), in England there
province, a county, etc.). is a direct assignment from central government.28
• Less institutionalized models (soft or informal Relying heavily on own-source revenues (taxes
coordination) based on municipalities’ and user fees) and having the freedom to levy
voluntary cooperation through an association taxes creates more fiscal autonomy than reliance
of municipalities or by means of strategic on intergovernmental transfers, which can be
planning. unpredictable and restrict the ability of metro
Each model has its advantages and institutions to control their own destiny.29
disadvantages. Most metropolitan areas are in The absence of powerful metropolitan
fact hybrids of more than one model because of governments means that, in practice, their actions
their complex geographies, the status of different are often bypassed by the municipalities (for
delivery agencies, and the fact that they are nested example in Barcelona and Montreal)30 or central
within governance structures both above and government (for example, Bangkok).31 Thus
below them. While there is an ongoing debate in order to achieve greater policy coherence,
about the positive and negative features of these cooperation needs to be strengthened between

different levels of government to ensure that
policies aligned with the SDGs are effective. That
said, it is also true that having a metropolitan
This publication considers the different
government at least provides the institutional types of metropolitan governance
framework to legitimize the development of
urban agendas. One clear example of this is
through the lens of implementation of
Seoul, capital city of South Korea and one of eight the SDGs.
high-level local governments classed as a ‘Special
City’. Democratic reforms in South Korea in the
1990s led to the first mayoral election in Seoul in
1995. Seoul is pursuing sustainable development Germany and a city. This means that the Senate
through key initiatives based on participatory Chancellery of the federal state of Berlin is
urban planning and governance processes. It located in Berlin Town Hall and is the official seat
is the only metropolitan area in the Asia-Pacific of the Governing Mayor of Berlin, who has the
region to attempt to address all 17 SDG Goals, but same rank as a minister-president. The city-state
not all the Targets (see Asia-Pacific chapter of the of Berlin has more powers than ordinary German
GOLD V Report, Box 4). In fact, the metropolitan cities. However, the metropolitan area exceeds
government of Seoul does not cover the full the administrative limits of the city-state and
metropolitan functional area. includes the surrounding municipalities of the
In contrast, the second model of metropolitan Berlin-Brandenburg metropolitan region, which
governance based on sectoral metropolitan has no institutional recognition. It is the city-state
agencies (and utilities) that manage or plan of Berlin then that leads the development of a
a single task or service (public transport, metropolitan vision.34
environment, police, etc.) can be useful for the Finally, the fourth less institutionalized
implementation of one of the Goals (e.g. mobility, models are based on municipalities’ voluntary
water and sanitation etc.), but the main weakness cooperation, whether through an association of
of this model is that it lacks an integrated vision. municipalities or by means of strategic planning.
To compensate for this single issue focus, These are soft forms of metropolitan governance,
coordination with other agencies and levels of where other actors can participate in the
government is essential, as can be found in the development of the SDGs. This model is often
case of Melbourne. Indeed, Greater Melbourne is used as a mechanism to gather all actors together
made up of 31 municipalities which vary in land where there is high institutional fragmentation.
area and budget. At both state and municipal There is therefore a large degree of openness
government levels there are initiatives underway towards public and private actors and other
to localize the SDGs. 32 stakeholders. One outstanding example is New
In terms of the third model of vertical York City (NYC), which was the first city in the
coordination, where metropolitan policies world to report to the UN on the status of efforts
are not carried out by a metropolitan body to achieve the global benchmarks to address
but by other levels of government (a region, a poverty, inequality and climate change by the year
province, a county etc.), the development of 2030. Since 2015, NYC's sustainability initiatives
SDGs depends mainly on the competences and have been carried out under the OneNYC
financing of this layer of government (and how it strategic plan (see North American chapter of the
is coordinated with other layers). One example of GOLD V Report, Box 1).
this is Metropolitan Lagos, located in Lagos State Although there is no one size fits all
in the south-west of Nigeria. The metropolitan solution, adequate metropolitan governance
area of Lagos comprises 16 local government arrangements can contribute to an integrated
areas which, together with a further four local vision on sustainable urban development, which
government areas, combine to form the State is required for implementation of the SDGs. At
of Lagos. Many of the responsibilities of local the same time, the increasingly complex landscape
government areas in Lagos have been taken over of urban metropolitan areas — megacities, urban
by the state government which has established up regions and corridors — and the challenges posed
to 11 agencies to undertake functions in Lagos, by the SDGs and related global agendas requires
and this has contributed to high institutional a rethink of metropolitan governance systems in
fragmentation. Attempts have been made to order to better address the whole urban functional
move beyond sectoral metropolitan authorities area and overcome institutional, social and spatial
and establish a Lagos Mega-City Development fragmentation. Weak metropolitan governance
Authority, as set out in a Bill, but this has not undermines the potential of metropolitan areas to
yet been realized.33 In contrast, Berlin also has a function as cornerstones of national sustainable
model of vertical coordination which has proved development.
more successful. With 3.5 million inhabitants, it
is both a German Lan of the Federal Republic of

2.2 Institutional arrangements
to foster the implementation
of the SDGs
The effective functioning of MLG is a key Private Partnership (PPP) or other outsourcing
factor in creating an enabling institutional arrangement. Many of these utilities are not
environment for the implementation of the brought into the localizing of the SDGs, and some
SDGs. Indeed, lack of coordination between the show no interest in doing so. For example, there
different institutions involved in metropolitan is little incentive for privatized water utilities to
management with competences related to the achieve savings in water supply as this will have
development of the SDGs clearly affects their an impact on profits. This problem has arisen in
implementation.35 In the case of metropolitan Manila and Jakarta, where water supplies have
areas, this coordination is in the hands of cities been privatized. The same applies to solid waste
when no metropolitan institutions exist or when services, electricity and energy, where payments
metropolitan institutions have limited powers. are based on increased sales rather than rewarding
A key question related to institutional efficiencies which would support achievement
fragmentation is city form and size, which of the SDGs. Some cities, often prompted by
affects leadership and the capacity to guide the the citizenship, have fostered the creation of
development of urban agendas. Some metropolitan city-owned enterprises for the supply of basic
areas are monocentric, with a dominant central city services such as energy, following the principles
where the implementation of the SDGs is clearly of environmental sustainability (they only supply
led by the main city, especially when they have a renewable energy) and social sustainability (they
predominant demographic, economic and political ensure service provision to the most vulnerable
weight (e.g. Madrid and Berlin). This is also the groups). This is the case in Hamburg,36 Barcelona37
case for consolidated local governments such (energy services), Paris,38 and Dar es Salaam39
as eThekwini Municipality (a merger of Durban (water services), with the numbers growing.
and other municipalities) in South Africa, Nairobi In this sense, as underlined in GOLD IV,
in Kenya and Toronto in Canada, where a single empowered local governments with stronger
elected local government administers the whole democratic legitimacy are a precondition for
metropolitan area (but where the urban area has promoting inclusive implementation arrangements
spilled over the administrative boundaries). Other to facilitate dialogue and consensus. Their success
metropolitan areas, such as Manila, are polycentric depends on the availability of an adequate legal
and leadership is more diluted among the different framework and related incentives to achieve ‘buy-
municipalities. in’ from all levels of government — particularly
Another significant problem concerns utility from core and peripheral cities.40 This is important
service agencies, which may be provided by a as peripheral jurisdictions often find it difficult
public agency state-owned enterprise, Public- to advance their interests over the interests of
central cities, whose bargaining power with
investors and higher levels of government can be
superior.41 The imperative for peripheral cities and
A significant problem concerns utility territories is to create governance arrangements

that reflect both their importance to metropolitan
service agencies that are not brought areas and their distinctiveness within them,
into, or show no interest in, localizing fostering a polycentric and inclusive approach to
metropolitan issues. Existing examples show that
the SDGs. the democratic legitimacy of local government-
led metropolitan partnerships is critical to building

effective policies for larger regional issues, as well
as strong respect for the principle of subsidiarity Box 1
in multi-layered contexts.42
The situation differs depending on the The Kartamantul Partnership
characteristics of cities and metropolitan spaces
in each continent, but there are several cases in Like other countries in the Asia-Pacific region, Indonesia faces
all the continents where multilevel governance is many challenges in localizing the SDGs at a metropolitan level.
not particularly effective. Metro cities such as Los These apply to Kartamantul as much as they apply to Jakarta or
Angeles, Manila, Bangkok, Sao Paulo, Colombo and Medan.
Sydney comprise a multiplicity of layers of central 1. Functional assignment. Most of the SDG indicator
government agencies and local governments, achievements are carried out by programmes at city/regency
often with differing political leanings. Cities such levels, while the preparation of local action plans is executed
as Bangkok, Delhi, and Manila have imposed by provincial governments (money follows function).
metropolitan development authority governance 2. Coordination between provinces and cities/regencies. In
structures to address coordination and urban several local training sessions conducted by the Localize SDGs
management issues, but these have a number of programme, one of the issues raised was that coordination
weaknesses.43 In Auckland, New Zealand, regional should be improved between provincial and city/regency
coordination difficulties between five local governments in relation to the SDGs. At provincial levels,
governments led the central government to hold awareness of the SDGs is relatively high whereas at city/
an enquiry that resulted in amalgamation into one regency levels it is less pronounced.
metropolitan region.44 In some cases, however, 3. Data availability. The Ministry of Planning (Bappenas) has
local governments have been able to build prepared SDG indicators metadata. However, at regional
voluntary bottom-up metropolitan partnerships levels not all data is available due to limited access, differences
despite a national context that largely favours in calculation etc.
top-down arrangements. Greater Manchester in Kartamantul (Greater Yogyakarta) forms part of the Special
the United Kingdom is one example where the Yogyakarta region and is made up of Yogyakarta City, Sleman
practice of voluntary partnership emerged over and Bantul Regency. The population of Kartamantul in 2017
25 years under the stewardship of committed was 2.4 million,46 covering an area of 1,114 km2. Kartamantul
and charismatic local politicians. This resulted is an inter-local government partnership in Indonesia managed
in the establishment of a combined authority to by a joint secretariat, covering one city (Yogyakarta) and two
bring together ten local authorities and provide regencies (Sleman Regency and Bantul Regency). It was set
a stronger and more democratically legitimate up after decentralization in 2000 to manage and coordinate
model of metropolitan governance.45 In Indonesia, the following services, although it does not rely on a formal
the Kartamantul partnership stands out as an metropolitan regional plan: garbage management, liquid
example of horizontal cooperation (see Box 1). and solid waste management, drainage management, road
The complexity of multiple layers of local management, clean water, transportation and spatial layout in
government and the competition for resources the region. The Kartamantul Partnership can be sustained as
between them makes it extremely difficult to long as local governments recognize their mutual dependency
create a competitive enabling environment in and act for common, shared interests and objectives. In this
large cities. A deep-rooted ethos of political sense, it has proved to be a valuable management mechanism
consensus can make this voluntary approach to ensure improved coordination of planning and infrastructure
highly effective, although it is the exception rather in the region.
than the rule (e.g. in Switzerland, the Netherlands
and Sweden).47 In other situations, tackling the Source: Bappenas (2018). 'The Survey on Promoting Planning and Implementation of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) In the Republic of Indonesia'.
institutional challenges facing local government
will involve reducing the number of institutions
operating at a metropolitan scale and increasing
the profile of local government. One of the
emerging experiences in Africa has been ensuring metropolitan regions' reporting at a later stage.
local government powers are entrenched in the However, in metropolitan areas such as Manila
constitution and, through re-demarcation, that and Jakarta, cities making up the metropolitan
single jurisdictions are created, particularly in area have different agendas and priorities in
metropolitan areas. This was the case in South localizing the SDGs.48 It is extremely difficult,
Africa in the period 1996-2000 and, more recently, therefore, to gain consensus between the many
in Kenya, where Nairobi and Mombasa have been layers of metropolitan government, and even
accorded county status. more difficult when metropolitan utilities such as
In the Asia-Pacific region, some metropolitan state-owned or privatized water and electricity
areas actively working on the SDGs have utilities are included in the reporting framework.
established independent frameworks and Moreover, the degree of local autonomy
reporting mechanisms that will have to be also affects the capacity to solve metropolitan
integrated into national reporting and sub- challenges in implementing the SDGs. While

The 2010 gay pride parade
as it makes its way through
the favela of Rocinha, in Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil (photo:
Saulo Cruz, bit.ly/2Mx8jSd).
in European Nordic countries municipalities women still face in their daily lives in metropolises
have a high degree of financial autonomy and urban communities: differences in class,
and competences in health, education and education, accessible financial resources, quality
sustainability, local governments of most of life, culture and symbolic environment and
African,49 Asian and Latin American countries lack legacies. To tackle these differences — through
the powers and financial, technical and human redesigning access and use of urban facilities and
resources to solve these issues. In other words, public space, as well as including all marginalized
they are more dependent on national policies. groups in planning and political organization —
Implementing the SDGs could bridge this gap, it is essential to re-think the way metropolises
but it will require the development of improved are managed. This should not be limited to the
and new governance arrangements and structures women’s collective, but should also include
to coordinate approaches both vertically and all other ‘invisible’ groups of today’s cities for
horizontally between the different governments example LGBTQIA+ communities, ethnic and
and agencies to ensure an adequate share of religious minorities and age groups.50
resources across all levels of government to To conclude, there are a number of different
achieve common targets. metropolitan governance mechanisms for the
Over the past few years, governance approaches implementation of the SDGs. However, a fair
have shifted towards more participatory and and sustainable metropolitan governance system
decentralized processes, where the principles should ultimately observe several key principles:
of co-creation, accountability, transparency, empowered local governments with elected
inclusion and citizen rights advocacy have been metropolitan authorities that are accountable to
the true drivers of social change. However, despite their citizens; subsidiarity, with a clear definition
progress towards more inclusive mechanisms, and of roles and powers between different levels of
women and other vulnerable groups enjoying an government and among local governments; and
unprecedented institutional presence in decision- adequate resources and financial instruments
making processes, there is still much to be to incentivize and encourage local government
done before governance models truly promote cooperation.
equality and challenge discrimination and
women’s rights violations (SDG 5). These goals
can only be achieved by acknowledging and
highlighting the inequalities and difficulties that

2.3 Metropolitan areas and
the Voluntary National Reports
An analysis of the VNRs for the years 2016, initiatives that have been undertaken, specifically
2017 and 2018 shows that a growing number targeted at metropolitan areas (dissemination
refer to the contribution of sub-national of a localization manual for SDG 11). In other
governments and, in particular, big cities in VNRs, metropolitan areas (or large cities) are
the achievement of the 2030 Agenda. The analysed from a substantive perspective — as
VNRs have begun to address the metropolitan in the Colombian 2016 VNR — or introduced
dimension as well, although it does not attract as examples of good practice together with
sufficient coverage and challenges relating to those of other local and regional governments
metropolitan areas are not clearly addressed. (Ecuador 2018 VNR presents the experiences
A few countries (e.g. Poland, 2018) recognize of Quito; whilst the Japan 2018 VNR highlights
the identity of metropolitan areas and involve the Kitakyushu Metropolitan Area). Some VNRs
them in the multi-level governance system for analyse key metropolitan challenges: the national
SDG implementation. Australia (2018) relied on governments’ new regulatory benchmarking,
the country’s LGAs, major cities and the Eastern structural plans, urban policies and management
Metropolitan Regional Council (Perth) in drafting plans within the cities (e.g. Saudi Arabia 2018 VNR
the VNR. These three tiers of government are for Riyadh); the creation of new urban centres to
also involved in the City Deals programme to stop the growth of non-sustainable practices in
deliver long-term outcomes for large cities the principal ones (e.g. Qatar 2018 VNR for Doha,
and regions and the 2030 Agenda, further and Egypt 2018 VNR for Cairo); urban planning,
underlining the leading roles played by Perth health, housing and security (e.g. Uruguay 2017
Eastern Metropolitan Regional Council and VNR); exclusion and social vulnerability, and coastal
Melbourne City Council.51 Mexico’s 2018 VNR management (e.g. Brazil 2017); environment
acknowledges that ‘although they do not have (e.g. South Korea 2016 VNR, which includes two
metropolitan governments, metropolitan areas metropolitan indicators, namely metropolitan
— as large population centres — also play an air quality and size of park areas in metropolitan
important role [and] have the potential to impact cities); and transport (e.g. Sri Lanka 2018 VNR,
national achievements’,52 thus recognizing the Belgium 2017 VNR for Antwerp and Brussels).
need to localize the SDGs to reduce important The Greek 2018 VNR outlines the roles played
differences between metropolitan areas as by Athens and Thessaloniki, giving them a high
highlighted by the Sustainable Cities Index profile in the report with abundant references to
created by Citibanamex. their achievements with regards to a number of
Significant opportunities have been missed, metropolitan challenges. Additionally, the drafting
for example in Italy where, despite having a of regulatory plans for their territories is the fourth
specific national operational programme for pillar of the Integrated Spatial Planning Strategy
metropolitan areas affected by economic and (together with the national document, the twelve
social marginalization, urban decay and lack of regional documents and other specific frameworks).
services (PON Metro), the 2017 VNR was not In spite of the fact that many successful local
able to assess the status and performance of initiatives have been used as examples in the
each of these metropolitan areas in terms of their national VNRs, the space given to metropolitan
achievement of the SDGs. In contrast in Brazil, areas and their specific problems is insufficient,
where a 2015 federal law set out requirements clearly demonstrating that work with these
for the institutionalization of metropolitan areas institutions is not considered strategic by national
as well as guidelines for planning and multilevel authorities globally. More joint work with, and
governance,53 the federal government recognizes greater visibility of, metropolitan areas will be
the importance of such institutions in the 2017 needed in the years to come.
VNR by underlining the awareness-raising

03. Metropolitan actions
for the implementation
of the SDGs
Cities and thus metropolitan areas are among the frontrunners
as far as the 2030 Agenda localization process is concerned,
and this is demonstrated throughout the different regions
of the world. The regional chapters of the GOLD V Report
have shown that metropolitan areas such as Buenos Aires,
Barcelona, Berlin, Copenhagen, Durban, Los Angeles, Madrid,
Mexico City, Medellin, New York, Quito, Paris, Shenzhen and
Seoul amongst others have taken the lead, often ahead of
their national governments. They have committed to achieving
the 2030 Agenda by aligning their development agendas and
public policies to implement the SDGs; by making institutional
arrangements to facilitate coordinated implementation;
by engaging citizens and metropolitan stakeholders in
the SDGs; and by sharing experiences and dealing with
metropolitan challenges such as transport, climate change and
social inclusion. However, metropolitan areas must manage
significant obstacles as part of this process. The next section
looks at different metropolitan experiences to understand
how big cities are addressing the 2030 Agenda, both directly
and indirectly, through their sustainable development
strategies and policies.

3.1 Metropolitan contributions
to the achievement of the SDGs
Metropolitan areas and big cities have been officials and representatives of the main
among the most committed actors worldwide institutions of the city to introduce the SDGs as
to address the 2030 Agenda and to align part of for the new planning process to begin after
their development strategies, plans and the 2018 elections.54 Bogotá used the SDGs to
public policies with the SDGs. Many have develop new platforms for citizen participation,
acknowledged that the challenges they face in partnership with the UN. Buenos Aires and
can be addressed by the Agenda and that Quito have also led the alignment process in
they are already contributing to the SDGs their countries (see Box 2). Amsterdam through
through a wide range of innovative solutions its MediaLab launched the so-called Global
and practices. They see the 2030 Agenda as Goals Jam 2017, a two-day event consisting of
an opportunity to improve their policy-making short design sprints, which brought together
processes, addressing sustainable development local creative teams of designers, developers and
in a more integrated manner, involving citizens
and metropolitan stakeholders, focusing on the
most vulnerable and being more transparent
and accountable. Box 2
Many metropolitan cities have made important
progress in the alignment of their strategies and
local development plans with the SDGs, as well as
The case of Buenos Aires (Argentina)
with the other global agendas (the Paris Agreement
The Participative Strategic Plan Buenos Aires 2035 (PEP BA 2035)
on climate change, the New Urban Agenda and
is the result of joint work with 183 civil society organizations
the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction).
(CSOs). Organized into working groups, the selected local
However, metropolises in most contexts face
stakeholders defined from scratch the goals, vision, strategic
important institutional constraints. Together with
axes, guidelines, proposals and projects. PEP BA 2035 identified
the inherent weaknesses in governance, the
five strategic axes related to the SDGs (31 out of 96 proposals are
challenges faced by metropolitan areas are often
aligned), one of them being the metropolitan axis which includes
under-reported in the global, regional and national
all competences related to sustainable mobility, infrastructures,
agendas, as already discussed. The New Urban
services, waste management, basins, ports and airports, and
Agenda and the Paris Agreement on climate
metropolitan information systems. Special consideration is
change, for example, give insufficient recognition
also given to metropolitan resilience, including prevention
to the metropolitan dimension, despite the
and early warning of the different phenomena associated with
presence of top mayors at Habitat III, at the
climate change. One of the biggest challenges is establishing a
COP 21 and, annually, at the HLPF in New York.
metropolitan institution. The city is promoting a gender indicator
Despite this complex reality, the 2030 Agenda,
system, in line with SDG 5; a specific sustainable mobility initiative
as well as other global agendas, have served
complying with SDGs 11 and 13; and a cross-sectoral project -
as leverage to improve the policy-making
the Urbanization and Urban Integration Plan - which contributes
process at metropolitan level. The process of
to SDGs 11, 6, 7 and the rest of the SDGs to a lesser extent.
aligning sustainable development plans with
Specific work is also being carried out to align the city council’s
the 2030 Agenda has led to concerted efforts
performance to SDG 16.
by metropolises to involve teams, citizens and
metropolitan stakeholders. Mexico City, for Source: https://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/noticias/plan-estrategico-participativo-buenos-
example, launched a training and awareness- aires-2035-pep-ba-2035.
raising workshop for members of the government,

jammers as well as the council's technical staff to
Box 3 work up innovative ideas to contribute to the five
SDGs prioritized by the council (SDGs 1, 2, 3, 4
SDG alignment and localization and 11).55 The Berlin Strategy/Urban Development
in eThekwini-Durban Concept Berlin 2030 provides an inter-agency
model for the long-term sustainable development
of the capital and was developed following the
In South Africa, the municipality of eThekwini-Durban has
participative process ‘Shaping the City Together’.
aligned its Integrated Development Plan (IDP) with the SDGs.
This was open not only to the citizens of Berlin and
For the last two fiscal years, eThekwini has incorporated the SDG
Senate representatives but also more than 100
targets and indicators into its local government responsibilities
associations, local authorities and institutions from
and municipal budget using a bottom-up approach as part of
across the region of Berlin-Brandenburg.56 In other
the city’s strategic approach to sustainability. The alignment has
regions, eThekwini-Durban led the alignment of
focused on four main pillars: human rights, people, the planet
the 2030 Agenda with the metropolitan plan in
and prosperity. This exercise has allowed the city’s metropolitan
South Africa (see Box 3).57
area to introduce a system of benchmarking that permits more
Involving metropolitan stakeholders is key as
robust monitoring and a better reporting framework. In 2017,
they bring knowledge, creativity, resources and
66 out of 98 SDG indicators had been aligned with investment
technology, amongst other assets. Articulating
projects; in 2018, this number increased to 75. With support
mechanisms that foster public and private
from local government affiliated organizations such as the
coresponsibility for a shared development is not
eThekwini Municipal Institute of Learning (MILE), eThekwini
easy, but the 2030 Agenda — and SDG 17.17 in
Municipal Academy (EMA), and UCLG, the city has been able
particular — offers a unique opportunity to do so.
to improve its knowledge and understanding of the SDGs. By
Metropolitan areas such as Tshwane, San Francisco
providing input into SDG Toolkit developments and assisting in
and Seoul have already oriented their sustainable
the training of trainers on SDGs, the city is enabling advocacy,
development strategies together with their local
learning and institutionalization of the SDGs amongst its own
partners — business and civil society — thanks to
officials as well as those from other cities.
the Global Compact Cities Programme.58 Others
cities, such as Paris, London, Lagos, Greater New
Source: Puvendra Akkiah, 'Unpacking the global agenda: implementation in eThekwini'.
Unpublished powerpoint presentation (contribution to UCLG GOLD V). York, São Paulo, Shanghai and Stuttgart have
fostered PPPs to complement the government's
resources and institutional capacities.59 In the
same vein, relating local sustainable development
strategies to the capabilities of knowledge-

The harbour of eThekwini-
Durban, Kwazulu Natal,
South Africa (photo:
South African Tourism, bit.
ly/2Mx7VD4).
based institutions can achieve more efficient and

innovative public policies, as demonstrated by a Box 4
number of good practices being implemented
around the globe. For example, Los Angeles Metropolitan indicators
City Council’s partnership with Occidental
College relies on the latter’s knowledge base, In 2019, Metropolis, in partnership with the Metropolitan Area
research, and data collection skills to accelerate of Barcelona, commissioned the London School of Economics
implementation of the SDGs. The city presented and Political Science to develop a set of 38 metropolitan
its Voluntary Local Review (VLR) to the UN in July indicators, based on the analysis of 69 metropolitan areas and a
2019.60 Its memorandum with the World Council standard methodology to collect information from all members
on City Data (WCCD) will transform Los Angeles of the Metropolis network. The indicators are divided into six
into one of eight local data hubs for sharing groups in accordance with Metropolis’ strategic vision: context
information related to the SDG indicators. and governance, economic development, social cohesion,
In addition to involving citizens and key gender equality, environmental sustainability and quality of life.
stakeholders in the policy-making process, other The indicators, which include both new and existing metrics,
metropolitan areas have also shifted towards more are based on an exhaustive review of the academic and grey
transparent and accountable mechanisms. New literature, as well as existing global datasets and data collection
York has linked transparency and accountability initiatives from international bodies/observatories; national
efforts to the SDGs by being the first metropolitan statistic offices; local and regional authorities’ data; academic
area in the world to report to the UN on the status references, and NGOs and other associations.
of efforts to achieve the global benchmarks to
Source: https://indicators.metropolis.org.
address poverty, inequality and climate change
by the year 2030.61
However, robust accountability requires data.
Transposing the 2030 Agenda’s indicators into
a metropolitan reality is a major challenge. Initial cities and highlighting the obstacles and risks
efforts have been developed in partnership faced by them, is making a significant contribution
with specialized institutions such as Sustainable to visualizing the potential of local governments
Development Solutions Network (SDSN),62 in the achievement of the SDGs. Beyond these
the WCCD,63 the research group Mistra Urban international approaches, efforts should be made
Futures64 and LSE Cities (see Box 4). In fact, the to reinforce data and information systems owned
role played by several knowledge-based platforms by metropolises worldwide.
in capitalizing on the initiatives launched by large

3.2 Addressing the main
metropolitan challenges in
line with the 2030 Agenda
Large cities and metropolitan areas are today as an additional hindrance to change. However,
the backdrop for some of the world’s most metropolitan areas still strive to come up with
significant global challenges, as discussed in the new solutions that could be replicated in other
introduction. But, by and large, they have been territories. The following section gives examples
proactive in the search for innovative solutions of actions taken by metropolitan cities, adding to
to these challenges affecting all spheres of the examples described in the regional chapters
sustainable development in a cross-sectoral of the GOLD V Report.
manner and, whether directly or indirectly,
have moved their territories closer to the Relentless growth does not mean
achievement of the 2030 Agenda. However, sustainability; new economic initiatives
cities and metropolitan areas face important offer slow but steady progress
contradictions in trying to foster a more inclusive As mentioned above, metropolitan areas are
and sustainable development. They promote important generators of employment, wealth
growth, jobs and competitiveness whilst at and productivity growth and are often the main
the same time they are exposed to increasing economic engines of their country.65 However,
urban inequalities and social fragmentation. there is an urgent need to foster a more inclusive
Speculative investments, the introduction and sustainable economic development that
of new technologies in the market and the minimizes the current negative externalities
concentration of highly qualified employees of uncontrolled growth and investment such
with high rates of income have produced as territorial segregation and polarization,
gentrified areas and resulted in the expulsion of unemployment and poor labor conditions, and
part of the population towards the outskirts and environmental degradation. Nascent initiatives
marginalized areas, with a subsequent increase such as the sharing economy, control of the use of
in social exclusion. Current economic models technologies and data and programmes to support
and growth clash with the urgent need to reduce innovation and small enterprises could offer
the environmental footprint of large cities and solutions to counterbalance such externalities.
metropolitan areas and transform production and The 300 largest metropolitan economies
consumption patterns so that they have a clear in the world account for almost 50% of the
environmental impact. The absence of gender global output.66 The GDP of some cities is
mainstreaming strategies and participatory higher than that of many countries in the world.
mechanisms that include an array of diverse However, different patterns can be observed
voices; the weakness of internal coordination across regions: in European OECD countries,
mechanisms; deficient multilevel cooperation and capital metropolitan areas represent 48% of
a lack of resources, powers and capabilities all act national GDP (with the exception of Paris, with
a much higher contribution), while in Asia and
Northern America this figure rises to 66%.67
Kinshasa represents 13% of the population of
Nascent initiatives such as the sharing DRC but accounts for 85% of the country’s GDP,
economy, control of the use of while Metro Manila is 12% of the population of
Philippines and represents 47% of the national
technologies and data can minimize GDP.68 These figures would likely grow if one
the current negative externalities of took into account the extensive nodes that form
megacities, urban corridors and city-regions
uncontrolled growth and investment. characterized by unprecedented geographical
extension and demographic volume.69

Cities are responsible for the creation of a New technologies have played a major
large share of new jobs (SDG 8): between 2006 role in improving and innovating territorial
and 2012, 87.7 million private sector jobs were competitiveness and growth. Most research
created in the 750 largest cities in the world, and innovation takes place in large cities, and
accounting for 58% of all new private sector technological clusters and new economic models
jobs generated in 140 countries.70 For example flourish there. In India, it has been calculated that
in the United States, metropolitan areas account 49 metropolitan clusters will account for 77% of
for 84% of total employment and 88% of labour incremental GDP between 2012 and 2025.72 New
income. Production, services, capital and technologies have also rendered cities smarter
infrastructures, governments, companies, CSOs, and more adapted to citizens’ needs (SDG 8.2),
universities and research centres are all located offering them public and private services and
in these cities.71 goods at an affordable price. Singapore has
Figure 2
GDP and employment in metropolitan areas as a % of

the national values, 2016
South Korea (12)

Japan (34)
United States (93)
Latvia (1)
Australia (6)
Estonia (1)
Mexico (38)
Great Britain (21)
OECD (329)
Greece (2)
Germany (26)
Chile (3)
Ireland (1)
Belgium (4)
Netherlands (6)
France (15)
Canada (119)
Austria (3)
Spain (11)
Sweden (3)
Portugal (2)
Hungary (1)
Czech Republic (3)
Poland (10)
Denmark (1)
Italy (13)
Slovenia (1)
Switzerland (3)
Norway (1)
Finland (1)
Slovakia (1)
Colombia (9)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
GDP Employment
Notes: Employment for the OECD includes 226 metropolitan areas.

Source: OECD (2018), Metropolitan areas,, OECD Regional Statistics, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/data-00531-en.

particularly concentrated in big cities, where
The financialization of urban economies the financialization of urban economies has

transformed the concept of ‘cities for living’ into
has transformed the concept of ‘cities for ‘cities for investing’. One manifestation of this is
living’ into ‘cities for investing’. the rise in property rents and sales prices, often
driven by growing investments by big private
equity and hedge funds to control the real
estate in most major cities.76 The reshaping of
the urban landscapes in big cities (fragmentation
digitalized many services relating to citizens’ daily of the urban space through privately financed
lives (registering children for school, obtaining ‘mega projects’, growing gaps in labour markets,
tax incentives, reporting on a cardiac arrest of commodification of public services) is contributing
anyone within 500 feet), eliminating red tape and to urban segregation and polarization, pushing
ensuring data privacy.73 In Chicago, the rodent the traditional middle and working classes to the
population is being controlled by using predictive outermost peripheries or, in many developing
analytics to determine which trash dumpsters countries, to expanding marginal neighbourhoods
are most likely to be full and thus attract more or slums. In many countries, young people,
rats.74 The Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage women and migrants are particularly affected by
Board’s real-time feedback on the status of the difficulties accessing jobs and decent shelters,
water supply allows the institution to make timely which has led to the expansion of informal
modifications to the water distribution patterns; economies and settlements.77
reduce energy costs related to water transmission In some cities, specific sectors such as tourism
through more efficient pumping and delivery; can also contribute to social polarization, pushing
and mitigate water loss due to theft, leakage and traditional residents out of the core town areas
malfunction, potentially conserving as much as which results in precarious employment conditions,
40% of the water supply.75 seasonal contracts, low added-value jobs, rising
Nevertheless, the economic model that commodity prices and even social conflict,78 all of
increasingly dominates these global cities which are a far cry from the sustainable tourism
has wide and complex externalities for the promulgated by the 2030 Agenda (SDG 8.9).79
economy, the environment and social cohesion, Moreover, new business models based on
and this varies in both intensity and effect digital platforms using new technologies (such
across regions. Globalization phenomena are as Airbnb, Uber, Cabify, Amazon and Deliveroo,
Figure 3
Unemployment and economic prominence

in metropolitan cities by region
80
Economic prominence
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Unemployment
Africa Asia Europe Latin America and the Caribbean North America
Source: Metropolitan indicators. Metropolis and LSE Cities, available online at https://lsecities.net/objects/research-projects/metropolitan-indicators.

amongst others) create new opportunities, but
also have a potentially negative impact on people’s Box 5
privacy, traditional local small businesses and
public transportation systems, as well as creating Transition to a circular economy in
poor working conditions, encouraging tax evasion the Amsterdam Metropolitan Area
etc. Thus, understanding new technologies
and the use of big data for public services as
The Amsterdam Metropolitan Area (a partnership between the
common goods that need to be protected is an
provinces of Noord-Holland and Flevoland, a transport region
important challenge currently facing many cities.
and 32 municipalities) is accelerating the transition (through
The city of Barcelona, for example, has created
the Amsterdam Economic Board)84 to a circular economy by
the first municipal office that aims to ensure
stimulating cooperation between business, government and
security, privacy and the ethical management of
knowledge institutes both in the region and internationally. The
information through a more efficient, transparent
aim by 2025 is to become a leader in Europe in the area of smart
and democratic system. It includes the Housing
solutions for the conservation of raw materials, so that valuable
Observatory, which is in charge of tracking the
materials can be used more efficiently and for longer (SDGs 8,
housing market, gentrification, local residents and
9, 12). Additionally, by 2025 Amsterdam also aims to overcome
commerce that are forced to move out towards
existing challenges and become the most important place in
the suburbs etc.80 A global Coalition of Cities for
Europe for data-driven innovation; offer citizens two additional
Digital Rights has been created to ensure freedom
healthy life years; have in place zero-emissions urban transport;
of expression, protect privacy and personal
and be the most successful region in Europe in terms of utilizing,
information, promote transparency, accountability
retaining and attracting talent.
and non-discrimination of data and democratic
processes in order to respect public opinion, Source: https://www.amsterdameconomicboard.com/en.
diversity and inclusion, ensuring open and ethical

standards in digital services.81
Alternative economic initiatives to develop
cultural and creative industries and promote one particular strand targeting youth which has
circular and shared/collaborative economies helped to foster a more diversified economy;87
are flourishing. Territories act as laboratories for and Brussels-Capital Region offers special
experimentation and citizens become active support for the growth of green businesses in
drivers of change. Examples highlighted by the disadvantaged areas and encourages new and
C40 initiative include an online sharing market and aspiring entrepreneurs.88
other supporting initiatives in New York; new laws At the same time, in various cities in developing
in Quezon regulating the use of plastic bags to help countries, the informal economy is the main
curb ocean plastics; Sydney is co-creating industry source of employment and income generation,
guidelines for circular office refurbishments, and from street vendors and waste pickers to workers
cities such as Berlin, Paris, Tokyo and Toronto are manufacturing goods at home. It accounts
embedding social, ecological and human rights for between 25%–40% of GDP in developing
criteria into public procurement processes.82 economies in Asia and Africa, with a share in
Different global networks of big cities, such as non-agricultural employment of between 20-
Shared Cities Alliance and the Global Social 80%89 (around 80% in Abidjan, Dakar, Niamey
Economy Forum, are supporting shared economy and Bamako, 59% in Lima, 54% in Ho Chi Minh
approaches, linking their initiatives to the SDGs.83 City, and 45% in Buenos Aires).90 Nevertheless,
Finding solutions to challenges is crucial if cities the informal economy poses major problems
are to continue to offer decent work and generate in terms of the promotion of inclusive cities,
wellbeing. Although these initiatives are usually at and metropolitan areas have begun to look for
an early stage of development, they demonstrate solutions. For example, the implementation
the path towards a more sustainable, shared of the delegated management of markets
future. approach in the Commune I of Bamako in Mali
Metropolitan areas are also developing led to increased tax collection and established
policies to support and assist small and medium- a dynamic and fruitful partnership between
sized enterprises (SMEs) throughout the business informal traders and the municipality. The success
life cycle, in addition to supporting citizens less
likely to start up a business (youth, women etc.).
For example Dakar relies on a business incubator
for youth-led and women-led micro-enterprises
to address this issue;85 a programme launched Territories act as laboratories for
by Addis Ababa uses micro-credit loans and
provides business training;86 Barcelona offers
experimentation and citizens become
technical coaching, feasibility assessment, tailor- active drivers of change.
made training and incubation programmes, with

Figure 4
Working age population by formal employment,

informal employment and unemployment
100%
12 11 11 11 14 13 13
24 27 31 31
36 40
45 44
49 52
57
42 37 32 32
15 13
8
17 2 2
13 5 4 5
9
37 37 36 35 35
27 30 30 31
25 21
0%
ity
ey
ou
ar
an
ou
oi
m
m
ak
iv
an
ak
m
dj
C
ug
on
ar
Li
Lo
m
ia
H
D
bi
h
an
ot
do
Ba
in
N
an
M
ga
nt
hi
ua
C
A
O
o
H
Non active Unemployment Informal employment Formal employment
Source: Informal Sector and Informal Employment: Overview of Data for 11 Cities in 10 Developing Countries, WIEGO.
of eThekwini’s Informal Economy Policy gave rise catastrophic climate change impacts of global
to the South African National Informal Economy warming such as sea-level rises, increases in
Forum, a strong signal that local municipalities natural disasters, worsening health, livelihood
can inﬂuence national policies.91 and food security, water supply, human
Solutions that acknowledge and use the security, and economic growth. Big cities are
economic and social capital of the informal part of the problem in terms of greenhouse
economy, the use of research and technology to gas (GHG) emissions, energy consumption,
diversify the economy and bring basic services waste generation, water consumption and food
and goods closer to the citizenship, and waste. A number of metropolitan cities have
facilitating the social inclusion of women and been at the forefront of climate action and risk
youth through stable employment frameworks prevention. At the Global Climate Action Summit
are still needed in metropolitan areas, which in September 2018, 27 major cities announced
can take advantage of the economies of that their carbon emissions had already peaked,
agglomeration. and 72 cities committed to carbon neutrality
by 2050 through zero-emissions transport,
Metropolitan areas as an important the use of 100% renewable energy, net-zero
causal factor of environmental carbon buildings, and zero-waste by 2030, while
degradation, but also contributors also pledging to implement these goals in an
to innovation and solutions equitable and inclusive manner.93 Key cities and
The IPCC Special Report on 1.5 Degrees of their networks have been pushing for change in
Global Warming92 (October 2018) sent a strong global negotiations over the past two decades.
message: either essential changes to energy, However, as highlighted by IPCC, a much greater
land, urban infrastructure (including aging collective effort is needed.
transport and buildings) and industrial systems The Covenant of Mayors for Climate and
are made, or it will be impossible to tackle the Energy, including all the mayoral LRG networks,

have gathered many examples from metropolitan
areas such as Seoul,94 Tokyo,95 Bogotá,96 Hong Box 6
Kong,97 Lima,98 London,99 New York,100 Mexico
City,101 and Rio de Janeiro102 that have already Barcelona: measures to
developed initiatives to reduce the impact of fight climate change
climate change, whilst Istanbul,103 Jakarta,104
Karachi,105 Moscow,106 Sao Paulo,107 Lagos108
The Barcelona Metropolitan Area has taken several measures
and Kinshasa109 have taken the first steps and
in line with the SDGs, including working for the improvement
committed to it.
of air quality in its territory. The metropolitan programme of
In their resilience strategies, many metropolitan
measures introduced on tackle environmental pollution includes
cities have adopted a more integrated approach.111
the creation of low-emission areas in pollution episodes and the
Not only are they focused on mitigating the effects
promotion of sustainable mobility (bicycles, electric vehicles etc.)
of natural disasters and climate change, but they
which directly contribute to SDG 13. The new Urban Planning
also tackle food security, social inclusion, economic
Master Plan, measures on spatial planning, improvement of
revitalization, urban brownfield rehabilitation, the
the rivers Llobregat and Besòs, and the coastline strategy also
fight against poverty, inequalities and exclusion.112
contribute to SDGs 15 and 17. The Barcelona Metropolitan Area
Boston’s first ever Resilience Strategy focuses
is also in charge of waste management (SDG 12) and water
particularly on confronting racial divisions, bias,
supply and sanitation (SDG 6), the promotion of renewable
and other issues that cause inequity;113 Mexico
energies through the establishment of a network of stations
City builds water resilience as well as community
to charge electric cars with solar power and the installation of
resilience through citizen participation, strategic
photovoltaic rooves in public buildings (SDG 7).
communication, and education;114 and Bangkok’s
strategy balances environmental resilience
Source: Area Metropolitana de Barcelona, Programa Metropolità de Mesures contra la
with improving citizens’ quality of life and the Contaminació Atmosfèrica, Memòria.110
development of a strong competitive economy.115
Dakar’s 2017 Resilience Strategy, the first to be
adopted in Africa with the support of 100 Resilient
Cities, relies on strong cooperation with the settlements and the introduction of regulatory
citizenship and local stakeholders to build resilience reforms (for instance on waste dumping), may
in the face of shocks and stresses and to improve prove more beneficial in the long term than the use
the well-being of vulnerable people.116 Work in of palliative measures during outbreaks.117
Dar es Salaam has shown that investing in resilient Sustainable transport is another area where
infrastructure, with proper servicing of informal the metropolitan impact on the environment is
The Workshop on SDG

localization tools and
resources held by the
Barcelona Provincial
Council to raise awareness
among staffers of its own
departments
(photo: © UCLG Learning).

considerable. Metropolitan areas, particularly in carbon neutral by 2025 and has taken important
the Global North, have long been developing action in the field of transport by creating corridors
intermodal transportation and integrated for designated types of mobility such as cyclists
public transport systems that combine several (cycling accounts for 41% of all trips to work), buses
modalities and transit to renewable energies: bus, and cars.118 Milan is continually improving the new
metro, tramway, rail, soft mobility (i.e. bicycles). technologies applied to the city’s successful bike
Copenhagen, for example, has the ambition to be and car sharing initiatives.119 In the Global South,
particularly in Africa, formal transport systems are
unable to compete in terms of cost and speed with
(often unsafe) private sector and informal sector
Box 7 transport initiatives. However, good practice can
be found in the form of better public transport (e.g.
Lagos Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) System Bus Rapid Transit systems, developed in Bogotá120
but which have spread to many other cities such as
To address the traffic congestion in Lagos, the national Jakarta121 and Istanbul122 amongst others) and the
government established the Lagos Metropolitan Transport use of more sustainable public transport modes
Authority (LMTA)128 in 2002. It became fully operational in 2008. (conversion of buses to biogas in Johannesburg,123
The LMTA established the Lagos BRT Lite system, Africa’s first investment in the metro lines in Hanoi,124 promotion
bus rapid transit scheme. The project was funded by the World of bike lanes and bike sharing systems in Buenos
Bank, Lagos state government, and private sector operators. Aires125 and Chennai,126 and electric urban cleaning
This is a high capacity bus service which runs in dedicated lanes. vehicles in Rio de Janeiro).127 In Brazil, through
The system comprises 22 km of bus lanes with 220 buses which run the Restructuring Plan for Public Transport in the
on a 16-hour service, transporting over 200,000 people daily. In its Metropolitan Region of Belo Horizonte, the city
initial six months of operation, the service carried over 29 million opted to establish an intermodal and integrated
people, journey time was reduced by an average of 25 minutes urban transport system that combines buses,
and fares were reduced to less than half of what passengers had underground trains and an interneighbourhood
been paying to private operators. CO2 and GHG emissions have system with direct, circular and peripheral lines.
been reduced by 13% and 20% respectively. The experience of As prime energy consumers, metropolitan
Lagos shows that improvements made in the field of sustainable areas around the world have developed plans
transport have an impact beyond the provision of basic services and projects to reduce energy consumption in
(crucial for the population and especially for those living on the buildings and infrastructures. In the Tokyo Green
outskirts of big cities), affecting other areas such as economic Building Programme, for example, buildings are
development (productivity improvements and job creation). rated on environmental performance and, since
2002, this has contributed to improved public
Source: https://lamata.lagosstate.gov.ng/. health and increased the economic viability of
environmentally-friendly design by altering the way
buildings are valued.129 Energy emissions reductions
have also been a priority for Vancouver130 and
Box 8 Chicago.131 In Hanoi, the council has fostered the
conversion of beehive stoves into advanced clean
Energy efficiency in cook stoves that contribute to GHG reductions by
Beijing’s buildings burning biomass instead of fossil fuels.132
Water (SDG 6) is an essential and scarce resource
whose provision is considered a human right. The
Beijing is promoting the adoption of ultra-low
‘water footprint’ of cities – the area covered by their
energy new building constructions, utilizing
water sources – accounts for 41% of the earth’s land
innovative design standards and technologies
surface. Water is crucial for metropolises, not just
to dramatically improve energy performance.
for human consumption but also for the functioning
The city aims to construct 300,000 m2 of
of the economy, which leaves metropolitan cities
ultra-low energy demonstration building
in a difficult position with regards to river basins
projects by the end of 2020; refine ultra-low
and the environment as a whole. Policies oriented
energy building standards and guidance;
towards rationalizing water consumption and
provide training to support coordinated
reutilization, especially for industrial or ornamental
development across the wider Beijing-Tianjin
uses, are vital since water supply is a growing
Hebei Region; enhance and implement
concern in many metropolitan cities. While cities
financial incentive policies; and develop
such as Amsterdam, Dubai, London and Los
future policy recommendations and strategy
Angeles ensure 100% service provision to the
based on international experience.
population, in Johannesburg only 65% of the
Source: https://www.c40.org/researches/constructing-a-new-
population have a potable water supply service.
low-carbon-future-china. Bangalore, Beijing, Cairo, Cape Town, Chennai,
Jakarta, Melbourne, Mexico and Sao Paulo are

Figure 5
Percentage of the city’s wastewater that has received no treatment
Cities that have a

Haiphong wastewater treatment
service for their
population:
Minna
Cities with partial (or no) wastewater treatment services for their population
Riyadh Ammam
Amsterdam
Bogotá Barcelona
Boston
Buenos Aires
Brisbane
Jamshedpur Dubai
Eindhoven
Aalter Gdynia
Greater Melbourne
Guadalajara
Heerlen
Koprivnica
Shanghai
London
León Los Angeles
Makati
Zagreb Makkah
Oakville
Surat
Porto
Saint-Augustin- Rotterdam
de-Desmaures San Diego
Valencia Shawinigan
Sintra
Toronto Surrey
Taipei
Cambridge Vaughan
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Zwolle
Source: WCCD City Data for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals report 2017.
examples of cities affected by water supply greater productivity.134 Johannesburg has tackled
problems. With respect to sanitation, according waste management in a cross-sectoral manner
to the WCCD, whilst metropolitan areas such as involving informal waste pickers in the value
Dubai, Greater Melbourne, London, Taipei and chain.135
Toronto have populations with 100% access to Metropolitan areas continue to be at the
an improved sanitation source, high percentages forefront of climate action through sustainable
of non-treated wastewater are found in Riyadh practices in transport, food security, buildings and
(around 90%), Bogotá and Buenos Aires (around infrastructures and the provision of basic services
60%, see Figure 5). (water, sanitation, waste management, energy) and
Effective waste treatment (SDG 12.5) is also climate-resilient strategies foster mitigation and
crucial for the environment and can contribute adaptation in line with poverty eradication and the
significantly to energy generation, ensuring reduction of inequalities. However, overcoming
energy security, reducing environmental pollution, current constraints (legal and regulatory barriers,
and contributing to efficient land use and green information asymmetries, insufficient expertise, lack
sustainable economic development. This can be of resources and access to borrowing, and inadequate
seen in the action taken by Hanoi and Quezon stakeholder coordination,136 especially when no
City with regards to their largest landfill,133 while clear internal mechanisms exist) is absolutely
Istanbul’s circular design approach to waste essential if metropolitan areas are to continue to
management allows the city to produce electricity lead the way in more sustainable, environmentally
and compost from different waste streams, as well friendly actions.
as divert excess heat to greenhouses to ensure

Demonstration on the
International Day of Working
Women, Santiago de Chile
(photo: Fran[zi]s[ko]Vicencio,
t.ly/PB6g8)-
Persisting inequalities but growing Indeed, as metropolitan areas continue to

strategies for social inclusion, grow at a dizzying rate, particularly in Africa
equity and coexistence and Asia, the most vulnerable citizens cannot
Metropolitan areas around the world are afford decent houses and have no alternative
promoting important policies and initiatives to but to move to crowded slums and informal
foster social inclusion, equity and coexistence settlements. Figures for the percentage of
within their territories. However, they still have the population living in slums is around 14% in
significant poverty rates and inequalities (in Johannesburg, 10% in Amman and Buenos Aires,
OECD countries, metropolitan income inequality and over 5% in Bogotá.141 The 2030 Agenda
is 3.3% higher than the national average).137 The urgently calls for upgrading of slums through
level of metropolitan income segregation varies integral actions to ensure decent housing and
hugely between countries: in South African and access to services.
Brazilian metropolitan areas it is much more It is important that the slum upgrading
evident than in New Zealand or Denmark,138 process is carried out with the involvement of
but at the same time large metropolitan areas the people that live there and other stakeholders
such as Atlanta, New Orleans, Washington DC, (see Box 9) and that there is a move away from
Miami and New York experience similar levels of forced evictions with no provision for
inequality to developing cities such as Abidjan, alternative accommodation (as occurred in
Nairobi, Buenos Aires and Santiago, all with Gini Badia East within the framework of the Lagos
coefficients of around 0.50.139 Metropolitan Development and Governance
Exclusion and inequalities are both the cause Project).142 Articulating citizen participation
and the result of metropolitan areas being mechanisms that include the most vulnerable
scattered and fragmented. While centres attract groups is strongly in line with the 2030 Agenda.
business headquarters, talent and knowledge, they In this regard, blockchain has proved a powerful
also expel middle class and low-income groups to tool in the process: in Moscow, a blockchain-
the outskirts and poorer neighbourhoods.140 based platform allows citizens to make decisions

on how urban spaces can be improved; and in
Buenos Aires, the Waba project has developed
an application that encourages the social, civic
The quality of life for migrants is strongly
and economic integration of the inhabitants dependent on local policies. Metropolitan
of irregular settlements through establishing
communities that self-manage the governance
areas can facilitate access to housing,
of their own alternative currencies in their local jobs, education and health.
markets.143
Ensuring access to adequate and affordable
housing (SDG 11) is one of the most significant
challenges for metropolitan areas in all regions.
As outlined in previous sub-sections, market Box 9
deregulation and skyrocketing prices of land and
housing are some of the issues that cities need Planning development in Eastern
to address. Many metropolises have therefore Africa: Mukuru’s Special Planning Area
endorsed the declaration Cities for Adequate
Housing, launched by Barcelona and UCLG and
Significant efforts have been made in Nairobi’s slum upgrading
which is a call to acknowledge housing as a right
programmes, which differ both in size and scale.144 In Soweto
rather than a commodity. In the declaration,
(Kibera), the government built around 4,000 housing units to
the cities of Lisbon, eThekwini, Mexico City,
be sold at subsidized rates, but many residents cannot even
Montevideo, Taipei, Berlin and Montreal and
afford such subsidized prices. In the other in Mukuru in the east
the metropolitan bodies of Barcelona, Greater
of Nairobi, the government created a Special Planning Area
Manchester and Seoul have committed to support
with significant involvement of the social movement Muungano
the right to housing in order to implement
wa Wanavijiji, which has long collected data through member
SDG 11 which commits to making cities and
savings groups and lobbied for investment in basic services.
human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
The upgrading process will involve a number of thematic
sustainable.145
consortiums covering water, sanitation and energy; finance;
To strengthen the management of metropolitan
land and institutional arrangements; health services; education,
areas, big cities need to adopt strategic and
youth and culture; environment and natural resources; housing,
integral planning approaches to better articulate
infrastructure and commerce; and community organization,
service provision, urban development and land
coordination and communication.
management (SDG 11.3) to ensure economic
development and social inclusion. This is already
Source: https://wrirosscities.org/sites/default/files/WRR_Case-Study_Kampala_final.pdf;
being implemented in cities such as Auckland, https://www.iied.org/special-approach-slum-upgrading-special-planning-area-mukuru-nairobi.
Barcelona, Lima, New York, Riyadh, Shanghai
and Tokyo, for example.147 In other cases, integral
planning has been carried out in specific sectors,
taking into account the needs and priorities of Box 10
the whole metropolitan area, for example in
Montreal with the Namur-de la Savanne sector;148
Berlin’s District Waterkant which aims to build
eThekwini poverty package
new housing units (with essential services such as
The South African city of eThekwini146 has a comprehensive
kindergartens, pharmacies, playgrounds etc.) and
package of measures for poor and vulnerable people, including
develop specific traffic and mobility measures;149
indigenous communities (SDGs 1, 6, 10, 11). With regard to basic
Brussels’ conversion of a former army barrack (U
services, rates are not levied on properties valued under a certain
square) into an inclusive district comprising families
amount, with preferential treatment for pensioners and social
and students which combines efficiency, heritage,
grant recipients; and the use of water, sanitation, electricity and
circular economy, sustainable development and
waste is free up to specific limits.
knowledge;150 and Sydney’s Green Square, which
With respect to housing, a new programme will deliver over
has undergone a large-scale transformation into a
150,000 housing units to poor people free of charge over a ten-
place with a minimal environmental footprint and
year period. To improve the quality of life in informal settlements
a vibrant and well-connected community enjoying
and transit camps, short-term emergency/interim services have
sustainable facilities, transport networks, public
been provided in the form of washing blocks, refuse removal,
spaces, high-quality housing, commerce, services
storm water ditching, fire breaks, etc. In addition, innovative
and jobs.151 In developing countries, this strategic
new housing forms and urban design solutions are being
approach is still limited.
implemented with the aim of promoting densification, social
Almost all metropolitan areas are hosting an
cohesion, and a more sustainable urban form.
increasing number of migrants, whether internal
or international. Migrants are one of the most
Source: http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/Community_Participation/Pages/Poverty-
vulnerable groups referred to in the 2030 Agenda, Alleviation-Programme.aspx.
with women being particularly vulnerable because

their quality of life is strongly dependent on local Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
policies. Cities are important for guaranteeing adopted in 1979 and the Convention of Belém
migrant social integration and facilitating access do Pará (1994), global agendas have ratified the
to housing, jobs, education and health. However, need to monitor, prevent and punish violence
the increase in migrant numbers is not confined against women, acknowledging it as a public
to metropolitan areas but also applies to smaller issue that erodes female autonomy.159 Women’s
cities.152 Chengdu has fostered a platform for bodies are the starting point for domination and
internal migrants to express their concerns at the subjugation, which is then replicated at home,
community level, including about issues such as in the street, in neighbourhoods, municipalities
public resource allocation.153 The greater Amman and the metropolitan area as a whole. Besides
municipality is developing policies to reduce robberies, assaults and the illegitimate use of
socio-cultural tensions and spatial segregation force by criminals, women are exposed to attacks,
between host and refugee communities living in verbal harassment, sexual harassment and abuse,
the the Badr Nazzai district in the south of the rape and even murder, simply by virtue of being
city.154 women. While this violence is often confined to
In order to promote social inclusion, combat their homes, it also occurs in the public space:
poverty and foster employment, metropolitan squares, parks, in the street and on public
areas also need to deal with security matters transport. Women are even more vulnerable,
(SDG 11.7), particularly in Latin America but then, if the city and the territory are not planned
also in South Africa and in the United States. in a way that acknowledges these challenges and
According to the annual report on the 50 most uses public spaces and infrastructure to combat
dangerous cities, 43 of them are to be found in this phenomenon. Women today are more afraid
Latin America, four in the United States and three to travel around the city than men: this fear curbs
in South Africa.155 In Africa, civil unrest, political their freedom, limits their rightful enjoyment and
instability and terrorism are a source of concern in ownership of public spaces and public life, and
metropolises such as Addis Ababa, Johannesburg hinders their development as workers, citizens
and Nairobi,156 while in Latin America insecurity and active participants, free to benefit from all
revolves around drug trafficking-related crimes, the opportunities provided by the metropolitan
youth gangs and institutionalized violence environment.160
amongst other things.157 In order to combat There have been many initiatives in the world’s
insecurity, many cities have successfully developed metropolitan areas to reduce violence against
strategies through participatory approaches women, protect their rights and empower them
(e.g. Medellin and Seoul), targeting troubled to participate in public life. Mainstreaming a
neighbourhoods, involving communities, schools, gender-specific approach in public policies and
the police and district sectors, and securing public actions is paramount to achieving equal rights. In
spaces through policies for vulnerable groups this respect, actions have been implemented in
such as youth, women and the elderly.158 the field of urban spaces (e.g. New Delhi’s free
Since the Convention on the Elimination of All SafetiPin app with interactive maps of places
where women feel unsafe, including an alarm
service — now also available in Bangalore, Bogotá
and Jakarta amongst other cities);161 public
Box 11 transportation (Quito’s ‘Down with Harassment’
project to stop harassment on public transport,
The Goes neighbourhood implemented in partnership with the UN Women’s
Global Flagship Initiative Safe Cities and Safe
in Montevideo Public Spaces,162 and Toronto’s buses stopping
at the request of women between 9pm and 5am
Once a deprived neighbourhood in Montevideo, Goes to shorten walking distance);163 and awareness
has undergone comprehensive socio-urban revitalization, raising (more than 100 youth agents of change
transforming it into a welcoming, cohesive and touristic place. in Cairo are leading transformative activities in
The integral regeneration of the neighbourhood has brought schools and other settings to promote respectful
with it new public open spaces, greater housing choice, increased gender relationships, gender equality, and safety
social integration and new economic opportunities. At the in public spaces, and similar actions have been
outset, participative processes were employed which allowed implemented in Seoul, Montreal and Barcelona).164
for the creation of a new governance model that underlines the Metropolitan areas should also take into account
role of local identity and the joint management of public facilities other vulnerable groups such as disabled people,
between the council and the community, such as the Centro who account for 15% of the world’s population. Big
Cultural Terminal Goes. cities are amongst the most difficult to navigate
for the blind, deaf and physically disabled,
Source: http://culturalgoes.montevideo.gub.uy/centro-cultural-terminal-goes/gestion. and there are rising levels of mental illness in
this space.165 Metropolises are implementing a

Mural art for the second
edition of the Wall Art Festival
in Grigny, a city part of the
Greater Paris metropolitan
range of policies to foster inclusion, for example of older people in order to reduce prejudice area (photo: © Amanda Fléty
Martínez).
micro gardening in Dakar for vulnerable people and discrimination (Guadalajara).173 Promoting
including the disabled, women, the elderly, youth people’s values, a sense of identity and accessible
and children,166 and involving them in participative culture (not just the heritage dimension but also
and inclusive strategic planning, for example, creativity, diversity and cultural participation in the
as part of the Guadalajara Future Metropolitan broadest sense of SDG 11.4)174 will be key to re-
Development Programme.167 As the metropolitan humanizing metropolitan areas and making them
population ages (57% of people aged 60 years more resilient, inclusive and participative.
and older are urban and the total number of Incorporating the 2030 Agenda into policies
people over 60 is set to double by 2050),168 taking and practices and using it to tackle the challenges
the elderly into consideration has become crucial discussed above will highlight the ways in which
for developing balanced, sustainable policies different metropolitan areas can contribute to
that tackle, amongst other things, the incidence sustainable development and unlock their full
of elderly poverty, working in low-wage work potential by implementing innovative and efficient
(as in Singapore),169 the feeling of loneliness solutions. However, institutional fragmentation
(35% of people over 75 in Stockholm describe in many metropolitan areas presents a major
themselves as lonely),170 adaptation of housing obstacle to citizens accessing their full rights and
and public spaces, and reform of the health and to the universalization of basic services (transport,
care system including the gap between public housing, water, sanitation, etc.), particularly for
and private. Metropolitan areas are responding women and the most vulnerable groups (the
to these challenges by bringing older people and poor, youth, disabled people, the elderly and
students together through cohabitation schemes migrants) and those who live on the periphery,
(Milan);171 fostering volunteering programmes, whether territorial or social. There is still much to
offering older job seekers access to health, skills be done to create legal and institutional enabling
and employability support, promoting extra care environments, as well as new governance
apartments for older people alongside a library mechanisms, that allow for the growth in high
and health services, teaching digital skills in an quality metropolitan public policies.
informal environment (Greater Manchester),172
and campaigning to change people’s perceptions

04. Conclusions and
policy recommendations:
the state of SDG
localization in the
Metropolitan Areas
This publication has shown that metro- growth but with precarious labour conditions
politan cities have been among the most and extended informalization in the cities of the
active in integrating the 2030 Agenda Global South; hopes for a better quality of life
and other related agendas into their but deterioration in health as a consequence of
development strategies, plans and pollution, environmental degradation and natural
policies. Frontrunner cities have deployed resource depletion. Most metropolitan cities
integrated development strategies as face a pressing need to foster new patterns of
well as highly innovative solutions to economic and social development to control their
address their most pressing problems. growth and minimize the negative externalities
Managing the policy-making process at created by current unsustainable patterns of
metropolitan level through integrated and development.
inclusive approaches, ensuring adequate In July 2018, mayors of metropolitan cities from
coordination between the different spheres different regions who were concerned about the
of government and involving citizens as global housing crisis that has hit major urban areas
well as metropolitan stakeholders are all and advocating for better cities and respect of the
needed to implement the 2030 Agenda rights to the city for all, requested at the UN more
in an effective manner, in addition to legal and fiscal powers to tackle speculation and
ensuring transparency and accountability guarantee the social function of the city; more funds
in order to bring public policies closer to to invest in public housing and neighbourhoods;
citizens, especially the most vulnerable. the co-production with communities of alternative
In this regard, the metropolitan model is solutions; better planning to contribute to the
critical. This is a strategy that has clearly social, economic and environmental sustainability
been adopted by some metropolitan areas of the urban fabric; and enhanced cooperation
and which, ideally, should be followed by between cities to boost long-term strategies on a
others. metropolitan scale.175
Globally, metropolitan areas are recognized At the same time metropolitan governments
as engines of growth, functioning as drivers around the world are leading the fight against
of national and even international economies, climate change, strengthening the resiliency
leading investment and competitiveness. of cities as demonstrated by major cities in the
However, metropolitan areas are also home Global Climate Action Summit in September 2018,
to major contradictions: rising levels of wealth investing in urban de-carbonization, fostering the
coupled with problems of exclusion; economic transition to renewable energies, greening public

buildings and services, promoting circular and Metropolitan finance authorities need adequate
sharing economies, supporting innovation and powers to mobilize local resources, receive
better control of the use of technologies and sufficient transfers and be able to access borrowing
data — all with the aim of tackling challenging on national and international markets to invest in
externalities. Key cities play a major role in major infrastructures and services and to respond
large fora such as the yearly COP conferences, to social inclusion and climate change challenges.
where they are active participants. However, This would allow metropolitan areas to reconcile
as highlighted by the IPCC, a much greater financial constraints with long-term sustainable
collective effort at all levels is needed to stop development and counterbalance the growing
climate change. wealth inequalities both between and within cities.
Capitalizing on the innovation and solutions To better respond to the 2030 Agenda, the
provided by metropolitan areas to tackle the Paris Agreement on climate change and other
challenges discussed above is crucial. It will build related agendas, metropolitan areas should
gateways to share knowledge and experiences strengthen their capacity to develop integrated
and help improve public policies. However, and participatory strategic plans aligned with
current governance models are undermining SDG targets that link the different dimensions
the potential of metropolitan areas to provide of urban sustainable development to build
effective solutions to the problems they are inclusive, resilient and safer cities. Metropolitan
facing. Unlocking the transformative potential of governments should move from fragmented
the 2030 Agenda should serve to improve the sector-specific decision-making to a strategic
policy-making process at the metropolitan level. planning approach for the whole metropolitan
The following recommendations are based on area that takes into account the systemic
the analysis of previous pages, on the Montreal tensions between inclusion, environmental
Declaration on Metropolitan Areas for Habitat III policies, economic development and resilience.
(October 2015) and the key messages of GOLD IV: They should strengthen collaboration within
Metropolitan governance systems are, in metropolitan areas, as well as with their peri-
fact, being reformed and upgraded around urban areas and hinterlands, to build stronger
the world. New, more inclusive governance synergies, relieve urbanization pressures and
models are vital for dealing with the increasing reduce environmental impacts.
complexity of metropolitan areas. As stressed As requested by the New Urban Agenda,
in previous pages, although there is no ‘one- inclusive urban planning should pursue
size-fits-all’, some basic principles should be universal access to basic services and adequate
acknowledged to bolster collaborative and housing, compactness, multi-functionality and
effective metropolitan governance: local socially-mixed neighbourhoods with a good
democracy as the basis of the legitimacy of quality of life, shorter travelling distances and
metropolitan institutions, empowered local improved public transport, accessible and safer
governments (effective decentralization), multi- public spaces, fairer access to basic services and
level cooperation based on the respect of infrastructures, and cultural amenities for all. In
the subsidiarity principles, enhanced gender- developing countries, informal settlements must
aware participatory mechanisms, and adequate be recognized and integrated into the urban
resources and financing instruments. The fabric, with adequate policies for land tenure
gender perspective must also be integrated into recognition and slum upgrading. Cultural policies
the design, execution and evaluation of public (including the protection of heritage, diversity and
policies. A fair metropolitan governance system creativity) should also act as a lever for flourishing
should encourage polycentric and balanced metropolitan areas.
development to ensure inclusion of the full The achievement of the global agendas needs
metropolitan region, core and peripheral cities. the establishment of stronger partnerships for
Metropolitan spaces should also take into the co-production of the city. To enhance and
account the impact that they may have not only empower citizen participation, metropolitan
on peripheral cities, but also the surrounding leaders should combine the support of a
territories, their hinterland or territorial approaches well-organized civil society with autonomous
at a larger, national level. In light of both the spaces and diversified mechanisms to participate
2030 Agenda and the New Urban Agenda, it is in local decision-making, acknowledging the
essential to redefine these relationships and their protection of human rights as defined by the
interdependence within a systemic territorial and UN — the right to access basic services, gender
urban approach. equality, adequate shelter and secure tenure,
A thorough rethinking of traditional social protection, respect for migrants, refugees,
financing approaches is needed to empower minorities, communities safe from violence,
metropolitan authorities in the context of and defence of digital rights — and putting the
widespread financialization and commodification principles of the ‘Right to the city’ at the heart of
of urban public goods and property markets. the urban agenda.

To strengthen the capacity of co-production political agendas. Metropolitan leaders must
through participative planning, reporting and redouble their efforts to engage on the global
monitoring, local governments should strengthen stage, particularly in the reporting process to
metropolitan systems to gather and process the UN through the Voluntary National Reviews
data with indicators aligned to those of the and, where possible, develop Voluntary Local
SDGs. Different levels of government, as well as Reviews to make their voices heard. They need
universities, knowledge centres, CSOs and the to enhance cooperation and promote knowledge-
private sector should all contribute to this effort. sharing between themselves and with networks of
Despite the importance of their role and the peripheral cities in order to foster innovation and
challenges they face, metropolitan areas enjoy encourage positive action.
limited political recognition. The metropolitan The current patterns of development
dimension appears diluted or alluded to only embedded in our aspiration for continuous
briefly in most of the global agendas i.e. the New growth are responsible for some of the most
Urban Agenda, the Paris Agreement on climate critical challenges faced by metropolitan cities
change and the Addis Ababa Action Plan. The worldwide. Many metropolitan cities lack the
2030 Agenda could serve as leverage, allowing the resources and the full competences to address
environment in which metropolitan areas operate to the very complex challenges they face. Beyond
foster the metropolitan dimension of the different the current ad hoc innovative solutions that cities

are developing to respond to these challenges,
the transition towards a more sustainable
development model will require a redefinition of
the prevailing economic and social patterns of
development so that they are compatible with the
limits of our planet. Metropolitan cities should
lead a global dialogue to rethink these patterns
of development and establish shared action
plans with concrete measures to move towards
a more sustainable and inclusive development
that aligns with the 2030 Agenda.
Streets of Shenzhen, China

(photo: tomislav domes,
https://bit.ly/3eFsivj).

05. Policy
recommendations
at the global level

Our roadmap to accelerate
the achievement
of the 2030 Agenda
through the localization
of the SDGs
The transformation that needs to be brought adopted by the World Organization of United
about to achieve the global agendas will only Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) in 2016, as
occur if our development model responds to well as the annual reports of the Global Taskforce
the dreams and expectations of communities, of Local and Regional Governments (GTF) to the
and if there is collective responsibility to make UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable
the necessary adjustments and sacrifices to Development (HLPF) since 2017.
achieve more equitable, fair and sustainable In a context of increasing inequalities,
societies. endangerment of ecosystems and tensions that
The global agendas must either be local or they are threatening human solidarity, the GOLD V
simply will not be. The constituency of local and Report presents the efforts of a key constituency
regional governments (LRGs) has a critical role to that serves communities, responding to their
play to catalyse change and provide the kind of needs and hopes. It is a positive message about the
service delivery that will deliver inclusion, efficient impact that well-resourced localization can have
use of resources and sustainability. This LRG in a new vision for the sustainability of our planet.
constituency shares the sense of urgency to scale- The recommendations are addressed to local and
up and accelerate such a transformation. regional leaders and their organizations, to our
The findings of the GOLD V Report have partners, national governments, international
inspired policy recommendations that build upon organizations, civil society and social actors, as well
the ‘Bogota Commitment and Action Agenda’, as to the business sector.
Local and regional governments lead

the way towards a more equal and
sustainable world
In the globalized urbanization era, the actions of the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, that in turn
cities and LRGs are integral to the global agendas: are fundamental to changing the patterns of
it is at the local level that the interrelationship production and consumption as the basic premise
between the different agendas most clearly of the Paris Agreement on climate change and the
manifests itself. With regard to the global Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
agendas, getting the 2030 Agenda commitments The following recommendations situate the LRGs
right necessitates the full implementation of as drivers of an alternative territorial approach to
the principles of the New Urban Agenda and local development (TALD).

Actions at • Foster an ecological and systemic relationship
between people and nature. LRGs must
local and regional support cohesion of the ‘urban-rural continuum’

and strengthen the interconnected policies that
levels halt deforestation and desertification; effectively

manage the current network of protected areas,
including terrestrial, freshwater (both surface
and ground) and marine areas; and improve
human wellbeing, particularly of indigenous
Galvanize forces for the populations and communities whose livelihoods
localization of the 2030 depend on forests, water and soil conservation
Agenda in our cities and and climate change mitigation.
territories • Achieve climate neutrality in cities and
territories, taking into account the life-long
LRGs and their global and regional organizations cycle of GHG emissions to proactively tackle the
have pioneered the localization of the SDGs. To climate emergency. Decoupling socio-economic
make the ‘quantum leap’ currently needed they development from environmental degradation
must: calls for well-planned urban development
and land management, responsible and fair
• Adopt the SDGs as a reference framework
management of natural resources and waste,
for LRGs' policies, programming, planning and
and ensuring the reduction of inequalities. It
budgets, ensuring a coherent and integrated
implies divesting from fossil fuels to free up
approach — mindful of the Paris Agreement
resources. These can in turn be invested to
on climate change, the Sendai Framework and
accelerate scaling-up the protection of most
empowered by the principles of the New Urban
vulnerable populations and ecosystems, and
Agenda.
offsetting any emissions that cannot be further
• Embolden ambitions by fostering greater reduced or avoided.
ownership of the communities and attain real
• Contribute to holding global warming to
local buy-in of policies. Co-creation with other
1.5ºC by the end of the 21st century, through
local stakeholders will be critical in the definition,
the collective definition of Territorially-
implementation and assessment of the
Determined Contributions (TDCs) feeding
localization process.
into the Nationally-Determined Contributions
• Share and learn: participate in LRG networks (NDCs) for the implementation of the provisions
and invest in peer-to-peer knowledge-sharing, of the Paris Agreement. Support the post-2020
practice exchange and training. Fostering and negotiation of the global biodiversity framework,
accessing technical assistance and decentralized as well as the Convention on Wetlands of
cooperation to promote the localization of the International Importance and the Convention
SDGs will be key. on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora.
• Link with science: serve as catalyser to foster
partnerships with research institutions and • Promote peace and city diplomacy by tackling
promote ‘labs’ to experiment with innovative the roots of local violence, educating for its
ways to implement, review and follow-up the eradication and to create a mindset that makes
localization process. it possible to build a culture of dialogue in cities
and territories. Foster cities and territories as
spaces for co-existence and peace through
measures that fight interpersonal violence,
extremism, racism, xenophobia, gender-based
Protect the commons, violence and other forms of intolerance, and
human rights and culture as introduce measures to integrate all citizens.
foundations of peace • Promote culture as the fourth pillar of

development and as a core component of
The preservation of the global commons local identity, a strand of global solidarity,
(biodiversity, land, atmosphere, oceans) that and a vector for peace and human rights.
determine the survival of all living beings, Foster locally relevant cultural policies and
as well as the protection of peace, cultural programmes on memory, heritage, creativity,
diversity and human rights, require strong diversity and knowledge, as intrinsic to local
local action and LRGs’ commitment to: sustainable development.

Put human rights and the in local decision-making, access to information
and communities’ ownership of the 2030
‘Right to the City’ at the Agenda and other global agendas.
core of the local agendas
– strengthen inclusive local
policies to ‘leave no one
behind’ Harness the co-creation of
Given its multiple dimensions, the eradication
cities and territories through
of extreme poverty is inextricably linked to the sustainable participative
protection of human rights. LRGs should put urban and land planning
the ‘Right to the City’ at the centre of urban
and territorial governance to ensure universal Planning needs to be the result of the political,
access to quality basic services, nutritious food, economic and social systems within which
health and education, economic opportunities, it is embedded. Deep reforms on planning
access to adequate housing and disaster risk regulations and frameworks are a critical
prevention for the most vulnerable. These are part of SDG localization and the New Urban
essential components of territorialized pro- Agenda. This includes the need to produce
poor policies. Partnerships with communities qualified professional planners and researchers.
and community-based organisations are By renewing participatory urban and spatial
instrumental in creating alternative solutions, planning, LRGs should:
particularly where public services are scarce.
• Adopt an integrated planning approach,
LRGs should commit to:
as reflected in the New Urban Agenda, to
• Remove any discriminatory legal and social strengthen the inclusive dimension of cities,
policy at the local level to ensure equal climate adaptation and mitigation and disaster
opportunities for all, particularly for women, risk prevention strategies, and multiply the
indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities, benefits of interlinkages between urban and
the LGBTQIA+ populations, the elderly, the territorial areas. Inclusive and participatory
youth, and people with mental and physical planning are key levers for the co-creation of
disabilities. Facilitate migrants' and refugees' sustainable and inclusive cities and territories.
access to rights and services, regardless of their
• Build capacities and retain local expertise
status.
to address rapid urbanization with adapted
• Tackle gender-based discrimination and approaches to reduce urban sprawl and avoid
violence with tailored policies, budgets and legal costlier retrofitting. Most urgent actions are
reforms. LRGs can raise awareness and reinforce needed in regions where rapid urban growth
education on the changing conception of gender will be concentrated (Sub-Saharan Africa and
roles. Women must be equally represented South and South-East Asia).
and granted equal powers in decision-making
• Scale-up efforts to build urban resilience
forums. It is necessary to enact gender-sensitive
and disaster risk preparation, involving local
policies in territories that promote equal access
communities, particularly vulnerable groups, in
to health and education and acknowledge the
particular in coastal cities and Small Developing
role of women in the domestic and informal
Island States (SIDs).
economy. Gender equality has a multiplier
effect in advancing sustainable development, • Contribute to promoting ‘polycentric’ urban
environmental protection and social justice. development to reduce core-periphery
divides, promote more compact and social-
• Support the fulfilment of the right to adequate
mix neighbourhoods, reduce inequalities and
housing for all, which includes affordability,
avoid urban segregation.
legal security of tenure, habitability, accessibility
and cultural adequacy standards, and must be • Create or preserve open public spaces to
understood within the framework of the ‘Right boost inclusion and protect urban heritage
to the City’. Promote inclusionary housing and culture, while also pursuing innovative
policies and slum upgrading initiatives that are solutions to foster creativity for sustainable
undertaken in partnership with the communities urban development.
and seek to avoid forced evictions.
• Curb urban sprawl, reduce distance between
• Promote the Principles of Open Government home and work places to reduce commuting
as a tool for the improvement of policy times and encourage access to alternative and
ownership and accountability. Create spaces safe modes of mobility (including walkable
and mechanisms that favour citizen participation cities) to reduce GHG emissions. Urban and

spatial planning can lead to transformative use Focus on the future of
of renewable energy, and reduce the ecological
footprint of cities and territories, greening
jobs and local economic
public infrastructure and spaces, reducing air development (LED)
and waste pollution, and reducing risks such as
floods, drought or urban heat island effects. It is now urgent to steer a course away from
the patterns of economic growth, consumption
• Improve relationships with the surrounding
and production of goods and services that
peri-urban and rural areas, avoid land
perpetuate deprivations, generate inequalities,
degradation, and improve food security and
deplete the global commons and threaten to
farmers’ livelihoods.
cause irreversible damage to the environment.
• Enhance the management of natural protected LRGs should therefore:
areas and ecosystem services, such as upstream
watershed areas that the city relies on for fresh • Promote LED that helps generate sustainable
water supply, and support reforestation. socio-economic development tailored to the
particular needs and contexts of cities and
territories, and ensure decent work and respect
for responsible sustainability standards.
Improve access to sustainable • Prioritize quality local employment as a right

and tailor fully-fledged policies responsive
and inclusive public services to the barriers faced by and vulnerabilities
in cities and territories of specific groups, including women, youth,
ethnic and religious minorities or people with
LRGs need to develop an integrated and disabilities among others; likewise find inclusive
systemic approach that will guarantee universal solutions to involve migrants regardless of
reach. This includes universal access to safe their status; and facilitate intergenerational
drinking water and sanitation, to quality knowledge transfers to preserve, disseminate
education and health, to public affordable and evolve local know-how and crafts.
and sustainable mobility, to integrated waste
management and to affordable and clean • Create spaces for local innovation in order to
energy. LRGs need to: nurture and scale-up local capacities, including
those enabled by technology and nature-
• Develop infrastructure plans alongside urban
based industries; develop synergies with local
land-use plans, including long-term investment
initiatives; support small and medium-sized
strategies to guide economic and spatial
enterprises (SMEs) that contribute to sustainable
expansion, especially where there are pressures
growth and to create employment in their local
for growth.
environments, give impulse to productive
• Reduce the environmental impact of urban clusters and cooperative strategies both within
infrastructures and contribute to communities’ and between sectors and territories.
resilience.
• Ensure that new technologies and e-platforms
• Support inter-municipal cooperation or specific do not widen the divide that is consolidating
mechanisms that guarantee collaborations poor-quality employment, or priviledge
to ensure full coverage and adequate quality extractive systems of production that do
delivery in territories, be it in metropolitan not support communities’ social cohesion,
areas, cities or peri-urban areas, or between connectedness and wellbeing. Develop policies
neighbouring municipalities in rural areas. to protect people’s privacy, and foster traditional
• Guarantee access to affordable services local small business.
exploring new universal models of service
• Promote alternative economic models such
co-production, taking advantage of new
as the transition towards a circular and green
decentralized technologies; support small-
economy; support the social and collaborative
scale businesses as basic service providers and
economy and sustainable tourism. Support the
improve the quality oversight of services; and
transition towards territorialized food systems
gradually insert the informal economy into the
that foster good health while minimizing
organization of public service delivery.
environmental impact; and support efforts to
• Improve the management, delivery and reduce the environmental footprint.
transparency of public basic services, and
facilitate innovative partnerships for co- • Recognize the critical role that the informal
production and co-management. economy plays in the urban fabric. Because of
this contribution and the growing number of

workers involved in informal economy activities • Coordinated strategies for the 2030 Agenda,
(estimated at over two billion people worldwide, the SDGs, the Paris Agreement on climate
among which women are ‘over-represented’), change and the New Urban Agenda are
LRGs need to take necessary steps and support an imperative. No single agenda can be
and create initiatives to help entrepreneurs in addressed in isolation. National sustainable
the informal economy. This must support them development plans (NSDPs), Nationally-
to evolve their activities towards the social and Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the
solidary economy, and promote the creation Paris Agreement and national urban policies
of mechanisms to facilitate access to social (NUPs), as well as other strategic plans, need
protection. to be articulated in order to overcome sectoral
fragmented strategies, improve the allocation
• Create enabling conditions, capacities and
of resources and boost implementation at all
confidence to mobilize the transformative
levels, from global to local and vice-versa.
power of public procurement, while respecting
the autonomy of LRGs to set their own policy
priorities. This should be done by mainstreaming
and implementing sustainable and decent
work policies, and fair, labour-friendly and
environmental clauses, and by encouraging Create an ‘enabling
a culture of transparent public contracts and
disclosure.
institutional environment’
for localization – empowered
local and regional
governments and adequate
financing flows to support
At the global localization are an imperative
and national Effective decentralization policies are intrinsic

to empowering LRGs and supporting SDG
levels localization. The principles of effective

decentralization are defined in the International
Guidelines on Decentralization and the
Strengthening of Local Authorities, adopted by
the UN-Habitat Governing Council in 2007.
Foster a global-local • LRGs need local autonomy and subsidiarity

principles to be respected in order to respond
movement to localize the to the demands of their inhabitants, to innovate
SDGs. Localization should be and to adapt national policies and the SDGs to
a pillar of national sustainable the local context. Urgent actions are needed to
strategies to implement the unlock LRGs’ potential to localize the SDGS and
ensure access to basic services for all.
SDGs
• Access to basic social services is a universal
To achieve the 2030 agendas on time, the pace principle acknowledged by the UN and a
of change needs to accelerate and ambitions building block for human development. LRGs
need to be bolder. National governments need to be empowered and accountable to
and international organizations should work ensure the delivery of quality basic services for
in collaboration with LRGs and their networks all, defined as direct or shared responsibilities in
to increase the outreach and strengthen the legal frameworks of a majority of countries,
partnerships of the 'whole-of-government' with to achieve the principle to ‘leave no one
the 'whole-of-society' to boost localization. behind’ — one of the core objectives of the
National governments should: 2030 Agenda.
• Integrate (or strengthen) robust localization • LRGs’ adequate fiscal powers and capacities,
strategies in their sustainable development as acknowledged by the Addis Ababa Action
strategies and action plans to expand the Agenda (paragraph 34) need strengthened local
involvement of LRGs and local actors, tax systems, including the power to capture
accelerating and upscaling territorial sustainable part of land and property added-value; a better
development. Localization strategies should be allocation of national fiscal revenues through
mainstreamed in all plans, programmes and fair, regular and predictable intergovernmental
budgets from national to local levels. transfers; and access to responsible borrowing

to invest in sustainable public services and and academia in SDG implementation, are
infrastructures. Environmental taxes should critical to achieve the ‘whole-of-government’
be considered to advance energy transition and ‘whole-of-society’ approaches called for
and enshrine the ‘polluter pays’ principle into by the SDGs. It is also crucial to ensure policy
financing frameworks. Equalization funds and institutional coherence both internally and
are also necessary to ensure the adequate externally. Without the active and collaborative
redistribution of resources across the whole involvement of all stakeholders, the SDGs will
territory to avoid ‘leaving any territory behind’, remain aspirational goals only.
paying particular attention to intermediary cities
• At the national level, there is much to do in terms
and small towns and promoting more balanced
of effectively involving LRGs and stakeholders
and ‘polycentric’ urban systems.
in the national coordination mechanisms
• To mobilize national and international for the implementation of the SDGs. Limited
sustainable investments toward cities consultations and uncoordinated decision-
and territories, national policies and legal making presently hinder the policy coherence
frameworks should be revised. An appropriate necessary to achieve the SDG targets and
range of debt finance options needs to be reduce local ownership.
adapted and made accessible to LRGs, one
• Integrated national planning systems are at
that considers multiple sources of financing
the core of functional multilevel governance
and innovative financial instruments. It is also
systems and need to be revamped to
necessary to adopt vertically aligned NDC
enhance the coordination between national
investment plans and open or facilitate LRGs’
governments, LRGs and local stakeholders. A
access to climate and green funds.
renewed approach to planning that articulates
• Facilities supporting cities in making national strategies with strong local initiatives
transformative projects reach bankability and in active collaboration could recalibrate
creditworthiness standards are essential and development policies, facilitate burgeoning
require strong backing and leadership to close local actions and promote institutional
financing gaps and enhance match-making innovation. This collaboration needs to be
opportunities, either through specific funds, or founded on the respect of the principle of
connecting cities with potential financiers. The subsidiarity.
next phase, already in motion, is to support
• As decision-makers, LRGs need to be involved
a more diverse set of financial mechanisms
in the definition, implementation and follow-
that are adapted to the different capacities
up of NDCs and national strategies for the
of cities and territories, such as the upcoming
implementation of the New Urban Agenda.
International Municipal Investment Fund, set up
National urban policies (NUPs), adopted (or
by the UN Capital Development Fund (UNCDF)
in the course of being adopted) by more
and UCLG with the support of the Global Fund
than 92 countries, need to be integrated in
for Cities Development.
national development strategies (NDSs) to
• The promise of ‘blended finance’ can only take advantage of the cumulative benefits
be fulfilled with the creation of adequate of urbanization and identify cross-sector
regulatory frameworks and with support for synergies to support SDG implementation.
LRGs in setting up partnerships with the private
• Horizontal cooperation at the sub-national
sector. These must be mutually beneficial and
level (e.g. intra and inter-municipal cooperation)
have clear contractual parameters ensuring that
needs adequate governance mechanisms,
the needs of their citizens come first and that
tools and fiscal policies to foster urban-rural
the poor and vulnerable groups are not ‘left
partnerships and reinforce the management
behind’.
of growing metropolitan areas. Coordination
will also strengthen interconnections and
cooperation between territories for service
Effective involvement of all delivery and key environmental issues that
require reinforced and trans-jurisdictional
spheres of government, civil (and often trans-boundary) actions, such as
society and key stakeholders the management of river catchments and
is imperative to strengthen environmental resources.
the governance of the SDGs
and the localization process
Strong partnerships and the participation of
LRGs, civil society, private sector, social partners

Support the production A global governance system
and dissemination of that brings together local and
disaggregated data for regional governments and
monitoring, evaluation and civil society will boost the
impact measurement of the implementation of the global
localization of the global agendas
agendas, including the SDGs
• The UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable
• LRG involvement in the global and national Development (HLPF) will need to be reshaped
monitoring and reporting processes on to enhance the participation of different stake-
SDG implementation is crucial and should holders, as well as facilitate true innovation
not be limited to ad hoc consultations. The and learning. The HLPF should be an effective
process of Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) multilateral and multi-stakeholder space for
needs improvement, to ensure the fully- dialogue, exchange and knowledge-sharing in
fledged participation of LRGs that brings the order to reinforce multilateral collaboration and
voice of the territories and local actors to the partnerships and ensure the real oversight of com-
process. mitments, policy agreements and implementation.
• Fragmented reporting systems hinder • The consolidation of the Local and Regional
ownership and the institutionalization of the Governments Forum is essential as a critical
SDGs across different spheres of government. space for interactions between the LRGs,
Strengthening local reporting capacities UN Member States, and the UN system.
and closing the data gap require particular Furthermore, multilevel dialogues need to
attention and support. National and local embolden the local-global leadership, as
capacities to define and collect disaggregated proposed in the ‘Seville Commitment’.
and localized data should be part of SDG
localization strategies to ensure that planning At the continental level, LRGs’ enhanced
processes at all levels are founded on realistic involvement in the regional forums (e.g.
targets and that effective implementation Regional Forums on Sustainable Development,
can be monitored, as well as to ensure co-organized by regional UN Commissions), in
accountability and citizen follow-up. multi-stakeholder platforms (e.g. the European
• Voluntary Local Reviews (VLRs) contributing to platform) and spaces (e.g. urban forums)
national monitoring and to the global debate, will enhance policy exchange to foster SDG
and promoting knowledge-sharing and localization and the active involvement of LRGs
emulation between LRGs, are opportunities that in the monitoring of the SDGs and related
need specific support and acknowledgment. agendas.
The audience at the Local
and Regional
Governments’ Forum, HLPF,
16 July 2018, New York
(photo: UCLG-CGLU/Joel
Sheakosk, bit.ly/31UjlHR).

06. Notes
and Bibliography

Background — Notes
1 Independent Group of Scientists appointed 3 United Nations Secretary-General, “Long- 6 UNDESA, “World Urbanization Prospects.
by the Secretary-General, “Global Term Impact of Current Trends in the The 2018 Revision” (New York, 2018).
Sustainable Development Report 2019: Economic, Social and Environmental Areas
The Future Is Now – Science for Achieving on the Realization of the Sustainable 7 Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
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2019); United Nations Secretary General, Report on Internal Displacement” (Geneva,
“Long-Term Impact of Current Trends in 4 United Nations Secretary-General, “The 2018).
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Areas on the Realization of the Sustainable Transforming All Lives and Protecting the
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2 IPCC, “IPCC Special Report 2018: Summary 5 UNDESA, “World Population Prospects
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1 UNDESA, “World Urbanization Prospects 14 See: http://www.nccp.org/topics/ 30 Mariona Tomàs, “Gobernabilidad
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17 Our methodology to elaborate this
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its members. The UCLG’s Peripheral Cities Goals%20for%20Local%20Communities_
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(Barcelona: CIDOB, 2019).
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7 G. Lanfranchi and M. Bidart, "Gobernanza
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8 UNDESA, “World Urbanization Prospects
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28 Mariona Tomàs, “Metropolitan Governance
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45 UCLG, “Co-Creating the Urban Future,” 64 More details at: https://www. 89 More information on: https://unhabitat.org/
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94 See: https://www.globalcovenantofmayors.
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the SDGs?” (17 Oct 2017) available at: 69 Further information at: https://www.cidob. 95 See also: https://www.
https://www.eco-business.com/news/ org/en/publications/publication_series/notes_ globalcovenantofmayors.org/cities/tokyo/.
does-the-philippines-care-about-the-sdgs/; internacionals/n1_198/rethinking_global_
Oswar Mungkasa, “Partnership for New 96 Refer to: https://www.
cities_through_international_municipalism_
Development Agenda: Implementing SDG globalcovenantofmayors.org/cities/bogota/.
and_the_right_to_the_city.
in Metropolitan Jakarta,” in Symposium on
97 See: https://www.globalcovenantofmayors.
Indonesia-Japan Development Cooperation 70 Refer to: bit.ly/2VH31I9.
org/cities/hong-kong/.
Building the Future Based on Trust, Jakarta,
May 14, 2018. 71 See: t.ly/Yy8pJ.
98 See also: https://www.
72 More information on: http://www.business- globalcovenantofmayors.org/cities/lima/.
49 It should be noted that there are a few
exceptions in Africa, such as in South Africa standard.com/article/economypolicy/
99 Visit: https://www.globalcovenantofmayors.
and recently in Kenya where local governance the-india-of-2025-49-city-clusters-to-
org/cities/london-uk/.
powers and finances have been strengthened drivegrowth-114103001651_1.html.
significantly. See Constitution of The Republic 100 Visit also: https://www.
73 For details, go to: https://www.digitaltrends.
of South Africa (1996); Constitution of Kenya globalcovenantofmayors.org/cities/new-york-
com/cool-tech/smart-cities-singapore/.
(2010). Published by The National Council city/.
for Law Reporting with the authority of the 74 For more information, visit: http://archive.
Attorney-General. 101 See: https://www.globalcovenantofmayors.
citiscope.org/citisignals/2016/chicago-uses-
org/cities/mexico-city/.
predictive-analytics-pinpoint-rodents.
50 Falú, “Egalitarian Metropolitan Spaces.”
102 Refer to: https://www.
75 See: http://minict.gov.rw/fileadmin/
51 See: https://citydeals.infrastructure.gov.au/; globalcovenantofmayors.org/cities/rio-de-
Documents/Strategy/SMART_AFRICA_
https://seqmayors.qld.gov.au/. janeiro/.
Sustainable-Cities_A_Blueprint_for_Africa.
52 See also: https:// pdf.pdf. 103 See also: https://www.
sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ globalcovenantofmayors.org/cities/istanbul/.
76 See: https://www.cidob.org/en/content/
documents/20122VOLUNTARY_NATIONAL_
download/69934/2099655/version/6/ 104 See: https://www.globalcovenantofmayors.
REPORT_060718.pdf.
file/544_OPINION_LORENZO%20VIDAL_ org/cities/jakarta/.
53 See: https://www.uclg.org/sites/default/files/ CAST.pdf.
goldiv_en.pdf. 105 Visit: https://www.globalcovenantofmayors.
77 UCLG, “Co-Creating the Urban Future.” org/cities/karachi/.
54 For more details, go to: https://proyectoallas.
78 See: http://www2.unwto.org/press- 106 See also: https://www.
net/2018/03/02/fortalece-cdmx-trabajo-de-la-
release/2018-10-08/urban-tourism-we-need- globalcovenantofmayors.org/cities/moscow/.
agenda-2030-de-desarrollo-sostenible/.
build-cities-residents-and-visitors-finds-
55 See: https://globalgoalsjam.org/. unwto-con-0. 107 For details, go to: https://www.
globalcovenantofmayors.org/cities/sao-
56 Visit: https://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/ 79 See: https://www.metropolis.org/sites/ paulo/.
planen/stadtentwicklungskonzept/download/ default/files/resources/Gentrification-
strategie/BerlinStrategie_Broschuere_en.pdf. impoverishment-metropolis.pdf. 108 See: https://www.globalcovenantofmayors.
org/cities/lagos/.
57 Refer to the Asia-Pacific chapter as well as to 80 See: https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/digital/
the African chapter of the GOLD V Report. en/noticia/_616819. 109 See: https://www.globalcovenantofmayors.
org/cities/kinshasa/.
58 See: bit.ly/35tGItM (older cached version). 81 See: https://citiesfordigitalrights.org. The
coalition includes metropolitan cities such 110 Can be consulted on: https://docs.
59 More details available at: https://publications. as Amsterdam, Athens, Barcelona, Berlin, amb.cat/alfresco/api/-default-/public/
iadb.org/publications/english/document/ Chicago, Helsinki, Kansas, London, Los alfresco/versions/1/nodes/e281a24e-
Steering-the-Metropolis-Metropolitan- Angeles, New York, Milan, Moscow, Munich, 46b4-472b-9eb9-622de3cc75a7/content/
Governance-for-Sustainable-Urban- Sydney and Vienna, amongst others. Programa+mesures+contamina.pdf?att
Development.pdf. achment=false&mimeType=application/
82 C40 and Climate KIC, municipality-led circular pdf&sizeInBytes=3064259.
60 See: https://sdg.lamayor.org/sites/g/files/ economy case studies; https://www.climate-
wph1131/f/LA%27s_Voluntary_Local_Review_ kic.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Circular- 111 Metropolis and 100 Resilient Cities, “The
of_SDGs_2019.pdf. Cities.pdf. Metropolitan Scale of Resilience,” 2017.
61 For more information, see the North 83 See: https://sharingcitiesalliance.com/#about 112 Lorenzo Chelleri et al., “Multidisciplinary
American chapter of the GOLD V Report, and http://www.gsef-net.org/. Perspectives on Urban Resilience,” Basque
Box 1. Centre for Climate Change, 2012.
84 See: https://www.amsterdameconomicboard.
62 An example of the work carried out by com/en. 113 See: http://www.100resilientcities.org/
SDSN is the yearly US Cities Sustainable equitable-and-resilient-cities-why-were-in-
Development Report, a city-level report 85 See also: https://use.metropolis.org/case- boston/.
which ranks 105 US cities on progress studies/building-sustainable-income-and-
towards the UN’s Sustainable Development employment-opportunities. 114 CDMX Resilience Office, “CDMX Resilience
Goals (SDGs) for 2030. The results show that Strategy” (Mexico City, 2016).
86 Visit: https://use.metropolis.org/case-studies/
there will be significant work to do across 115 100 Resilient Cities, “Bangkok Resilience
micro-and-small-enterprise-development-
the board if the SDGs are to be achieved by Strategy,” 2017.
program.
2030, as cities on average scored only 48.9%.
For more information, see: https://www. 87 For details, go to: https://use.metropolis.org/ 116 More information available at: http://
sustainabledevelopment.report/reports/2019- case-studies/barcelona-activa. www.100resilientcities.org/dakar-unveils-
us-cities-sustainable-development-report/. africas-first-city-resilience-strategy-in-
88 See: https://use.metropolis.org/case-studies/ partnership-with-100-resilient-cities/.
63 See: https://www.dataforcities.org/wccd/. brussels-village-finance.

117 See: https://www.theigc.org/blog/call- 141 World Council on City Data, "WCCD City 168 More information at: www.who.int/iris/
resilient-cities-weather-shocks-disease-dar-es- Data for the United Nations Sustainable bitstream/10665/278979/1/WHO-FWC-ALC-
salaam/. Development Goals" (Toronto, 2017). 18.4-eng.pdf?ua=1.
118 See: https://www.smartcitiesworld.net/ 142 Amnesty International, “At the Mercy of the 169 See: https://www.theguardian.com/
special-reports/traffic-congestion-cutting- Government: Violation of the Right to an cities/2016/dec/06/singapore-silver-tsunami-
through-the-complexity. Effective Remedy in Badia East, Lagos State, city-state-elderly-workforce-ageing-cities.
Nigeria,” 2014.
119 More information on: http://www.eurocities. 170 See also: https://www.theguardian.com/
eu/eurocities/documents/Cities-in-action- 143 For details, see: https://www.metropolis.org/ cities/2016/apr/07/loneliest-city-in-world.
Sharing-mobility-strategy-in-Milan-WSPO- sites/default/files/metobsip5_en_1.pdf.
A45SG9. 171 Further details available at: bit.ly/2IOrkys.
144 See: https://www.iied.org/special-approach-
120 See: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/brt- slum-upgrading-special-planning-area-mukuru- 172 Greater Manchester Combined Authority,
system-reduced-traveling-time-32-reduced- nairobi. “Age-Friendly Strategy,” 2018.
gas-emissions-40-and-reduced-accidents-90.
145 "Cities for Adequate Housing," New York, 173 See: www.who.int/iris/
121 More details available at: https://www. 16th July 2018, signed by Amsterdam, bitstream/10665/278979/1/WHO-FWC-ALC-
c40.org/case_studies/a-129-km-bus-rapid- Asunción, Barcelona, Berlin, Birmingham, 18.4-eng.pdf?ua=1.
transport-system-built-in-just-9-months-at-a- Buenos Aires, Durban, Geneva, Jakarta,
174 More information available at: https://www.
cost-of-2-millionkm. Lisbon, London, Mexico City, Medellin,
metropolis.org/sites/default/files/issue_
Montreal, Montevideo, New York, Paris, Seoul,
122 More information on: https://www.c40.org/ paper_urban_culture_heritage_-_comments_.
Strasbourg, Taipei, and Vienna amongst
case_studies/c40-good-practice-guides- pdf.
others. See: https://citiesforhousing.org/.
istanbul-metrobus-system.
175 "Cities for Adequate Housing," New York,
146 See: http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/
123 See: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/c40- 16th July 2018. See: https://citiesforhousing.
Community_Participation/Pages/Poverty-
good-practice-guides-johannesburg-green- org/.
Alleviation-Programme.aspx.
bond.
147 Greg Clark and Tim Moonen, “The Role of
124 See also: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/ Metropolitan Areas in the Global Agenda of
hanoi-metro-a-sustainable-public-transport- Local and Regional Governments in the 21st
for-densely-populated-cities. Century” (London: The Business of Cities, Ltd.,
2016). Working paper for the preparation of
125 Visit: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/
the 4th Global Report on Local Democracy
upgrade-of-the-cycle-network-in-bogota-
and Decentralization (GOLD).
dramatically-increases-bike-trips.
148 See also the municipality's web portal: bit.
126 See: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/
ly/2OPgRH2.
chennai-s-public-bicycle-sharing-system.
149 See: https://waterkant-berlin.de/.
127 See also: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/
electric-urban-cleaning-vehicles-to-drive- 150 See: http://usquare.brussels/en/.
down-city-s-ghg-emissions-save-costs-and-
improve-citizens-health. 151 See also: https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/
vision/green-square.
128 For more information, go to: https://lamata.
lagosstate.gov.ng/. 152 OECD, "Divided Cities Understanding Intra-
Urban Inequalities," 2018.
129 Details available at: https://www.c40.org/
case_studies/tokyo-tokyo-metropolitan- 153 UCLG, “Co-Creating the Urban Future.”
government-green-building-program.
154 Visit: https://use.metropolis.org/case-studies/
130 See: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/ building-social-cohesion-in-the-badr-nazzal-
cities100-vancouver-zero-emissions-from- district-of-amman.
new-buildings.
155 Seguridad Justicia y Paz, “Ranking (2017) de
131 See: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/ Las 50 Ciudades Más Violentas Del Mundo.”
cities100-chicago-energy-saving-retrofits-for-
aging-housing-stock. 156 See: http://www.100resilientcities.org/
updates-from-african-cities/.
132 Visit: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/
hanoi-households-emissions-reduction- 157 See: http://www.redalyc.org/
through-cookstove-conversions. pdf/520/52001204.pdf.
133 See: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/ 158 Metropolis and Women in Cities International,

hanoi-to-generate-electricity-from-the-city- “Safety and Public Space: Mapping
s-biggest-landfill; https://www.c40.org/ Metropolitan Gender Policies,” 2018.
case_studies/clean-energy-in-quezon-city- 159 See: https://www.cidh.oas.org/Basicos/
a-wasteland-turned-into-a-waste-to-energy- French/m.femme.htm.
model.
160 Falú, “Egalitarian Metropolitan Spaces.”
134 See also: https://www.c40.org/case_studies/
cities100-istanbul-circular-design-approach- 161 See: https://www.metropolis.org/sites/default/
for-processing-waste. files/metobsip4_en.pdf.
135 More details at: http://www.pikitup.co.za/ 162 See also: http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/

seperationsource/. stories/2015/4/quito-a-city-committed-to-
preventing-sexual-harassment-in-public-
136 Further details may be found at: https://www. spaces.
citiesclimatefinance.org/resources/.
163 Visit: https://www.metropolis.org/sites/default/
137 OECD, “OECD Regions and Cities at a files/metobsip4_en.pdf.
Glance” (Paris, 2018).
164 See: https://www.metropolis.org/news/
138 OECD. urban-experiences-fight-sexual-harassment-
139 UN-Habitat, "State of the World’s Cities metropolises.
2010/2011 - Cities for All: Bridging the Urban 165 For details, go to: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
Divide," 2010. gov/pmc/articles/PMC5374256/.
140 Josep Maria Pascual Esteve, “Gentrification 166 See: https://use.metropolis.org/case-studies/
and Impoverishment in the Metropolis,” micro-gardens-in-dakar.
Metropolis Observatory, no. Issue Paper 7
(2019). 167 See also: http://imeplan.mx/en/ruta-2042.

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The Localization
of the Global Agendas
How local action is transforming
territories and communities
Our planet is advancing towards a metropolitan era

characterized by major conurbations of unprecedented
complexity and diversity. Cities with at least one million
inhabitants are home to nearly a quarter of the world’s
population (at least 1.8 billion people), and 33 of them
are already megacities, with more than 10 million
inhabitants each.
Different types of metropolitan areas coexist in the
global system of cities. They range from globalized
“established” metropolises hosting the densest
concentrations of firms, capital and educated labor,
through extended metropolitan areas of low and middle
low-income countries dominated by slums and informal
economies, with a group of world cities of large fast-
growing economies in between, and to metropolises
with more pronounced social and economic contrasts.
While being recognized as engines of economic
growth, metropolitan areas are also the source of major
inequalities and environmental challenges.
Considering that the 2030 Agenda must be
translated into actions and policies at different scales,
the coordination of local and regional governments
operating at metropolitan scales–under diverse models
of institutional arrangements–is key to the success of
integrated approaches to sustainable development.
This publication, originally featured on the fifth report
of the Global Observatory on Local Democracy and
Decentralization (GOLD V) illustrates how metropolitan Sponsored by:
governance affects the implementation of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
On the one hand, the text provides a review of the
main challenges that persist in the accomplishment of
these goals, such as institutional fragmentation and the
need for coordinated multilevel. On the other hand, This publication was produced with the financial
support of the European Union. Its contents are the
it brings examples of cases from around the world of sole responsibility of UCLG and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the European Union.
metropolises which are at the forefront of the integration
of the 2030 Agenda into their development strategies,
leading the path to leave no one, nowhere, behind.
This document has been financed by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency,
Sida. Sida does not necessarily share the views
expressed in this material. Responsibility for its
content rests entirely with the author.
Supported by:
Facilitated by:
The GOLD V Thematic Report

on Metropolitan Areas

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2019

The Localization of the Global Agendas

The right of UCLG to be identified as author of the editorial material,

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

United Cities and Local Governments

This publication was produced with the financial support of the

This document has been financed by the Swedish International

Graphic design and lay-out: www.ggrafic.com

2 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

The GOLD V Thematic Report

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 3

2.1 Metropolitan governance

3.1 Metropolitan contributions to the achievement

4 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

UCLG World Secretariat

With special thanks for their contribution to

Special acknowledgements for the financial

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 5

6 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 7

8 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 9

The Local and Regional

10 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

development, which in turn reinforces sustainable

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 11

12 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 13

Members of Metropolis, the Metropolitan section of UCLG

14 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

The accelerated expansion of metropolitan of emerging countries with more pronounced

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 15

Population residing in urban areas (%) and urban agglomerations

Percentage urban 80-100% 60-80% 40-60% 20-40% 0-20% No data

City population 10 million or more 5 million to 10 million 1million to 5 million

Data source: World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 revision.

16 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 17

18 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 19

20 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 21

A significant problem concerns utility territories is to create governance arrangements

22 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 23

24 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 25

26 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 27

28 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

based institutions can achieve more efficient and

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 29

30 GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT

GDP and employment in metropolitan areas as a % of

South Korea (12)

Notes: Employment for the OECD includes 226 metropolitan areas.

GOLD V THEMATIC REPORT —— METROPOLITAN AREAS 31

The financialization of urban economies the financialization of urban economies has

Unemployment and economic prominence