Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Related Literature

Metal corrosion

Definition of Corrosion

Corrosion is a natural process that occurs when a material, usually a metal, reacts

with its environment, leading to a deterioration of the material and its properties.

Corrosion can occur in various settings, but it is particularly dangerous in major industrial

plants like power plants or chemical processing plants. Corrosion can cause plant

shutdowns, which can have direct and indirect consequences. The effects of corrosion on

equipment or structures can be serious and varied, and they can go beyond the simple loss

of metal. Even small amounts of metal loss can lead to failures of various kinds and the

need for expensive replacements (Razvi & Khedekar, 2016). Therefore, it is important to

address corrosion to ensure the safe, reliable, and efficient operation of equipment or

structures.

Types Of Metal Corrosion

Various forms of corrosion can affect metals, including uniform corrosion, pitting

corrosion, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, hot corrosion, and stress corrosion

cracking. One of the most common types of metal corrosion is uniform corrosion which

occurs evenly across the surface of a metal. It typically happens when a metal is exposed

to a corrosive environment, such as an acidic or salty solution, and the metal reacts with
the surrounding environment causing a gradual, uniform loss of metal thickness. This

type of corrosion can result in a general deterioration of the metal's surface and can

weaken the metal over time. To prevent uniform corrosion of metal, commonly used

approaches include choosing a more corrosion-resistant metal for a specific environment,

as well as employing surface protection methods like painting, coating, anodizing,

plating, cladding, and cathodic protection (Balan, 2018). These measures are aimed at

safeguarding the metal from undergoing uniform corrosion by creating a barrier or

modifying the electrochemical properties of the metal's surface to reduce its reactivity

with the corrosive environment.

Another common type of metal corrosion is pitting corrosion, which occurs in

small localized areas (pits), is the most destructive form of corrosion due to its insidious

nature, making it difficult to detect, and its devastating effects on structural integrity (Yu

et al., 2016). Pitting corrosion is widely recognized as one of the primary degradation

mechanisms for metals exposed to corrosive environments, among other types of

corrosion (Akpanyung & Loto, 2019). These pits can penetrate deep into the metal,

resulting in reduced metal thickness and potentially leading to structural integrity issues.

Pitting corrosion is often challenging to detect and can be highly localized, making it a

significant concern in industries such as marine, aerospace, and oil and gas. The key

strategy to prevent pitting corrosion is to carefully choose a material that is more resistant

to this type of corrosion. For instance, using stainless steel like type 316 with a higher

content of molybdenum (2-3wt.%) is known to be more resistant to pitting corrosion

compared to type 304 stainless steel (Balan, 2018). Material selection plays a critical role
in mitigating the risk of pitting corrosion and can be an effective preventive measure in

various applications where metals are exposed to corrosive environments.

The next common type of corrosion is crevice corrosion. Crevice corrosion,

initially defined as localized corrosion that occurs within narrow gaps created by metal-

to-metal or metal-to-nonmetal contact, has emerged as a significant form of corrosion in

materials known for their high corrosion resistance, such as stainless steel 316 (or 316L)

and nickel alloys, particularly in industrial applications (Wu et al., 2019). Crevice

corrosion typically arises when a stagnant or restricted environment is created within a

crevice, preventing proper access to oxygen or other protective agents, while exposing

the metal to a corrosive environment. This disparity in the chemical environment can

result in accelerated corrosion at the crevice, leading to localized damage and potential

structural failure. According to a book by Khoshnaw & Gubner (2022), crevice corrosion

is typically seen in areas where there is stagnant electrolyte solution, such as in gaps

between flanges, bolts, nuts, and similar components. Khoshnaw & Gubner (2022) also

noted that the presence of chloride ions is particularly conducive to crevice corrosion.

The crevice must be of a size that allows for moisture to enter and create a stagnant

environment but is also narrow enough to retain the electrolyte solution. Preventing

crevice corrosion does not have a universal solution, as the most effective approach may

vary depending on the specific circumstances and environmental conditions of each case

(Balan, 2018). Nevertheless, preventive measures for crevice corrosion include careful

design and fabrication to minimize crevice formation, as well as the use of corrosion-

resistant materials, coatings, or sealants to protect vulnerable crevice areas from corrosive

attack.
 Finally, intergranular (IGC) or intercrystalline corrosion is a prevalent type of

corrosion that is influenced by the grain structure of the material. IGC is characterized by

selective corrosion occurring at the grain boundaries or closely adjacent regions, without

significant attack on the grains or crystals themselves (di Caprio et al., 2016). This can

result in a reduction of the material's structural integrity and mechanical strength.

Intergranular corrosion (IGC) can significantly reduce the bonding strength between

crystal grains in metals and alloys, leading to a noticeable decrease in mechanical

strength. In certain cases, the combination of stress and IGC can result in intergranular

stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) in specific alloy-environment systems. IGSCC is a

serious concern as it can lead to catastrophic failure of materials under stress, further

highlighting the damaging effects of IGC on the integrity of metals and alloys (Zhou and

Zuo, 2015). As mentioned by Streicher (2016) in a paper, there are several methods to

prevent an intergranular attack, including (1) homogenizing the microstructure through

heat treatments; (2) refining the material to reduce the concentration of residual

impurities; (3) adding stabilizing alloying elements, such as titanium or niobium, to react

with residual carbon in stainless alloys; and (4) adjusting the alloying elements to

minimize the formation of intermetallic compounds, as seen in alloys containing 54%

nickel, 15% chromium, and 15% molybdenum. The paper also stated that these

approaches can help mitigate the risk of intergranular corrosion by improving the

microstructure and composition of the material to make it more resistant to this type of

corrosion.

Effects Of Metal Corrosion on Electrical Equipment

 Metal corrosion in electrical equipment can reduce electrical conductivity,

degrade protective coatings, increase maintenance and replacement costs, and pose safety

hazards. Corrosion can create an insulating layer, leading to increased resistance and

voltage drop, causing decreased efficiency and performance. It can also result in

overheating, component failure, and circuit disruption. Corrosion compromises protective

coatings, exposing components to environmental factors and decreasing reliability. Safety

hazards such as electrical shocks, short circuits, and fires can also arise. The severe

impacts of corrosion have become a global issue of significant concern. As stated by

Dikici & Gavgali (2014), in the United States alone, it is estimated that the total annual

costs of corrosion will exceed $1 trillion in 2013. However, the ramifications of corrosion

go beyond just financial costs. The authors also stated that corrosion leads to plant

shutdowns, wastage of valuable resources, product loss or contamination, reduced

efficiency, costly maintenance, and the need for expensive overdesign. Proper corrosion

prevention measures, such as protective coatings and regular maintenance, are essential

for the reliable and safe operation of electrical systems.

Electrical equipment

Definition Of Electrical Equipment

Electrical equipment is devices or systems that utilize electricity to perform

specific functions. This can include a wide range of items, such as power distribution

systems, motors, generators, transformers, circuit breakers, switches, wiring, control

panels, lighting fixtures, electronic devices, and other electrical components used in

various industries, households, commercial buildings, and infrastructure. Electrical

equipment is critical for powering and controlling electrical systems and is used in a wide

range of applications, including power generation, distribution, utilization,

communication, transportation, automation, and many other areas of modern life. In

modernized production, it is crucial to ensure the reliability and safety of power

transmission equipment and transformers as the power system continuously self-

improves and develops, leading to explosive advancements and updates in corresponding

devices (Pei et al., 2014).

Electrical Equipment Maintenance

Regular maintenance of electrical equipment is necessary to ensure their reliable

and safe operation. Maintenance activities may include inspecting, cleaning, testing,

repairing, and replacing components as needed. Proper maintenance can help prevent

equipment failure, reduce downtime, extend the lifespan of the equipment, and ensure

optimal performance. It is important to follow the manufacturer's recommendations,

industry standards, and safety guidelines when performing maintenance tasks. Improperly

maintained electrical equipment can impact worker safety by potentially introducing

undocumented or unknown conditions, especially in aging infrastructure or modified

electrical systems, which may not align with previously calculated short circuit capacity,

arc flash hazards, and device coordination (Malhotra, 2019). Additionally, keeping

records of maintenance activities, scheduling routine inspections, and addressing any

identified issues promptly are essential practices in electrical equipment maintenance.

Electrical Equipment Fault Diagnosis

 In the field of electrical engineering, electrical equipment fault diagnosis is a

crucial process aimed at identifying and resolving issues or faults in various types of

electrical equipment, such as power distribution systems, transformers, motors,

generators, control panels, and more. There are several types of fault detection methods

utilized in electrical equipment fault diagnosis, including voltage and current monitoring,

insulation resistance testing, thermal imaging, vibration analysis, functional testing, and

visual inspection. Voltage and current monitoring involve analyzing voltage and current

levels for deviations from expected values, while insulation resistance testing measures

insulation resistance to detect degradation or breakdown. Thermal imaging uses infrared

cameras to capture temperature patterns, vibration analysis measures vibrations for

abnormal patterns, functional testing conducts tests to verify proper functioning, and

visual inspection visually examines equipment for physical damage or abnormalities.

Fault diagnosis technology is evolving to be more closely aligned with actual production,

enhancing diagnostic accuracy and speed through the integration of various technologies

such as new sensing methods, fast signal processing, and diverse sensor information,

while neural networks and fuzzy diagnosis are less commonly used (Li, 2015). These

methods necessitate expertise and experience to accurately interpret results and diagnose

potential faults in electrical equipment.

Corrosion detection

Techniques In Detecting Metal Corrosion

Corrosion, the gradual deterioration of metal due to chemical reactions with the

environment, is a common issue that can lead to structural damage and safety concerns.
Detecting corrosion in its early stages is crucial for preventing further damage. There are

several techniques utilized for detecting metal corrosion.

Electrochemical methods

Electrochemical methods are widely recognized as effective monitoring and

detection tools for corrosion, as most corrosion processes are of electrochemical in nature

(Xia et al., 2022). These methods involve measuring the electrochemical properties of a

metal, such as its corrosion potential, polarization resistance, and electrochemical

impedance. Techniques like potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical noise

analysis, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy are commonly used for detecting

and monitoring corrosion in metals. Xia et al., (2022) also pointed out that although

numerous advanced electrochemical techniques are valuable for studying corrosion

kinetics and mechanisms, their applicability for field assessment may be limited due to

their slow or complicated nature.

Visual inspection method

Visual inspection involves visually examining the metal surface for signs of

corrosion, such as discoloration, pitting, or flaking. In this type of inspection method,

identifying the level of corrosion requires an experienced expert who can accurately

determine the corrosion based on their experience and knowledge of different types of

corrosion, such as red rust which is a commonly encountered type (Idris et al., 2015).

This technique is relatively simple and cost-effective but may not be suitable for

detecting early stages of corrosion that may not be visible to the naked eye.

Non-destructive testing method

 NDT methods are used for detecting corrosion without causing damage to the

metal. Electrical equipment uses coating to create a barrier between the environment and

metal surface to prevent corrosion, but as Ruikun et al, (2021) stated, it's not reliable as

the metal can still corrode underneath the coating. They also pointed out that this type of

hidden corrosion can be difficult to detect as it occurs beneath the coating layer and can

lead to serious failures if left undetected. Techniques such as ultrasonic testing,

radiographic testing, and magnetic particle testing can be used to detect corrosion in

metals, especially in hard-to-reach areas or hidden surfaces.

Challenges In Detecting Corrosion

Firstly, sensitivity can be a significant challenge as corrosion may occur at

microscopic levels in its early stages, making it difficult to detect with conventional

methods. Developing highly sensitive detection techniques that can accurately identify

early stages of corrosion is crucial. Secondly, specificity is another challenge, as different

types of corrosion may have unique characteristics and require specific detection

methods. Developing techniques that are specific to a particular type of corrosion can be

challenging. Thirdly, accessibility can pose challenges in corrosion detection, as

corrosion may occur in hard-to-reach or inaccessible areas such as within complex

structures or hidden parts of equipment. CUI, or Corrosion Under Insulation, is a type of

external corrosion that is difficult to detect directly due to its hidden nature, making it a

challenging form of corrosion that is not easily visually noticeable or accessible (Amer et

al., 2018). Accessing and detecting corrosion in such areas can be challenging and may

require specialized techniques or equipment. Fourthly, ensuring reliability and accuracy

of corrosion detection techniques is crucial for obtaining consistent results. Factors such
as variability in environmental conditions, sample preparation, and measurement

techniques can impact the reliability of corrosion detection, making it a challenge to

achieve consistent and reliable results. In the past, human inspection was the traditional

and widely used method to assess the condition of infrastructures, but it was time-

consuming, expensive, and often unreliable due to limitations in accessing all locations

and collecting only qualitative data (He, 2016). Lastly, cost-effectiveness is an important

consideration in corrosion detection techniques.

To address these challenges associated with existing corrosion sensor technology,

there is a strong drive to develop unique corrosion sensors with essential properties such

as simplicity of measurement and data interpretation, precise corrosion rate measurement,

applicability in diverse environmental corrosive conditions, responsiveness to changes in

corrosion, cost-effectiveness, reset mechanism, and overall reliability in measuring

various parameters (Khan et at., 2020).

Image processing

Definition Of Image Processing

Image processing is a field of study that focuses on the manipulation and analysis

of digital images using computer algorithms. Image processing techniques can be

employed to manipulate images, 3D models, and printouts, in order to extract the desired

data from these visual sources (Prabaharan et al., 2020). The advancement of computer

network technology has resulted in the progress of digital image processing, fueled by the

growing sophistication of mathematical techniques and the rising demand for digital
image processing across various industries. This has created new opportunities and

advancements in the field of digital image technology (Luo et al., 2018).

Image Processing Mechanism

Image processing mechanisms refer to the techniques or methods used to

manipulate and analyze digital images. As Huang (2022) mentioned, digital image

processing is mainly composed of the following four aspects (1) image digitization, is to

convert the original image into a storage format that is compatible with the computer's

input and processing capabilities (2) correlation of digital images, which is one of the two

fundamental characteristics of digital image compression (3) image enhancement, which

involves utilizing various mathematical techniques and transformation methods to

enhance the contrast ratio and clarity of the image, as a result, the processed image is

better suited for human visual perception or machine recognition systems, thanks to the

improvements made using this approach (4) image segmentation, which is to segment the

image into distinct regions with distinct properties, where each region comprises a

contiguous set of pixels.

Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the process of digital image processing. Adapted from

“Research on Digital Image Processing Technology and Its Application,” by Luo et al.,

2018. 10.2991/meici-18.2018.116.

Related Studies

Purpose and background of the device

Tosic, N., Segura, I., Lozano-Galant, J. A., & Turmo, J.; Komary, M.;

Komarizadehasl, S.; & Segura, I. (2023) conducted a comprehensive literature review on

the electrochemical and physical approaches for corrosion monitoring in metallic and

concrete structures. The authors highlighted the high cost of current corrosion monitoring

devices, which limits their utility for structural health monitoring applications. They

proposed low-cost sensors and data collection tools, such as microcontrollers like

Arduino, as potential solutions for in situ applications across various industries. The

article also emphasized the significant financial consequences of corrosion, estimated to

cost $US2.4 trillion per year and account for 3% of global GDP, and the importance of
regular maintenance and repair activities to reduce the risks of corrosion-related

structural collapses and financial losses. This article was published in Sensors, volume

23(3), on page 1309.

Reddy, M. S. B., Ponnamma, D., Sadasivuni, K. K., Aich, S., Kailasa, S.,

Parangusan, H.,... & Zarandah, R. (2021). "Sensors in advancing the capabilities of

corrosion detection: A review" in Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, volume 332, page

113086. In this comprehensive review paper, Reddy et al. provide an in-depth analysis of

the importance of early detection, accurate diagnosis, and effective preventative measures

in mitigating the negative impact of corrosion on society. The authors cover various

physical and electrochemical approaches to corrosion detection, as well as established

industry practices for monitoring and inspection. Emphasizing the significance of

corrosion detection in recognizing the issue, evaluating material performance, and

developing protective solutions, the paper highlights the potential of sensors in providing

early warning and maintenance requirement statistics. This article serves as a valuable

resource for academics and practitioners in the field, offering a detailed examination of

sensor technologies, their advantages, and limitations.

Hu et al. (2022) conducted a comprehensive review of corrosion detection and

protection techniques for reinforced concrete (RC) structures. The authors analyzed direct

and indirect detection methods and categorized corrosion protection solutions as either

“prevention” or “therapy.” They suggest that high-performance fiber-reinforced

cementitious composite (HPFRCC) overlay is effective in preventing corrosion, and that

carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) can serve as a strengthening material and anode

in cathodic protection (CP) and electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE). The study
provides useful information for researchers working on improving strengthening

solutions for RC structures damaged by corrosion and for those involved in steel

corrosion detection and protection. The article was published in issue 325 of the

Construction and Building Materials journal and has a DOI of

10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.126718.

Design and development of the device

Ahuja and Shukla (2018) reviewed corrosion detection methods based on

computer vision, with a focus on non-destructive techniques utilizing digital image

processing. The authors noted that digital image processing provides a cost-effective,

fast, and accurate means of identifying corrosion on metallic surfaces. They emphasized

the use of various algorithms, including wavelet transformation, clustering, segmentation,

color, texture, noise, and image enhancement, in different combinations to detect and

analyze corrosion in a range of industrial applications. The paper provides a

comprehensive assessment of the different image processing techniques and algorithms

employed by researchers in this field, offering valuable insights for further research and

development in this area

Feng, X., Jiang, Y., Yang, X., Du, M., & Li, X. (2019) provide a comprehensive

survey of recent progress in computer vision algorithms and their hardware

implementations. The authors emphasize the achievements of deep learning techniques in

computer vision tasks such as image classification, object detection, and segmentation.

They also review techniques for optimizing deep learning-based computer vision
algorithms on various hardware accelerators to enable real-time and energy-efficient

operations. The report concludes by presenting several promising directions for future

research in the field. According to the authors, computer vision is essential for enabling

computer systems to perceive and understand the visual world, making it an important

area for both theoretical and practical research.

Govindarajan, U. H., Sheu, D. D., & Mann, D. (2019) provide a comprehensive

review of the application of TRIZ for software innovation. The authors highlight the fact

that while TRIZ has found extensive applications in many engineering fields, its use in

the software industry is still in the early stages. The paper provides an overview of TRIZ

and its potential benefits in different phases of software development, including design,

coding, testing, and maintenance. The authors also discuss the challenges involved in

achieving successful innovation in software and the importance of innovation for

commercial success. Overall, the review offers valuable insights into the current state of

TRIZ for software innovation, which can guide further research in this field.

Testing and evaluation of the device

Esmaily et al. (2017) provide an overview of the fundamentals and most recent

developments in understanding corrosion of magnesium (Mg) alloys, which offer a large

amount of potential for applications in lightweight engineering. Electrochemistry,

alloying effects, atmospheric corrosion, and biodegradable Mg alloys are just a few of the

different Mg corrosion-related topics that the writers discuss. They also draw attention to

the drawbacks of magnesium alloys, namely their poor formability and weak creep

resistance, which have limited their widespread application. The authors stress the need
for creating corrosion-resistant magnesium alloys for environmentally friendly and

power-saving applications. Overall, this thorough analysis offers insights into the current

state of understanding and potential future avenues for research on magnesium alloys.

The study by Padilla, Netto, and Da Silva (2020) on performance measures for

object detection algorithms offers a thorough analysis of the metrics that are most

frequently used to rate object detectors, such as average precision (AP) and its variations.

The authors talk about how the academic and scientific communities frequently struggle

with the lack of consensus in various studies and AP implementations. They also provide

a uniform implementation that may be used for many datasets as a benchmark with little

modification to the annotation files. This survey is a useful tool for computer vision

researchers and professionals who want to assess the effectiveness of object detection

algorithms using a variety of criteria.

Angst (2018) shows the difficulties and potential associated with the corrosion of

steel in concrete, highlighting the necessity of maintaining aging infrastructure in an

economical manner and creating long-lasting, sustainable new constructions. Although

there has been a lot of research on the subject, the author points out that many techniques

have been mired in empiricism. Although concrete transport modeling is comparatively

sophisticated, understanding corrosion initiation and propagation is still a mystery,

creating potential for additional scientific study and technological advancement. Given

the slow processes being studied, the advantage of the long history of research in this area

is the availability of fairly well-documented long-term experience.

Results and analysis

 A novel fiber-optic photoacoustic ultrasonic generator-based nondestructive

corrosion detection method is presented by Zou et al. (2015). This study adds to the body

of knowledge on nondestructive testing techniques for identifying rebar corrosion, a

significant issue in the infrastructure sector. While noting the bandwidth restrictions of

ultrasound generators, the authors underline the advantages of ultrasonic testing over

conventional nondestructive methods. The presented mechanism is a powerful instrument

for determining the degree of corrosion in steel rebar samples because of its non-contact

approach, steady performance, and high spatial resolution. With its demonstration of the

fiber optic photoacoustic ultrasonic generator’s potential for detecting corrosion in

reinforced concrete structures, this work makes a significant addition to the fields of

nondestructive testing and corrosion detection.

A thorough analysis of graphene’s use in energy storage technologies, absorbers,

and electrochemical sensors is given by Olabi et al. in 2021. The article discusses

graphene’s benefits, such as its capacity to improve functionality, performance, and

durability. The scientists stress that additional study is necessary to overcome graphene’s

drawbacks and enhance its existing performance in order to hasten its commercialization.

The paper also outlines crucial research areas that need focus, such as the simple

manufacturing of graphene, examining the molecular structure of graphene oxide, and the

implications of flaws on the functionality of the material. Overall, this paper is a useful

tool for academics and industry professionals looking to use graphene for energy storage

and conversion applications.

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) to enhance

remote sensing and fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) of solar photovoltaic (PV)
systems is covered by ELLIT and KALOGIROU (2021). The most cutting-edge

algorithms, including machine learning and deep learning, are briefly discussed, along

with how well they work with real-time applications in terms of price, complexity,

accuracy, and software. In particular for PV facilities located in remote places with

restricted accessibility for maintenance, the authors propose that embedding AI and IoT

approaches for FDD into straightforward hardware, such as low-cost chips, may be

financially and technically possible. The problems, suggestions, and developments in

using AI and IoT for the FDD of PV systems are discussed in detail in this paper. The

problems, suggestions, and trends in applying AI and IoT for the FDD of PV systems are

discussed in great detail in this paper. Solar insights can help ensure the safe and

dependable operation of solar systems for the duration of their useful lives.

Conclusions and implications

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are studied by Atha and Jahanshahi

(2018) for the purpose of detecting corrosion on metallic surfaces. The authors compare

various CNN-based methods while taking into account how differing color spaces,

sliding window sizes, and network designs may affect results. They demonstrate that

CNNs outperform conventional vision-based corrosion detection methods, which rely on

color and texture analysis using a basic multilayered perceptron network. They further

show that, when compared to cutting-edge pretrained CNNs, one of the proposed CNN

architectures dramatically reduces computing time while maintaining equivalent

performance for corrosion detection. The work offers a viable method for autonomous

damage detection in structural systems that can increase inspection frequency,

considerably shorten inspection times, and produce more objective and precise results.
 The updated edition of Power System Protection by Anderson, Henville, Rifaat,

Johnson, and Meliopoulos (2022) provides a thorough explanation of the commercial and

technological advancements in the field of power system protection since 1998. A wide

range of subjects are covered in the book, such as the effects of business developments

like deregulation and the disaggregation of power systems, as well as the effects of short

circuits on power quality, numerous setting groups, quadrilateral distance relay

characteristics, and loadability. The authors go in-depth on computer-based protection,

the impact of renewable energy systems connected to distribution and transmission

systems, and the analytical foundation for the design, application, and setting of power

system protection equipment for today's engineer. For power system engineers and

researchers who want to stay current on the most recent developments in the field of

power system protection, this book is a vital resource.

The most recent electrochemical techniques and equipment utilized for the field

detection and monitoring of corrosion deterioration were critically reviewed by Xia et al.

in 2022. Given the financial costs and potential catastrophes connected with corrosion-

induced failures, the authors emphasized the significance of corrosion detection and

monitoring to ensure the safe operation of engineered structures. The review concentrated

on the issues and advancements in electrochemical instrumentation, probe and sensor

design, data processing, and the application of physical approaches for corrosion

monitoring, such as image analysis and acoustic emission. In order to supplement

existing methodologies, the authors stressed the necessity for further advancement of

corrosion monitoring techniques, including wireless, intelligent, and autonomous

electrochemical measurement. Given the electrochemical nature of the majority of

corrosion processes, the study emphasizes the necessity of electrochemical methods as

effective monitoring and detection tools for corrosion.

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